Galerius

Galerius (Latin: Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus

Augustus;[11] c. 260 April or May 311), was Roman
Emperor from 305 to 311.[12] During his reign he campaigned, aided by Diocletian, against the Sassanid Empire, sacking their capital Ctesiphon in 299. He also campaigned across the Danube against the Carpi, defeating
them in 297 and 300. Although he was a staunch opponent of Christianity, Galerius ended the Diocletianic
Persecution when he issued an edict of toleration in 311.

Narseh sent Diocletian the customary package of gifts,

but within Persia he was destroying every trace of his
immediate predecessors, erasing their names from public monuments. He sought to identify himself with the
warlike reigns of Ardashir (r. 22641) and Shapur (r.
24172), who had sacked Roman Antioch and captured
Emperor Valerian.[5]:6970
In 295 or 296, Narseh declared war on Rome. He
appears to have rst invaded western Armenia, retaking the lands delivered to Tiridates in the peace of
287. He would occupy the lands there until the following year.[3][4]:149[16]:292[17] The late historian Ammianus
Marcellinus is the only source detailing the initial invasion of Armenia.[18] Southern (1999, 149) dates the invasion to 295; Barnes (1982, 17, 293) mentions an earlier,
unsuccessful invasion by Narseh based on the fact that
the title Persici Maximi was given to all four emperors;
Odahl (2004, 59) concurs with Barnes and suggests that
Saracen princes in the Syrian desert collaborated with
Narsehs invasion. Narseh then moved south into Roman
Mesopotamia, where he inicted a severe defeat on Galerius, then commander of the Eastern forces, in the region between Carrhae (Harran, Turkey) and Callinicum
(Ar-Raqqah, Syria).[16] Diocletian may or may not have
been present at the battle,[3]:652 but would present himself
soon afterwards at Antioch, where the ocial version of
events was made clear: Galerius was to take all the blame
for the aair. In Antioch, Diocletian forced Galerius to
walk a mile in advance of his imperial cart while still clad
in the purple robes of an emperor.[3][16]:2923 The message conveyed was clear: the loss at Carrhae was not due
to the failings of the empires soldiers, but due to the failings of their commander, and Galerius failures would not
be accepted.[19] It is also possible that Galerius position
at the head of the caravan was merely the conventional organization of an imperial progression, designed to show
a Caesars deference to his Augustus.[20]

Early life

Galerius was born in Serdica,[13] though some modern scholars consider the strategic site where he later
built his palace named after his mother Felix Romuliana (Gamzigrad) his birth and funeral place.[10] His
father was a Thracian and his mother Romula was a
Dacian woman, who left Dacia because of the Carpians'
attacks.[14]:19 He originally followed his fathers occupation, that of a herdsman, where he got his surname of
Armentarius (Latin: armentum, herd).
He served with distinction as a soldier under Emperors Aurelian and Probus, and in 293 at the establishment of the Tetrarchy, was designated Caesar along with
Constantius Chlorus, receiving in marriage Diocletian's
daughter Valeria (later known as Galeria Valeria), and
at the same time being entrusted with the care of the
Illyrian provinces. After a few years campaigning against
Sarmatians and Goths on the Danube, he received command of the legions on the eastern Imperial limits. Soon
after his appointment, Galerius would be dispatched to
Egypt to ght the rebellious cities Busiris and Coptos.[15]

War with Persia

Galerius had been reinforced, probably in the spring of

See also: Roman relations with the Parthians and 298, by a new contingent collected from the empires
Sassanids and Roman-Persian Wars
Danubian holdings.[21] Narseh did not advance from Armenia and Mesopotamia, leaving Galerius to lead the offensive in 298 with an attack on northern Mesopotamia
via Armenia.[19] Diocletian may or may not have been
2.1 Invasion, counterinvasion
present to assist the campaign.[22] Narseh retreated to Armenia to ght Galerius force, to Narsehs disadvantage:
In 294, Narseh, a son of Shapur I who had been passed the rugged Armenian terrain was favorable to Roman inover for the Sassanid succession, came into power in Per- fantry, but not to Sassanid cavalry. Local aid gave Gasia. Narseh probably moved to eliminate Bahram III, a lerius the advantage of surprise over the Persian forces,
young man installed by a noble named Vahunam in the and, in two successive battles, Galerius secured victories
wake of Bahram IIs death in 293.[3]:292[5]:69 In early 294,
1

PERSECUTION OF CHRISTIANS

Arzanene (Aghdznik), Corduene, and Zabdicene (near

modern Hakkri, Turkey). These regions included the
passage of the Tigris through the Anti-Taurus range; the
Bitlis pass, the quickest southerly route into Persian Armenia; and access to the Tur Abdin plateau. With these
territories, Rome would have an advance station north of
Ctesiphon, and would be able to slow any future advance
of Persian forces through the region.[23] Under the terms
of the peace Tiridates would regain both his throne and
the entirety of his ancestral claim, and Rome would secure a wide zone of cultural inuence in the region.[21]
The fact that the empire was able to sustain such constant
warfare on so many fronts has been taken as a sign of the
Detail of Galerius attacking Narseh on the Arch of Galerius at
essential ecacy of the Diocletianic system and the goodThessaloniki, Greece, the city where Galerius carried out most of
will of the army towards the tetrarchic enterprise.[4]:150
[4]:151
his administrative actions.
over Narseh.[19][21]

3 Persecution of Christians

During the second encounter, the Battle of Satala in

298, Roman forces seized Narsehs camp, his treasury, Main article: Diocletian Persecution
his harem, and his wife.[19][21] Narsehs wife would live Christians had lived in peace during most of the rule
out the remainder of the war in Daphne, a suburb of
Antioch, serving as a constant reminder to the Persians
of the Roman victory.[19] Galerius advanced into Media
and Adiabene, winning continuous victories, most prominently near Theodosiopolis (Erzurum),[4]:151 and securing Nisibis (Nusaybin) before 1 October 298. He moved
down the Tigris, taking Ctesiphon, and gazing onwards
to the ruins of Babylon before returning to Roman territory via the Euphrates.[21] No source ever specically
claims that Ctesiphon was sacked, but it is assumed to
have been, primarily due to the seizure of Narsehs wife
and harem.[4]:150

2.2

Peace negotiations

Narseh had previously sent an ambassador to Galerius to

plead for the return of his wife and children, but Galerius
had dismissed this ambassador, reminding him of how
Shapur had treated Valerian.[21] The Romans, in any case,
treated Narsehs captured family with tact, perhaps seeking to evoke comparisons to Alexander and his benecent conduct towards the family of Darius III.[19] Peace
negotiations began in the spring of 299, with both Diocletian and Galerius presiding. Their magister memoriae
(secretary) Sicorius Probus was sent to Narseh to present
terms.[21]

Detail of the Arch of Galerius in Thessaloniki.

of Diocletian. The persecutions that began with an edict

of February 24, 303, were credited by Christians to Galerius work, as he was a erce advocate of the old ways
and old gods. Christian houses of assembly were destroyed, for fear of sedition in secret gatherings.

Diocletian was not anti-Christian during the rst part of

his reign, and historians have claimed that Galerius decided to prod him into persecuting them by secretly burning the Imperial Palace and blaming it on Christian saboteurs. Regardless of who was at fault for the re, Dio[19]
The conditions of the Peace of Nisibis were heavy:
Persia would give up territory to Rome, making the Tigris cletians rage was aroused and he began one of the last
the boundary between the two empires. Further terms and greatest Christian persecutions in the history of the
specied that Armenia was returned to Roman domina- Roman Empire.
tion, with the fort of Ziatha as its border; Caucasian Iberia It was at the insistence of Galerius that the last edicts of
would pay allegiance to Rome under a Roman appointee; persecution against the Christians were published, beginNisibis, now under Roman rule, would become the sole ning on February 24, 303, and this policy of repression
conduit for trade between Persia and Rome; and Rome was maintained by him until the appearance of the genwould exercise control over the ve satrapies between eral edict of toleration, issued from Nicomedia in April
the Tigris and Armenia: Ingilene, Sophanene (Sophene), 311, apparently during his last bout of illness (see Edict

3
of Toleration by Galerius). Initially one of the leading
gures in the persecutions, Galerius later admitted that
the policy of trying to eradicate Christianity had failed,
saying: wherefore, for this our indulgence, they ought
to pray to their God for our safety, for that of the republic, and for their own, that the republic may continue uninjured on every side, and that they may be able to live
securely in their homes. Lactantius gives the text of the
edict in his moralized chronicle of the bad ends to which
all the persecutors came, De Mortibus Persecutorum.[24]
This marked the end of ocial persecution of Christians.
Christianity was ocially legalized in the Roman Empire
two years later in 313 by Constantine and Licinius in the
Edict of Milan.[12]:125

of Syria, rmly established his power over three quarters

of the empire.[25]

But when he had time to reconsider his position, he inevitably saw that his chances of winning a war against
Constantine was doubtful at best, especially given that
he was well aware of Constantines strengths as Constantine had been his guest for some time at Nicomedia,
not to mention the attachment of the troops to him.[25]
Therefore, without either condemning or ratifying the
choice of the British army, Galerius accepted the son of
his deceased colleague as the ruler of the provinces beyond the Alps; but he gave him only the title of Caesar,
and the fourth rank among the Roman princes, whilst he
conferred the vacant place of Augustus on his favourite
Severus.

Rule as Augustus

Follis of Galerius

After the elevation of Constantius I and Galerius to the

rank of Augusti, two new Caesars were required to supply their place, and to complete the system of the Imperial
government. The two persons whom Galerius promoted
to the rank of Caesar were very much Galerius creatures,
and he hoped to enhance his authority throughout the empire with their elevation.[25]
First was Maximinus Daia, whose mother was Galerius
sister. An inexperienced youth with little formal education, he was invested with the purple, exalted to the dignity of Caesar, and assigned the command of Egypt and
Syria. Second was Severus, Galerius comrade in arms;
he was sent to Milan to receive the possession of Italy
and Africa. According to the forms of the constitution,
Severus acknowledged the supremacy of the western emperor; but he was absolutely devoted to the commands of
his benefactor Galerius, who, reserving to himself the intermediate countries from the connes of Italy to those

His hopes were dashed when his colleague Constantius

died at York in 306 and the legions elevated his son
Constantine to the position of Augustus. Galerius only
discovered this when he received a letter from Constantine, who informed him of his fathers death, modestly asserted his natural claim to the succession, and respectfully lamented that the enthusiastic violence of his
troops had not allowed him to obtain the Imperial purple in the regular and constitutional manner. The rst
emotions of Galerius were those of surprise, disappointment, and rage; and, as he could seldom restrain his
passions, he threatened to burn both the letter and the
messenger.[26][27][28][29]

The ambitious spirit of Galerius was only just over this

disappointment when he beheld the unexpected loss of
Italy to Maxentius, who was married to his daughter
Valeria Maximilla[30] Galerius need for additional revenue had persuaded him to make a very strict and rigorous examination of the property of his subjects for the
purpose of a general taxation. A very minute survey was
taken of their real estates and, wherever there was the
slightest suspicion of concealment, torture was used to
obtain a sincere declaration of their personal wealth. Italy
had traditionally been exempt from any form of taxation,
but Galerius ignored this precedent, and the ocers of
the revenue already began to number the Roman people,
and to settle the proportion of the new taxes. Italy began
to murmur against this indignity and Maxentius used this
sentiment to declare himself emperor in Italy, to the fury
of Galerius. Therefore, Galerius ordered his colleague
Severus to immediately march to Rome, in the full condence that, by his unexpected arrival, he would easily
suppress the rebellion.[25] Severus was captured after his
troops deserted to their old commander Maximian, who
had once again been elevated to the rank of co-emperor,
this time by his son Maxentius. He was later executed.
The importance of the occasion needed the presence and
abilities of Galerius. At the head of a powerful army
collected from Illyricum and the East, he entered Italy,
determined to avenge Severus and to punish the rebellious Romans.[12]:122 But due to the skill of Maximian,

REFERENCES

Galerius found every place hostile, fortied, and inacces- 5 Death

sible; and though he forced his way as far as Narni, within
sixty miles of Rome, his control in Italy was conned to Galerius died in late April or early May 311[31] from
the narrow limits of his camp.
a horribly gruesome disease described by Eusebius[32]
[33]
possibly some form of bowel cancer,
Seeing that he was facing ever-greater diculties, Ga- and Lactantius,
lerius made the rst advances towards reconciliation, and gangrene or Fournier gangrene.
dispatched two ocers to tempt the Romans by the oer Gamzigrad-Romuliana, Palace of Galerius near Zajear
of a conference, and the declaration of his paternal regard in Serbia he had constructed in his birthplace, was infor Maxentius, reminding them that they would obtain scribed into the World Heritage List in June 2007.
much more from his willing generosity than anything that
might have been obtained through a military campaign.
The oers of Galerius were rejected with rmness, his
6 Anti-Roman accusations
friendship refused, and it was not long before he discovered that unless he retreated, he might have succumbed
to the fate of Severus. It was not a moment too soon; According to Lactantius, Galerius armed his Dacian
large monetary gifts from Maxentius to his soldiers had identity and avowed himself the enemy of the Roman
corrupted the delity of the Illyrian legions. When Ga- name once made emperor, even proposing that the empire
lerius nally began his withdrawal from Italy, it was only should be called, not the Roman, but the Dacian Empire,
with great diculty that he managed to stop his veterans much to the horror of the patricians and senators. He exhibited anti-Roman attitude as soon as he had attained the
deserting him.[25]
highest power, treating the Roman citizens with ruthless
In frustration, Galerius allowed his legions to ravage the cruelty, like the conquerors treated the conquered, all in
countryside as they passed northwards. Maxentius de- the name of the same treatment that the victorious Trajan
clined to make a general engagement.
had applied to the conquered Dacians, forefathers of GaWith so many emperors now in existence, in 308 Ga- lerius, two centuries before.[34]
lerius, together with the retired emperor Diocletian and
the now active Maximian, called an imperial 'conference' at Carnuntum on the River Danube to rectify the 7 See also
situation and bring some order back into the imperial government.[12]:120 Here it was agreed that Galerius
Arch and Tomb of Galerius
long-time friend and military companion Licinius, who
had been entrusted by Galerius with the defense of the
Civil Wars of the Tetrarchy (306324)
Danube while Galerius was in Italy, would become Augustus in the West, with Constantine as his Caesar. In
the East, Galerius remained Augustus and Maximinus re- 8 References
mained his Caesar. Maximian was to retire, and Maxentius was declared a usurper.
Galerius plan soon failed. The news of Licinius promotion was no sooner carried into the East, than Maximinus,
who governed, the provinces of Egypt and Syria, rejected
his position as Caesar, and, notwithstanding the prayers
as well as arguments of Galerius, exacted, the equal title of Augustus.[25] For the rst, and indeed for the last
time, six emperors administered the Roman world. And
though the opposition of interest, and the memory of a
recent war, divided the empire into two great hostile powers, their mutual fears and the fading authority of Galerius
produced an apparent tranquility in the imperial government.
The last years of Galerius saw him relinquishing his aspirations towards being the supreme emperor of the empire,
though he managed to retain the position of rst among
equals. He spent the remainder of his years enjoying
himself and ordering some important public works, such
as discharging into the Danube the superuous waters of
Lake Pelso, and cutting down the immense forests that
encompassed it.[25]

8.1 Ancient sources

Codex Theodosianus.

Mommsen, T. and Paul M. Meyer, eds.

Theodosiani libri XVI cum Constitutionibus Sirmondianis et Leges novellae ad
Theodosianum pertinentes2 (in Latin).
Berlin: Weidmann, [1905] 1954. Complied by Nicholas Palmer, revised by
Tony Honor for Oxford Text Archive,
1984. Prepared for online use by R.W.B.
Salway, 1999. Preface, books 18. Online at University College London and the
University of Grenoble. Accessed 25 August 2009.
Unknown edition (in Latin). Online at
AncientRome.ru. Accessed 15 August
2009.
Epitome de Caesaribus.

8.2

Modern sources
Banchich, Thomas M., trans. A Booklet
About the Style of Life and the Manners of
the Imperatores. Canisius College Translated Texts 1. Bualo, NY: Canisius College, 2009. Online at De Imperatoribus
Romanis. Accessed 15 August 2009.

Eusebius of Caesarea.
Historia Ecclesiastica (Church History).
McGiert, Arthur Cushman,
trans. Church History. From
Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 1.
Edited by Philip Scha and
Henry Wace. Bualo, NY:
Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and
edited for New Advent by
Kevin Knight. Online at New
Advent. Accessed 25 August
2009.
Vita Constantini (Life of Constantine).
Richardson, Ernest Cushing,
trans. Life of Constantine.
From Nicene and Post-Nicene
Fathers, Second Series, Vol.
1. Edited by Philip Scha
and Henry Wace. Bualo,
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Kevin Knight. Online at New
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Festus. Breviarium.
Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A.
Meka, trans. Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the Roman People. Canisius College Translated Texts 2. Bualo,
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Lactantius. De Mortibus Persecutorum (On the
Deaths of the Persecutors).
Fletcher, William, trans. Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died. From
Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second
Series, Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A.

5
Cleveland Coxe. Bualo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by
Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent.
Accessed 25 August 2009.
XII Panegyrici Latini (Twelve Latin Panegyrics).
Nixon, C.E.V., and Barbara Saylor
Rodgers, ed. and trans. In Praise of Later
Roman Emperors: The Panegyrici Latini.
Berkeley: University of California Press,
1994.
Zosimus. Historia Nova (New History).
Unknown, trans. The History of Count
Zosimus. London: Green and Champlin,
1814. Online at Tertullian. Accessed 15
August 2009.[notes 1]

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Barnes, Timothy D. Constantine and Eusebius.
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Barnes, Timothy D. The New Empire of Diocletian
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Bleckmann, Bruno. Diocletianus. In Brills New
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Bowman, Alan K., Peter Garnsey, and Averil
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Brown, Peter. The Rise of Western Christendom.
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Burgess, R.W. The Date of the Persecution of
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Canduci, Alexander. Triumph and Tragedy: The
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Odahl, Charles Matson. Constantine and the Christian Empire. New York: Routledge, 2004. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-17485-6 Paperback ISBN 0415-38655-1

Corcoran, Before Constantine, Simon. Before

Constantine. In The Cambridge Companion to the
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Pohlsander, Hans. The Emperor Constantine. London & New York: Routledge, 2004a. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-31937-4 Paperback ISBN 0415-31938-2

DiMaio, Jr., Michael. "Constantius I Chlorus (305

306 AD). De Imperatoribus Romanis (1996a). Accessed March 8, 2008.
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DiMaio, Jr., Michael. "Maximianus Herculius
(286305 AD). De Imperatoribus Romanis (1997).
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Elliott, T. G. The Christianity of Constantine the
Great. Scranton, PA: University of Scranton Press,
1996. ISBN 0-940866-59-5

Pohlsander, Hans. "Constantine I (306 337 AD).

De Imperatoribus Romanis (2004b). Accessed December 16, 2007.
Potter, David S. The Roman Empire at Bay: AD
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Rees, Roger. Diocletian and the Tetrarchy. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2004. ISBN 07486-1661-6
Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to
Constantine. New York: Routledge, 2001. ISBN
0-415-23944-3

Gibbon, Edward, Decline and Fall of the Roman

Empire, Chapter 14

Rostovtze, Michael. The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966. ISBN 978-0-19-814231-7

Harries, Jill. Law and Empire in Late Antiquity.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
Hardcover ISBN 0-521-41087-8 Paperback ISBN
0-521-42273-6

Treadgold, Warren. A History of the Byzantine State

and Society. Stanford: Stanford University Press,
1997. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2

Helgeland, John. Christians and the Roman Army

A.D. 173337. Church History 43:2 (1974): 149
163, 200.
Jones, A.H.M. The Later Roman Empire, 284602:
A Social, Economic and Administrative Survey. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1986.
Leadbetter, Bill. Galerius and the Will of Diocletian, London and New York, Routledge, 2010.
Hardcover ISBN 0-415-40488-6 Paperback ISBN
0-415-85971-4
Lenski, Noel. The Reign of Constantine. In The
Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine,
edited by Noel Lenski, 5990. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006b. Hardcover ISBN
0-521-81838-9 Paperback ISBN 0-521-52157-2
Mackay, Christopher S. Lactantius and the Succession to Diocletian. Classical Philology 94:2 (1999):
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Mathisen, Ralph W. "Diocletian (284305 AD.).
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Williams, Stephen. Diocletian and the Roman Recovery. New York: Routledge, 1997. ISBN 0-41591827-8

9 Notes
[1] This edition and translation is not very good. The pagination is broken in several places, there are many typographical errors (including several replacements of Julian
with Jovian and Constantine with Constantius). It
is nonetheless the only translation of the Historia Nova in
the public domain.[35]

10 Citations
[1] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, pp. 89.
[2] Barnes, New Empire.
[3] Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay.
[4] Southern, Severus to Constantine.
[5] Williams, Diocletian.

[6] The earlier dates for Galerius appointment have been argued for based on the suggestion that the appointments of
Constantius and Galerius were timed to coincide (Barnes
1981, 89; Southern 1999, 146). Barnes (1982, 62) argues against a dating of 21 May 293 in Nicomedia originating in Seston, Diocltien, 88., stating that the evidence adduced (the Paschal Chronicle 521 = Chronica
Minora 1.229 and Lactantius, DMP 19.2) is invalid and
confused. Lactantius is commenting on Diocletian and
the place where Diocletian was acclaimed, and that the
Maximianus in the text is therefore a later gloss; the
Paschal Chronicle is not authoritative for this period for
events outside Egypt, and may simply be commenting on
the day when the laureled image of the new emperors arrived in Alexandria. Potter (2004, 650) agrees that locating the acclamation to Nicomedia is false, but believes that
Sestons other evidence makes a strong case for a temporal
lag between the two Caesars acclamations.
[7] Barnes, New Empire, p. 4.

[23] The acceptance of these terms by the Persians also meant

that Syriac culture would earn long-term inuence in the
region on both sides of the Tigris. With the heavily Christian Syriac peoples so near their border, Armenia would
also become susceptible to Christian inuence in later
years, leading to its eventual conversion under Tiridates.
Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay, p. 293.
[24] Lactantius, 34, 35, De Mortibus Persecutorum [On the
Deaths of the Persecutors]
[25] Gibbon, Edward, 14, Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire.
[26] Barnes, CE, 289.
[27] Lenski, Reign of Constantine (CC), 62.
[28] Odahl, 7980.
[29] Rees, 160.

[8] Eutropius.
Breviarivm historiae romanae, IX, 22
Template:Ref-la

[30] DiMaio, Jr., Michael. Maxentius (306-312 A.D.). De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman
Rulers and Their Families. Retrieved 20 July 2013.

[9] Lactantius, DMP 35.4. The exact date is lost in a lacuna

(Barnes 1982, 6).

[31] Corcoran, Simon, The empire of the tetrarchs: imperial

pronouncements and government, AD 284324, p. 187.

[10] Barnes, New Empire, p. 37.

[11] In Classical Latin, Galerius name would be inscribed
as GAIVS GALERIVS VALERIVS MAXIMIANVS
AVGVSTVS.
[12] Canduci, Triumph & Tragedy.:119

[32] Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiae 352-356

[33] Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorem 33
[34] Lactanius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 23
[35] Roger Pearse, "Preface to the online edition of Zosimus
New History". 19 November 2003, rev. 20 August 2003.
Accessed 15 August 2009.

[13] Maximianus Galerius in Dacia haud longe a Serdica natus, Eutropii Breviarum IX. 22.
[14] Lactantius, de Mortibus Persecutorum.
[15] Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, p. 14, citing William
Leadbetter, Galerius and the Revolt of the Thebaid,
293/4, Antichthon 34 (2000) 8294.
[16] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, p. 17.

11 External links
Medieval Sourcebook: Edict of Toleration by Galerius, 311.
Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus

[17] Ammianus Marcellinus 23.5.11.

Lactantius about Galerius in his "De Mortibus Persecutorum" chapter XXIII & XXVII

[18] Potter (2004), pp. 6512 Missing or empty |title= (help).

Catholic Encyclopedia

[19] Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay, p. 293.

[20] Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, p. 14.
[21] Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, p. 18.
[22] Lactantius (DMP 9.6) derides Diocletian for his absence
from the front; Southern (1999, 151, 33536), on the basis of a dating of the African campaigns one year earlier
than that given by Barnes, places him at Galerius southern ank. Southern sees the Persian campaign progressing
along the lines of Marcus Aurelius' (r. 16180) earlier,
unsuccessful Parthian campaign, which also had an emperor manning the southern ank.

12

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12.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Galerius Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galerius?oldid=654385566 Contributors: Mav, Ktsquare, Panairjdde, MrH, Hephaestos,

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