Catalytic converter

1 History
The catalytic converter was invented by Eugene Houdry,
a French mechanical engineer and expert in catalytic oil
rening[6] who lived in the U.S. around 1950. When
the results of early studies of smog in Los Angeles were
published, Houdry became concerned about the role of
smoke stack exhaust and automobile exhaust in air pollution and founded a company, Oxy-Catalyst. Houdry rst
developed catalytic converters for smoke stacks called
cats for short. Then he developed catalytic converters
for warehouse fork lifts that used low grade non-leaded
gasoline.[7] Then in the mid-1950s he began research to
develop catalytic converters for gasoline engines used on
cars. He was awarded United States Patent 2742437 for
his work.[8]
Widespread adoption of catalytic converters didn't occur
until more stringent emission control regulations forced
the removal of the anti-knock agent tetraethyllead, from
most gasoline, because lead was a 'catalyst poison' and
would deactivate the converter by forming a coating on
the catalysts surface, eectively disabling it.[9]

A three-way catalytic converter on a gasoline-powered 1996

Dodge Ram Van

Catalytic converters were further developed by a series of

engineers including John J. Mooney and Carl D. Keith at
the Engelhard Corporation,[10] creating the rst production catalytic converter in 1973.[11]

A catalytic converter is a vehicle emissions control device that converts toxic pollutants in exhaust gas to less
toxic pollutants by catalyzing a redox reaction (oxidation
or reduction). Catalytic converters are used in internal
combustion engines fueled by either petrol (gasoline) or
dieselincluding lean burn engines.

Dr. William C. Pfeerle developed a catalytic combustor

for gas turbines in the early 1970s, allowing combustion
without signicant formation of nitrogen oxides and carThe rst widespread introduction of catalytic converters bon monoxide.[12][13]
was in the United States automobile market. Manufacturers of 1975 model year equipped gasoline-powered vehicles with catalytic converters to comply with the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency's stricter regulation of 2 Construction
exhaust emissions.[1][2][3][4] These two-way converters
combined carbon monoxide (CO) with unburned hydrocarbons (HC) to produce carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and water
(H2 O). In 1981, two-way catalytic converters were rendered obsolete by three-way converters that also reduce
oxides of nitrogen (NOx);[1] however, two-way converters are still used for lean burn engines.
Although catalytic converters are most commonly applied
to exhaust systems in automobiles, they are also used on
electrical generators, forklifts, mining equipment, trucks,
buses, locomotives, motorcycles, and airplanes. They are Cutaway of a metal-core converter
also used on some wood stoves to control emissions.[5]
This is usually in response to government regulation, ei- The catalytic converters construction is as follows:
ther through direct environmental regulation or through
1. The catalyst support or substrate. For automotive
health and safety regulations.
1

TYPES

3 Types
3.1 Two-way
A two-way (or oxidation) catalytic converter has two
simultaneous tasks:
1. Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide:
2CO + O2 2CO2
Ceramic-core converter

catalytic converters, the core is usually a ceramic

monolith with a honeycomb structure. Metallic foil
monoliths made of Kanthal (FeCrAl)[14] are used
in applications where particularly high heat resistance is required.[15] Either material is designed to
provide a large surface area. The cordierite ceramic substrate used in most catalytic converters
was invented by Rodney Bagley, Irwin Lachman and
Ronald Lewis at Corning Glass, for which they were
inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in
2002.[1]

2. The washcoat. A washcoat is a carrier for the catalytic materials and is used to disperse the materials
over a large surface area. Aluminum oxide, titanium
dioxide, silicon dioxide, or a mixture of silica and
alumina can be used. The catalytic materials are suspended in the washcoat prior to applying to the core.
Washcoat materials are selected to form a rough, irregular surface, which greatly increases the surface
area compared to the smooth surface of the bare
substrate. This in turn maximizes the catalytically
active surface available to react with the engine exhaust. The coat must retain its surface area and prevent sintering of the catalytic metal particles even at
high temperatures (1000 C).[16]

2. Oxidation of hydrocarbons (unburnt and partially

burnt fuel) to carbon dioxide and water: CH +
[(3x+1)/2] O2 xCO2 + (x+1) H2 O (a combustion
reaction)
This type of catalytic converter is widely used on diesel
engines to reduce hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide
emissions. They were also used on gasoline engines in
American- and Canadian-market automobiles until 1981.
Because of their inability to control oxides of nitrogen,
they were superseded by three-way converters.

3.2 Three-way
Three-way catalytic converters (TWC) have the additional advantage of controlling the emission of nitrogen
oxides (NO), in particular nitrous oxide, a greenhouse
gas over three hundred times more potent than carbon
dioxide,[17] a precursor to acid rain and currently the
most ozone-depleting substance.[18] Technological improvements including three-way catalytic converters have
led to motor vehicle nitrous oxide emissions in the US
falling to 8.2% of anthropogenic nitrous oxide emissions
in 2008, from a high of 17.77% in 1998.

Since 1981, three-way (oxidation-reduction) catalytic

converters have been used in vehicle emission control systems in the United States and Canada; many other countries have also adopted stringent vehicle emission regulations that in eect require three-way converters on
gasoline-powered vehicles. The reduction and oxidation
catalysts are typically contained in a common housing,
however in some instances they may be housed sepa3. The catalyst itself is most often a mix of precious rately. A three-way catalytic converter has three simultametals. Platinum is the most active catalyst and is neous tasks:
widely used, but is not suitable for all applications
because of unwanted additional reactions and high
1. Reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen and
cost. Palladium and rhodium are two other precious
oxygen: 2NO xO2 + N2
metals used. Rhodium is used as a reduction catalyst, palladium is used as an oxidation catalyst, and
2. Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide:
platinum is used both for reduction and oxidation.
2CO + O2 2CO2
Cerium, iron, manganese and nickel are also used,
3. Oxidation of unburnt hydrocarbons (HC) to caralthough each has limitations. Nickel is not legal
bon dioxide and water: CH + [(3x+1)/2]O2
for use in the European Union because of its reacxCO2 + (x+1)H2 O.
tion with carbon monoxide into toxic nickel tetracarbonyl. Copper can be used everywhere except North
America, where its use is illegal because of the for- These three reactions occur most eciently when the catmation of toxic dioxin .
alytic converter receives exhaust from an engine running

3.3

Diesel engines

slightly above the stoichiometric point. This point is between 14.6 and 14.8 parts air to 1 part fuel, by weight, for
gasoline. The ratio for Autogas (or liqueed petroleum
gas (LPG)), natural gas and ethanol fuels is each slightly
dierent, requiring modied fuel system settings when
using those fuels. In general, engines tted with 3-way
catalytic converters are equipped with a computerized
closed-loop feedback fuel injection system using one or
more oxygen sensors, though early in the deployment of
three-way converters, carburetors equipped for feedback
mixture control were used.

3.3 Diesel engines

Three-way catalysts are eective when the engine is operated within a narrow band of air-fuel ratios near stoichiometry, such that the exhaust gas oscillates between
rich (excess fuel) and lean (excess oxygen) conditions.
However, conversion eciency falls very rapidly when
the engine is operated outside of that band of air-fuel ratios. Under lean engine operation, there is excess oxygen and the reduction of NO is not favored. Under rich
conditions, the excess fuel consumes all of the available
oxygen prior to the catalyst, thus only stored oxygen is
available for the oxidation function. Closed-loop control
systems are necessary because of the conicting requirements for eective NO reduction and HC oxidation. The
control system must prevent the NO reduction catalyst
from becoming fully oxidized, yet replenish the oxygen
storage material to maintain its function as an oxidation
catalyst.

These converters often operate at 90 percent eciency,

virtually eliminating diesel odor and helping to reduce
visible particulates (soot). These catalysts are not active
for NO reduction because any reductant present would
react rst with the high concentration of O2 in diesel exhaust gas.

For compression-ignition (i.e., diesel engines), the most

commonly used catalytic converter is the Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC). DOCs contain palladium /
platinum with Aluminium oxide which serve as catalysts
to oxidise the hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide with
oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water.
2CO + O2 2CO2
CxHx + [(3x+1)/2] O2 x CO2 + (x+1) H2 O

Reduction in NO emissions from compression-ignition

engines has previously been addressed by the addition of
exhaust gas to incoming air charge, known as exhaust gas
recirculation (EGR). In 2010, most light-duty diesel manufacturers in the U.S. added catalytic systems to their vehicles to meet new federal emissions requirements. There
are two techniques that have been developed for the catalytic reduction of NO emissions under lean exhaust
conditions - selective catalytic reduction (SCR) and the
lean NO trap or NOx adsorber. Instead of precious
metal-containing NOx adsorbers, most manufacturers selected base-metal SCR systems that use a reagent such as
ammonia to reduce the NO into nitrogen. Ammonia is
supplied to the catalyst system by the injection of urea
into the exhaust, which then undergoes thermal decomposition and hydrolysis into ammonia. One trademark
product of urea solution, also referred to as Diesel Exhaust Fluid (DEF), is AdBlue.

Three-way catalytic converters can store oxygen from the

exhaust gas stream, usually when the airfuel ratio goes
lean.[19] When sucient oxygen is not available from the
exhaust stream, the stored oxygen is released and consumed (see cerium(IV) oxide). A lack of sucient oxygen
occurs either when oxygen derived from NO reduction is
unavailable or when certain maneuvers such as hard acceleration enrich the mixture beyond the ability of the
Diesel exhaust contains relatively high levels of particconverter to supply oxygen.
ulate matter (soot), consisting in large part of elemental carbon. Catalytic converters cannot clean up elemental carbon, though they do remove up to 90 percent of
the soluble organic fraction, so particulates are cleaned
up by a soot trap or diesel particulate lter (DPF). His3.2.1 Unwanted reactions
torically, a DPF consists of a Cordierite or Silicon Carbide substrate with a geometry that forces the exhaust
Unwanted reactions can occur in the three-way catalyst, ow through the substrate walls, leaving behind trapped
such as the formation of odoriferous hydrogen sulde and soot particles. Contemporary DPFs can be manufactured
ammonia. Formation of each can be limited by modica- from a variety of rare metals that provide superior perfortions to the washcoat and precious metals used. It is dif- mance (at a greater expense).[20] As the amount of soot
cult to eliminate these byproducts entirely. Sulfur-free trapped on the DPF increases, so does the back pressure
or low-sulfur fuels eliminate or reduce hydrogen sulde. in the exhaust system. Periodic regenerations (high temFor example, when control of hydrogen-sulde emissions perature excursions) are required to initiate combustion
is desired, nickel or manganese is added to the washcoat. of the trapped soot and thereby reducing the exhaust back
Both substances act to block the absorption of sulfur by pressure. The amount of soot loaded on the DPF prior
the washcoat. Hydrogen sulde is formed when the wash- to regeneration may also be limited to prevent extreme
coat has absorbed sulfur during a low-temperature part exotherms from damaging the trap during regeneration.
of the operating cycle, which is then released during the In the U.S., all on-road light, medium and heavy-duty vehigh-temperature part of the cycle and the sulfur com- hicles powered by diesel and built after 1 January 2007,
bines with HC.
must meet diesel particulate emission limits that means

they eectively have to be equipped with a 2-Way catalytic converter and a diesel particulate lter. Note that
this applies only to the diesel engine used in the vehicle.
As long as the engine was manufactured before 1 January
2007, the vehicle is not required to have the DPF system.
This led to an inventory runup by engine manufacturers
in late 2006 so they could continue selling pre-DPF vehicles well into 2007.[21] During the re-generation cycle,
most systems require the engine to consume several gallons of fuel in a relatively short amount of time in order
to generate the high temperatures necessary for the cycle
to complete. This has been shown to adversely aect the
overall fuel economy of vehicles equipped with DPF systems, especially in vehicles that are driven mostly in city
conditions where frequent acceleration requires a larger
amount of fuel to be burned and therefore more soot to
collect in the exhaust system.

3.4

Lean burn spark-ignition engines

For lean burn spark-ignition engines, an oxidation catalyst

is used in the same manner as in a diesel engine. Emissions from Lean Burn Spark Ignition Engines are very
similar to emissions from a Diesel Compression Ignition
engine.

Installation

Many vehicles have a close-coupled catalytic converter

located near the engines exhaust manifold. This unit
heats up quickly due to its proximity to the engine, and reduces cold-engine emissions by burning o hydrocarbons
from the extra-rich mixture used to start a cold engine.

REGULATIONS

they provide a constantly varying air-fuel mixture that

quickly and continually cycles between lean and rich exhaust. Oxygen sensors are used to monitor the exhaust
oxygen content before and after the catalytic converter
and this information is used by the Electronic control unit
to adjust the fuel injection so as to prevent the rst (NO
reduction) catalyst from becoming oxygen-loaded while
ensuring the second (HC and CO oxidation) catalyst is
suciently oxygen-saturated.

5 Damage
Catalyst poisoning occurs when the catalytic converter is
exposed to exhaust containing substances that coat the
working surfaces, encapsulating the catalyst so that it cannot contact and treat the exhaust. The most-notable contaminant is lead, so vehicles equipped with catalytic converters can be run only on unleaded fuels. Other common catalyst poisons include fuel sulfur, manganese (originating primarily from the gasoline additive MMT), and
silicone, which can enter the exhaust stream if the engine has a leak that allows coolant into the combustion
chamber. Phosphorus is another catalyst contaminant.
Although phosphorus is no longer used in gasoline, it (and
zinc, another low-level catalyst contaminant) was until recently widely used in engine oil antiwear additives such as
zinc dithiophosphate (ZDDP). Beginning in 2004, a limit
of phosphorus concentration in engine oils was adopted
in the API SM and ILSAC GF-4 specications.

Depending on the contaminant, catalyst poisoning can

sometimes be reversed by running the engine under a very
heavy load for an extended period of time. The increased
exhaust temperature can sometimes liquefy or sublimate
the contaminant, removing it from the catalytic surface.
When catalytic converters were rst introduced, most veHowever, removal of lead deposits in this manner is usuhicles used carburetors that provided a relatively rich airally not possible because of leads high boiling point.
fuel ratio. Oxygen (O2 ) levels in the exhaust stream were
generally insucient for the catalytic reaction to occur Any condition that causes abnormally high levels of uneciently, so most installations included secondary air burned hydrocarbonsraw or partially burnt fuelto
injection which injected air into the exhaust stream to in- reach the converter will tend to signicantly elevate its
crease the available oxygen and allow the catalyst to func- temperature, bringing the risk of a meltdown of the substrate and resultant catalytic deactivation and severe extion.
haust restriction. Vehicles equipped with OBD-II diagSome three-way catalytic converter systems have air innostic systems are designed to alert the driver to a misre
jection systems with the air injected between the rst
condition by means of ashing the check engine light
(NO reduction) and second (HC and CO oxidation)
on the dashboard.
stages of the converter. As in the two-way converters, this
injected air provides oxygen for the oxidation reactions.
An upstream air injection point, ahead of the catalytic
converter, is also sometimes present to provide oxygen 6 Regulations
during engine warm up, which causes unburned fuel to
ignite in the exhaust tract before reaching the catalytic Emissions regulations vary considerably from jurisdiction
converter. This reduces the engine runtime needed for to jurisdiction. Most automobile spark-ignition engines
the catalytic converter to reach its light-o or operating in North America have been tted with catalytic converttemperature.
ers since 1975,[1][2][3][4] and the technology used in nonMost newer vehicles are electronic fuel injection systems, automotive applications is generally based on automotive
and thus, do not have air injection systems. Instead, technology.

7.1

Warm-up period

Regulations for diesel engines are similarly varied, with

some jurisdictions focusing on NO (nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide) emissions and others focusing on particulate (soot) emissions. This regulatory diversity is challenging for manufacturers of engines, as it may not be
economical to design an engine to meet two sets of regulations.
Regulations of fuel quality vary across jurisdictions. In
North America, Europe, Japan and Hong Kong, gasoline and diesel fuel are highly regulated, and compressed
natural gas and LPG (Autogas) are being reviewed for
regulation. In most of Asia and Africa, the regulations
are often lax: in some places sulfur content of the fuel
can reach 20,000 parts per million (2%). Any sulfur in
the fuel can be oxidized to SO2 (sulfur dioxide) or even
SO3 (sulfur trioxide) in the combustion chamber. If sulfur passes over a catalyst, it may be further oxidized in the
catalyst, i.e., SO2 may be further oxidized to SO3 . Sulfur
oxides are precursors to sulfuric acid, a major component
of acid rain. While it is possible to add substances such as
vanadium to the catalyst washcoat to combat sulfur-oxide
formation, such addition will reduce the eectiveness of
the catalyst. The most eective solution is to further rene fuel at the renery to produce ultra-low sulfur diesel.
Regulations in Japan, Europe and North America tightly
restrict the amount of sulfur permitted in motor fuels.
However, the direct nancial expense of producing such
clean fuel may make it impractical for use in developing
countries. As a result, cities in these countries with high
levels of vehicular trac suer from acid rain, which
damages stone and woodwork of buildings, poisons humans and other animals, and damages local ecosystems,
at a very high nancial cost.

Negative aspects

Some early converter designs greatly restricted the ow of

exhaust, which negatively aected vehicle performance,
driveability, and fuel economy.[22] Because they were
used with carburetors incapable of precise fuel-air mixture control, they could overheat and ignite ammable
materials under the car.[23] While removing a modern
catalytic converter in new condition will net only a very
small increase vehicle performance, the removal of a 6year-old modern catalyst resulted in a 3.4% increase in
horsepower[24] To many performance enthusiasts, this
modest increase in power for very little cost encourages
the removal or gutting of the catalytic converter.[22][25]
In such cases, the converter may be replaced by a weldedin section of ordinary pipe or a anged test pipe ostensibly meant to check if the converter is clogged by comparing how the engine runs with versus without the converter, which facilitates reinstallation of the converter in
order to pass an emission test.[24] In many jurisdictions, it
is illegal to remove or disable a catalytic converter for any
reason other than its direct and immediate replacement.

5
In the United States, for example, it is a violation of Section 203(a)(3)(A) of the 1990 Clean Air Act for a vehicle
repair shop to remove a converter from a vehicle, or cause
a converter to be removed from a vehicle, except in order to replace it with another converter.,[26] and Section
203(a)(3)(B) makes it illegal for any person to sell or to
install any part that would bypass, defeat, or render inoperative any emission control system, device, or design element. Vehicles without functioning catalytic converters
generally fail emission inspections. The automotive aftermarket supplies high-ow converters for vehicles with
upgraded engines, or whose owners prefer an exhaust system with larger-than-stock capacity.[27]

7.1 Warm-up period

Vehicles emit most of their pollution during the rst ve
minutes of engine operation before the catalytic converter
has warmed up suciently to be eective.[28]
In 1999, BMW introduced an electrically heated catalyst, which they called E-CAT, in their 750iL sedan.
Heating coils inside the catalytic converter assemblies are
electried just after engine start, bringing the catalyst up
to operating temperature very quickly to qualify the vehicle for low emission vehicle (LEV) designation.[29]

7.2 Environmental impact

Catalytic converters have proven to be reliable and effective in reducing noxious tailpipe emissions. However,
they also have some shortcomings and adverse environmental impacts in production:
An engine equipped with a three-way catalyst must
run at the stoichiometric point, which means more
fuel is consumed than in a lean-burn engine. This
means approximately 10% more CO2 emissions
from the vehicle.
Catalytic converter production requires palladium or
platinum; part of the world supply of these precious
metals is produced near Norilsk, Russia, where
the industry (among others) has caused Norilsk to
be added to Time magazines list of most-polluted
places.[30]

8 Theft
Because of the external location and the use of valuable
precious metals including platinum, palladium, rhodium,
and gold, converters are a target for thieves. The problem is especially common among late-model trucks and
SUVs, because of their high ground clearance and easily removed bolt-on catalytic converters. Welded-in converters are also at risk of theft, as they can be easily cut

12

REFERENCES

o.[31][32][33] Thieves techniques for fast removal of a used for the same reasons and in the same manner as an
converter, for instance using a portable reciprocating saw, oxygen sensor: the only dierence is the substance being
can often damage other components of the car. Damage monitored.
to components like wiring, or a fuel line, can have dangerous consequences. Rises in metal costs in the U.S.
during recent years have led to a large increase in con- 10 As a metaphor
verter theft.[34] A catalytic converter can cost well over
$1,000 to replace.[35]
In his book Immigration Wars: Forging an American Solution, governor Jeb Bush uses the device as a
metaphor, comparing skilled worker immigration into the
United States of America to a catalytic converter. He
9 Diagnostics
says,'We cannot put aside this powerful catalytic converter for continued progress.'
Various jurisdictions now legislate on-board diagnostics
to monitor the function and condition of the emissionscontrol system, including the catalytic converter. On11 See also
board diagnostic systems take several forms.
Temperature sensors are used for two purposes. The rst
is as a warning system, typically on two-way catalytic converters such as are still sometimes used on LPG forklifts.
The function of the sensor is to warn of catalytic converter temperature above the safe limit of 750 C (1,380
F). More-recent catalytic-converter designs are not as
susceptible to temperature damage and can withstand sustained temperatures of 900 C (1,650 F). Temperature
sensors are also used to monitor catalyst functioning: usually two sensors will be tted, with one before the catalyst and one after to monitor the temperature rise over the
catalytic-converter core.
The oxygen sensor is the basis of the closed-loop control
system on a spark-ignited rich-burn engine; however, it is
also used for diagnostics. In vehicles with OBD II, a second oxygen sensor is tted after the catalytic converter
to monitor the O2 levels. The O2 levels are monitored
to see the eciency of the burn process. The on-board
computer makes comparisons between the readings of the
two sensors. The readings are taken by voltage measurements. If both sensors show the same output or the rear
O2 is switching, the computer recognizes that the catalytic converter either is not functioning or has been removed, and will operate a malfunction indicator lamp and
aect engine performance. Simple oxygen sensor simulators have been developed to circumvent this problem
by simulating the change across the catalytic converter
with plans and pre-assembled devices available on the Internet. Although these are not legal for on-road use, they
have been used with mixed results.[36] Similar devices apply an oset to the sensor signals, allowing the engine to
run a more fuel-economical lean burn that may, however,
damage the engine or the catalytic converter.[37]
NO sensors are extremely expensive and are in general
used only when a compression-ignition engine is tted
with a selective catalytic-reduction (SCR) converter, or
a NO absorber catalyst in a feedback system. When tted to an SCR system, there may be one or two sensors.
When one sensor is tted it will be pre-catalyst; when two
are tted, the second one will be post-catalyst. They are

Catalytic heater
Cerium(III) oxide
NOx adsorber
Roadway air dispersion modeling

12 References
[1] Palucka, Tim (Winter 2004). Doing the Impossible. Invention & Technology 19 (3). Archived from the original
on 3 December 2008. Retrieved 14 December 2011.
[2] Petersen Publishing (1975). The Catalytic Converter.
In Erwin M. Rosen. The Petersen Automotive Troubleshooting & Repair Manual. New York, NY: Grosset
& Dunlap. p. 493. ISBN 0-448-11946-3. For years,
the exhaust system (...) remained virtually unchanged until 1975 when a strange new component was added. Its
called a catalytic converter(...)
[3] General Motors Believes it has an Answer to the Automotive Air Pollution Problem. The Blade: Toledo, Ohio.
12 September 1974. Retrieved 14 December 2011.
[4] Catalytic Converter Heads Auto Fuel Economy Eorts.
The Milwaukee Sentinel. 11 November 1974. Retrieved
14 December 2011.
[5] Choosing the Right Wood Stove. Burn Wise. US EPA.
Retrieved 2 January 2012.
[6] Csere, Csaba (January 1988). 10 Best Engineering
Breakthroughs. Car and Driver 33 (7): 63.
[7] Exhaust Gas Made Safe. Popular Mechanics, September
1951, p. 134, bottom of page
[8] His Smoke Eating Cats Now Attack Trac Smog. Popular Science, June 1955, pp. 83-85/244.
[9] Sta writer (undated). Eugene Houdry. Chemical Heritage Foundation. Retrieved 7 January 2011.

[10] (registration required) Carl D. Keith, a Father of the Catalytic Converter, Dies at 88. The New York Times. 15
November 2008.
[11] Sta writer (undated). Engelhard Corporation. referenceforbusiness.com. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
[12] Robert N. Carter, Lance L. Smith, Hasan Karim, Marco
Castaldi, Shah Etemad, George Muench, R. Samuel
Boorse, Paul Menacherry and William C. Pfeerle
(1998). Catalytic Combustion Technology Development
for Gas Turbine Engine Applications. MRS Proceedings,
549, 93 doi:10.1557/PROC-549-93
[13] Worthy, Sharon. Bio-Medicine: Connecticut chemist receives award for cleaner air technology. 23 June 2003.
Retrieved 11 December 2012.
[14] Pischinger, Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Stephan (2011). Verbrennungsmotoren Band 2 (24 ed.). Aachen, Germany:
Lehrstuhl Fr Verbrennungskraftmachinen. p. 335.

[28] Catalytic converters, nsls.bnl.gov

[29] Edgar, Julian (5 October 1999). Goodbye 12 volts...
hello 42 volts!". Autospeed. Retrieved 2 January 2012.
The current model BMW 750iL has a maximum electrical
load of a staggering 428 amps (5.9 kW)! In this car, over
half of the maximum power load is from the short-term
electrical heating of the catalytic converters, with the heating used so that they come up to operating temp quickly
[30] Walsh, Bryan (12 September 2007). Norilsk, Russia.
The Worlds Most Polluted Places (Time). Retrieved 7 January 2011.
[31] Fraga, Brian (30 November 2011). Carver police investigating catalytic converter thefts. South Coast Today. Retrieved 21 December 2011.
[32] Catalytic Converter Theft.

[15] Pischinger, Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Stephan (2011). Verbrennungsmotoren Band 2 (24 ed.). Aachen, Germany:
Lehrstuhl Fr Verbrennungskraftmachinen. p. 335.

[33] Murr, Andrew (9 January 2008). An Exhausting New

Crime What Thieves Are Stealing from Todays Cars.
Newsweek. Retrieved 7 January 2011.

[16] Martin Votsmeier, Thomas Kreuzer, Jrgen Giesho,

Gerhard Lepperho. Automobile Exhaust Control, in Ullmanns Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH
2002. DOI: 10.1002/14356007.a03_189.pub2

[34] Johnson, Alex (12 February 2008). Stolen in 60 Seconds: The Treasure in Your Car As Precious Metals Prices Soar, Catalytic Converters Are Targets for
Thieves. MSNBC. Retrieved 7 January 2011.

[17] EPA: Nitrous Oxide Emissions

[18] Ravishankara, A. R.; Daniel, J. S.; Portmann, R. W.
(2009). Nitrous Oxide (N2O): The Dominant OzoneDepleting Substance Emitted in the 21st Century. Science 326 (5949): 1235. Bibcode:2009Sci...326..123R.
doi:10.1126/science.1176985. PMID 19713491.
[19] Brandt, Erich; Wang, Yanying; Grizzle, Jessy (2000).
Dynamic Modeling of a Three Way Catalyst for SI
Engine Exhaust Emission Control. IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology 8 (5): 767776.
doi:10.1109/87.865850.
[20] http://www.synergycatalyst.com/
catalyst-coating-technology/
[21] Heavy-Duty Engine and Vehicle Standards and Highway
Diesel Fuel Sulfur Control Requirements PDF (123 KB)
[22] Crutsinger, Martin (29 September 1982). Kits to Foil
Auto Pollution Control Are Selling Well. The Gainesville
Sun.
[23] Ullman, Owen (14 June 1976). Catalytic Converter Still
Controversial after Two Years of Use. The Bulletin.
[24] Beat the Law. Importtuner.com (2007-02-26). Retrieved
on 2011-01-09.
[25] Some of Us Can Only Aord a Clunker. The Palm
Beach Post. 23 February 1996.
[26] Sale and Use of Aftermarket Catalytic Converters, US
Environmental Protection Agency, US Federal Register
Volume 51
[27] Tanner, Keith. Mazda MX-5 Miata. Motorbooks. p. 120.

[35] Converters Taken by Car Lot Thieves. PoconoNews. 2

July 2009.
[36] Settlement Involves Illegal Emission Control 'Defeat Devices Sold for Autos. 1 June 2007.
[37] Check Engine Lights Come on for a Reason. Concord
Monitor. 12 January 2003.

13 Further reading
Keith, C. D., et al. U.S. Patent 3,441,381: Apparatus for purifying exhaust gases of an internal combustion engine. 29 April 1969
Lachman, I. M. et al. U.S. Patent 3,885,977:
Anisotropic Cordierite Monolith (Ceramic substrate). 5 November 1973
Charles H. Bailey. U.S. Patent 4,094,645: Combination muer and catalytic converter having low
backpressure. 13 June 1978
Charles H. Bailey. U.S. Patent 4,250,146: '"Caseless monolithic catalytic converter. 10 February
1981
Srinivasan Gopalakrishnan. GB 2397782: Process
And Synthesizer For Molecular Engineering of Materials. 13 March 2002

14

14

External links

Catalytic converter at HowStuWorks

Automotive applications of high temperature insulation wool

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15
15.1

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Catalytic converter Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic%20converter?oldid=641593808 Contributors: The Epopt, Roadrunner, Lexor, Suisui, Timc, Snicker, Morven, Pakaran, Ukuk, Wjhonson, Giftlite, Smjg, Cobaltbluetony, Leonard G., Gzornenplatz, Bobblewik, Pgan002, Antandrus, Saucepan, Nek, Rogerzilla, Zfr, Sfoskett, Sonett72, Adashiel, DmitryKo, DanielCD, Discospinster, Rich
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15.2

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File:Aufgeschnittener_Metall_Katalysator_fr_ein_Auto.jpg Source:
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Aufgeschnittener_Metall_Katalysator_f%C3%BCr_ein_Auto.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Originally from de.wikipedia;
description page is (was) here Original artist: User Stahlkocher on de.wikipedia
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File:Pot_catalytique_vue_de_la_structure.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Pot_catalytique_vue_
de_la_structure.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: The RedBurn
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15.3

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