Tantawy Etal Jcret01 PDF

Cretaceous Research (2001) 22, 795827
doi:10.1006/cres.2001.0291, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on
Maastrichtian to Paleocene depositional

environment of the Dakhla Formation, Western
Desert, Egypt: sedimentology, mineralogy, and
integrated micro- and macrofossil
biostratigraphies
*A. A. Tantawy, G. Keller1, T. Adatte, W. Stinnesbeck, A. Kassab
and P. Schulte
*Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, South Valley University, Aswan, 81528 Egypt
Department of Geosciences, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
Geological Institute, University of Neuchatel, Neuchatel CH-2007, Switzerland
Geological Institute, University of Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe D-76128, Germany
Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Assiut University, Assiut, 71516 Egypt
Revised manuscript accepted 19 October 2001
Integrated sedimentology, mineralogy, geochemistry, and microfossil and macrofossil biostratigraphies of the Maastrichtian
early Paleocene Dakhla Formation of the Western Desert, Egypt, provide improved age resolution, information on the cyclic
nature of sediment deposition, and the reconstruction of depositional environments. Age control based on integrated
biostratigraphies of planktic foraminifera, calcareous nannofossils and macrofossils yields the following ages for stratigraphic
and lithologic sequences. The contact between the Duwi and Dakhla formations marks the Campanian/Maastrichtian
boundary (zone CF8a/b boundary) and is dated at about 71 Ma. The age of the Dakhla Formation is estimated to span from
71 Ma at the base to about 63 Ma at the top (zones CF8aPlc). The Cretaceous/Tertiary (K/T) boundary is within the upper
unit of the Kharga Shale Member and marked by a hiatus that spans from 64.5 Ma in the lower Paleocene (base Plc) to at
least 65.5 Ma (base CF2, base M. prinsii zones) in the upper Maastrichtian at Gebel Gifata, the type locality of the Dakhla
Formation. As a result, the Bir Abu Minqar horizon, deposited between about 64.2 and 64.5 Ma (Plc(l) zone), directly
overlies the K/T boundary hiatus. Major hiatuses also span the late Maastrichtianearly Paleocene in sections to the
northwest (c. 61.265.5 Ma at North El Qasr, c. 61.269 Ma at Bir Abu Minqar and c. 61.265.5 Ma at Farafra), and reflect
increased tectonic activity.
During the Maastrichtianearly Paleocene a shallow sea covered the Western Desert of Egypt and the clastic sediment
source was derived primarily from tectonic activity of the Gilf El Kebir spur to the southwest of Dakhla and the Bahariya arch.
Uplift in the region resulted in major hiatuses in the late Maastrichtianearly Paleocene with increased erosion to the
southwest. The area was located near the palaeoequator and experienced warm, wet, tropical to subtropical conditions
characterized by low seasonality contrasts and predominantly chemical weathering (high kaolinite and smectite). A change
towards perennially more humid conditions with enhanced runo (increased kaolinite) occurred towards the end of the
Maastrichtian and in the early Paleocene with shallow seas fringed by Nypa palm mangroves. Sediment deposition was
predominantly cyclic, consisting of alternating sandstone/shale cycles with unfossiliferous shales deposited during sea-level
highstands in inner neritic to lagoonal environments characterized by euryhaline, dysaerobic or low oxygen conditions.
Fossiliferous calcareous sandstone layers were deposited in well-oxygenated shallow waters during sea-level lowstand periods.
2001 Academic Press
K W: Maastrichtian; K/T; mineralogy; sedimentology; biostratigraphy; Western Desert; Egypt.
1. Introduction
Upper Cretaceous marine sediments of the Western
Desert of Egypt have been of intense economic
1
Corresponding author: gkeller@princeton.edu
01956671/01/060795+33 $35.00/0
interest due to the phosphate-rich deposits of the

Duwi Formation that form part of an extensive
Middle EastNorth Africa phosphate province. The
Dakhla Formation (introduced by Said, 1961) marks
the Maastrichtianlower Paleocene sequence exposed
at Gebel Gifata in the Dakhla Oasis and spans
2001 Academic Press
796
A. A. Tantawy et al.
Figure 1. Photograph of Gebel Gifata showing Campanian through Maastrichtian shales and calcareous sandstones topped
by Paleocene limestones.
the interval between the Duwi Formation of late

Campanian age and the overlying Tarawan Formation
of late Paleocene age. The Dakhla Formation is of
particular interest because of its rhythmic deposition
of shales and glauconite-rich facies. Consequently,
numerous studies have been published on the geology,
stratigraphy, and sedimentology of the Maastrichtian
Paleocene marine sediments exposed in the DakhlaFarafra District of the Western Desert (e.g. Said;
1961, 1962; Hermina et al., 1961; Abbas & Habib,
1969; Awad & Abed, 1969; Issawi, 1972; ElDawoody & Zidan, 1976; Omara et al., 1976, 1977;
Garrison et al., 1979; Barthel & Hermann-Degen,
1981; Mansour et al., 1982; Faris, 1984; Hendriks
et al., 1987; Luger & Schrank, 1987; Luger, 1988;
Ganz et al., 1990a, b; Glenn, 1990; Hermina, 1990;
Kassab & Zakhera, 1995; Kassab et al., 1995; Faris &
Strougo, 1998).
One of the major problems encountered by all
investigators was the poor age control of Upper
Cretaceous stratigraphic sequences in the Western
Desert as a result of a poor fossil record. Exceptions
are the outcrops of the Farafra Oasis, which are rich in
microfossils (Hottinger, 1960; Said & Kerdany, 1961;
Youssef & Abdel Aziz, 1971; Samir, 1994, 1995;
Abdel-Kireem & Samir, 1995; Tantawy, 1998), and
the Cenomanian deposits of the Bahariya Formation

to the north (Slaughter & Thurmond, 1974; Dominik,
1985; Allam, 1986; Werner, 1989; Smith et al.,
2001). Consequently, age control in most studies of
the Dakhla Formation was limited to assigning an
undierentiated Maastrichtian age, and correlation of
sequences was frequently based on the lithology of
formations (e.g., upper Campanian Duwi Formation,
Maastrichtian Dakhla Formation, Paleocene Tarawan
Formation). This provided little or no information on
the timing of events within these formations, or the
correlation of these events from one region to another.
This report concentrates on the Dakhla Formation,
which is exposed over several hundreds of kilometers
in an eastwest trending belt in the Western Desert of
Egypt where it forms the slope of horizontally stratified table mountains that are capped by Paleocene
limestone beds of the Tarawan Formation (Figure 1).
We examined five outcrop localities between Dakhla
and Farafra Oasis (Figure 2). The major objectives of
this study have been to: (1) determine the lithological
characteristics of a number of key outcrops in the
southwestern Desert; (2) determine the age and
depositional environment of the Maastrichtian Dakhla
Formation based on integrated microfossil (planktic
foraminifera and nannofossils) and macrofossil
Maastrichtian to Paleocene palaeoenvironment, Western Desert, Egypt
797
Figure 2. Location map of sections analyzed and their lithological columns correlated based on the K/T boundary
disconformity, planktic foraminiferal zones CF4 and CF7, calcareous nannofossil zones CC25b and CC24, and the base
of the Exogyra overwegi Zone. Note that in Northwest Qur El Malik no microfossils were recovered, although
macrofossils are present.
798
biostratigraphies; (3) geochemically evaluate the

shale-sandstone cycles and their depositional environment; (4) reconstruct the regional environmental
history.
2. Location and sampling
The Gebel Gifata section is located in the Western
Desert approximately 15 km north of Mut in the
Dakhla Oasis (Figure 2). Gebel Gifata is the type
locality of the Dakhla Formation and is part of a
mountain scarp that limits the topographic depression
of the Dakhla Oasis towards the north and east to the
plateau of the Paleocene limestone of the Tarawan
Formation (Figure 1). The section was measured and
sampled on the slope where a 195-m-thick sequence
spans the uppermost Duwi and Dakhla formations,
and the strata dip (<10) towards the south (towards
the oasis). The basal part of the section (c. 25m) is not
exposed at the main outcrop at Gebel Gifata and was
therefore measured at the northwestern border of the
El Owaina village, about 10 km north of Mut. Two
hundred and eighty samples were collected at approximately 50 cm intervals from the upper Campanian
and Maastrichtian, and 20 were taken from the lower
Paleocene interval.
The North El Qasr section is located 30 km northwest of Mut and approximately 5 km north of the El
Qasr Village (Figure 2). Thirty-nine samples were
collected from a 100-m-thick interbedded shale, silt,
and sandstone sequence spanning the Maastrichtian
lower Paleocene. About 120 km northwest of El Qasr
village is the Qur El Malik section where we measured
a 60-m-thick lower Maastrichtian shale and sandstone
sequence and collected 16 samples. About 260 km
northwest of Mut at the bend of the Dakhla-Farafra
road is the Bir Abu Minqar section located at the foot
of the scarp immediately north of the village of Abu
Minqar. Twenty-one samples were collected from a
30-m-thick shale and sandstone sequence that is rich
in macrofossils and spans the Maastrichtian to lower
Paleocene. The Farafra section is located about 15 km
north of Qasr El Farafra (350 km northwest of Mut)
at the North Gunna locality that is marked by a group
of three isolated conical hills. Forty samples were
collected from a 22-m-thick chalk sequence spanning
the Khoman, Dakhla and Tarawan formations. The
basal part of the section was sampled in the White
Desert, about 25 km to the north. Sediments at this
locality consist of a phosphatic sandstone layer that
underlies a thick chalk sequence.
3. Methods
All sections were measured and examined for
lithological changes, macrofossils, trace fossils,
bioturbation, erosion surfaces and hardgrounds.

Samples for microfossils were collected at 2050-cm
intervals as indicated in the figures, and macrofossils
were collected wherever present.
For foraminiferal studies, samples were processed
following the standard method of Keller et al. (1995).
Calcareous nannofossils were processed by standard
smear slide preparation from raw sediment samples as
described by Perch-Nielsen (1981a, b, 1985). Index
species are illustrated in Figures 19 and 20.
Phosphate (P) geochemistry (SEDEX method) was
conducted for selected intervals with the sequential
extraction method (Ruttenberg, 1992; Ruttenberg &
Berner, 1993; Anderson & Delaney, 2000). This
method chemically isolates P from four P-bearing
phases, depending on dissolution characteristics. The
four extracted phases in their determined order are
adsorbed and ironbound P, authigenic P, detrital P,
and organic P. For steps 24, phosphate solutions
were analyzed spectrophotometrically with the standard ascorbic acid molybdate blue technique. Sample
absorbance and P concentration calculations were
performed using an Elmer Perkin X200 scanning
spectrophotometer. Solutions from the first step and
the Fe and Mn contents were analyzed by ICP-MS.
Whole rock and clay mineral compositions were
analysed at the Geological Institute of the University
of Neuchatel, Switzerland using a SCINTAG XRD
2000 Diractometer. Whole rock compositions were
determined by XRD based on methods described by
Kubler (1983). Clay mineral analyses followed the
analytical method of Kubler (1987) described in
Adatte et al. (1996). We present here data from the
<2 m size fraction. Clay minerals are given in relative
percent abundance.
4. Lithology and depositional environment
Among the five sections examined, the type section
of the Dakhla Formation at Gebel Gifata provides
the most expanded sequence spanning the late
Campanian to the early Paleocene. All other sections
can be referenced to and correlated with Gebel Gifata.
The Dakhla Formation at the type section spans about
200 m and is divided into Mawhoob Shale, Beris
Mudstone and Lower and Upper Kharga Shale
members (Figure 3).
At the base of the Gebel Gifata section the upper
part of the upper Campanian Duwi Formation is
exposed. The sediments consist of alternating shale
and phosphatic beds capped by a 5-m-thick white
micritic and phosphatic limestone with Chondrites
burrows in the basal 10 cm (Figure 3). This limestone
bed was referred to by Abbas & Habib (1969) as
799
Figure 3. Lithological column, sample intervals, integrated microfossil and macrofossil biostratigraphies, and macrofossil
ranges at the Gebel Gifata section for the Late CampanianEarly Paleocene.
800
Isocardia chargensis limestone and subsequently by

Barthel & Herrmann-Degen (1981) as Qur-el-Malik
Member of the Dakhla Formation.
The Dakhla Formation is of Maastrichtianearly
Paleocene age and begins at the top of this phosphatic
limestone. In the lower 40 m (Mawhoob Shale
Member) sediments generally consist of dark grey
siltstones and shales. In the overlying 80 m (Beris
Mudstone Member), siltstones and shales are intercalated with light grey to brown sandstones. Above the
Beris Mudstone are about 55 m of monotonous shales
(Lower Kharga Shale) of late Maastrichtian age, followed by 15 m of shale containing two prominent
units consisting of silty limestone and glauconitic
sandstone that mark the early Paleocene (Upper
Kharga Shale) of the Dakhla Formation (Figures
2, 3).
At least 23 calcareous sandstone layers are present
in the lower 130 m of the Dakhla Formation
(Mawhoob Shale Member and Beris Mudstone
Member; Figure 3). These calcareous sandstone beds
range from a few cm to 1.5 m thick and contain a
heterogenous variety of phosphatic particles, fish
debris, rare vertebrate remains and microfossils
(Figures 3, 4). The lower surfaces of the calcareous
sandstone layers are usually erosive and associated
with abundant Thalassinoides burrowing networks that
extend from the sharp lithological contact down into
the underlying dark-coloured siltstones and shales.
The upper contact of the calcareous sandstone layers
is usually gradual and formed by light grey siltstones
that are mottled and generally rich in invertebrate
shells (bivalves, gastropods, occasional cephalopods).
Above the calcareous sandstone layers, oxygen and
energy levels tend to be more reduced, as indicated by
light-coloured siltstones with occasional Chondrites
feeding structures. In the 55-m-thick Lower Kharga
Shale, these sediments grade into monotonous dark
grey siltstones and shales that are fissile, organic-rich,
and frequently laminated, indicating dysaerobic conditions (Figure 5). Both body and trace fossils are rare
in these dark siltstones and shales, except for fish
scales, callianassid pincers, small pectinid bivales and
occasional small nuculanid bivalves (Figure 3).
The dark shales, siltstones and interbedded calcareous sandstone layers change laterally towards the
west with increasing sand and decreasing shale contents. In the sections of Northwest Qur el Malik and
Bir Abu Minqar, the sediments are composed primarily of silty shales and thick calcareous sandstone
beds that are rich in Exogyra overwegi and sphenodiscid ammonites (Ammonite Hill Member of
Barthel & Herrmann-Degen, 1981) of earlyearly late
Maastrichtian age (Figures 2, 3). Towards Farafra in
the northwest, the Lower Kharga Shales abruptly

change to thick deposits of chalk and chalky limestone
of the Khoman Formation.
5. Cretaceous/Tertiary contact
A major K/T hiatus is present in all of the sections
examined. At Gebel Gifata, the K/T contact was
placed at the base of a 1-m-thick tan-coloured calcareous siltstone and sandy limestone sequence that is
widespread in the region and marks the base of the
Abu Minqar horizon (Figure 6; Abbas & Habib, 1969;
Barthel & Hermann-Degen, 1981; Mansour et al,
1982). The unit is easily recognized along the slope
of Gebel Gifata as it disconformably overlies the
monotonous 55-m-thick sequence of dark-grey shale
of the Lower Kharga Shale Member at approximately
185 m above the base of the section. The K/T disconformity is prominently marked by an undulating
erosional surface between the dark grey shale and
overlying tan-coloured calcareous sandstone that contains mudclasts, macrofossils (bivalves), and impoverished late Maastrichtian planktic foraminiferal and
calcareous nannofossil assemblages (Figure 7). Thin
sections indicate uneven dissolution of foraminiferal
shells, transport, winnowing and accumulations in
depressions. From the lower contact of this layer,
diagonal to vertical unbranched burrows extend
40 cm into the underlying dark grey silty shales that
are also fossiliferous.
Above the K/T disconformity a sedimentologically
complex sequence marks the Bir Abu Minqar horizon
(Figures 6, 7) that consists of three amalgamated
limestone-sandstone beds with undulose and erosive
lower contacts and intensive burrowing into the
underlying sediments. The lowermost layer consists
of tan-coloured calcareous sandstone that contains
abundant macrofossils (e.g., Venericardia libyca), benthic and planktic foraminifera (Figure 7). Above this
layer is a 40-cm-thick yellow to tan-coloured calcareous siltstone with an undulose and erosive upper
contact (Figure 6). The calcareous siltstone layer is
homogenous, contains calcareous nannofossils, small
benthic foraminifera and planktic foraminifera,
including the first diverse early Danian assemblage
indicative of zone P1c (Figure 7). The unit is intensively burrowed from above. These burrows are filled
with the yellow sandy limestone that forms the 10-cmthick layer at the top of the unit. A 30-cm-thick
glauconitic calcareous sandstone layer overlies the
erosive contact. The basal 10 cm are microconglomeratic and contain rounded clasts of yellow marly
limestone, shale, sandstone, glauconite grains, Fe-rich
lithoclasts and multi-compound phosphatic particles,
801
Figure 4. Lithological column, sample intervals, integrated microfossil biostratigraphies, and species ranges of calcareous
nannofossils and planktic foraminifera at Gebel Gifata for the Late CampanianEarly Paleocene.
802
Figure 5. Photograph of the upper Maastrichtian Beris

Mudstone Member (planktic foraminiferal zone CF4
and calcareous nannofossil zone CC25b) and the lower
Paleocene Upper Kharga Shale Member (zones Plc and
NP2) at Gebel Gifata. The K/T boundary and lower
Paleocene are well marked by two resistant calcareous
sandstone layers.
shark teeth and interior moulds of gastropods (Figure

3). Up-section, the light-grey phosphatic microconglomerate grades into grey calcareous sandstone and
dark-grey siltstone. The overlying 8 m of sediment
consist of dark grey fissile shale (Figure 6).
A second metre-thick sequence of limestones, glauconitic sand and phosphatic particles is present about
9 m above the K/T boundary at Gebel Gifata (Figure
7). This unit consists of two layers of yellow sandy
limestones, each approximately 50 cm thick, that
contain shell hash of small recrystallized venericardid bivalves, abundant benthic and rare planktic
foraminifera. Rounded clasts of yellow marly limestone
up to 10 cm in diameter are also present in the lower
10 cm of the limestone layer and indicate intensive
erosion from a nearby shallow-water area. The basal
layer is a tan-coloured micritic limestone with an undulose and erosive lower contact. Burrows extend from
this contact into the underlying dark grey shales. The
upper limestone layer is phosphatic and glauconitic at
the base. The sand-sized, rounded, green glauconite
pellets and Fe-rich brown-grey grains reach 3 mm in
diameter. Small siltstone clasts are also present and
benthic foraminifera are abundant. The glauconitic
sand fills pockets and burrows that extend into the
lower layer. Above this interval, the glauconitic sand
grades into a tan-coloured bioclastic packstone rich
in recrystallized venericardid bivalves and abundant
benthic and rare planktic foraminifera and calcareous
nannofossils (Figures 3, 7). Karst-like fractures filled
with glauconite extend from the top of this layer almost
to the base and suggest subaerial exposure and erosion
prior to deposition of the overlying 30-cm-thick glauco-
nite in a marine environment. This glauconite layer

contains well-rounded sand-sized glauconite pellets
and phosphatic grains up to 5 mm in diameter, rare
bivalves, gastropods, and abundant benthic and planktic foraminifera. Above this interval, the glauconite
grades into a 10-m-thick grey shale.
At Bir Abu Minqar, the K/T contact is at a disconformity between shale and the overlying glauconitic
and phosphatic sandstone. At North Farafra, the K/T
contact occurs within the chalk of the Khoman
Formation about 3 m below the basal limestone
of the Dakhla Formation as discussed below.
Biostratigraphy indicates that the interval represented
by the Khoman chalk is missing at Bir Abu Minqar,
probably because of the disconformity (Figure 1). The
absence of limestone deposition further to the south
was a result of a shallowing of the sea during the late
Maastrichtian (see Li et al., 1999, 2000), and terrigenous influx that prevented chalk deposition. A 2-mthick limestone bed separates the Khoman Formation
from the overlying 10-m marl sequence of the Dakhla
Formation at North Farafra.
6. Integrated macro- and microfossil
stratigraphies
Planktic foraminifera and calcareous nannofossils are
generally present in glauconite-rich intervals in all
sections examined, but rare or absent in shale lithologies. At the Farafra section, foraminifera are present
throughout the section, but show strong dissolution
eects. Most Maastrichtian zones could be identified,
although the positions of their upper and lower
boundaries are uncertain because barren intervals
separate the short intervals with well-preserved and
diverse assemblages. Nevertheless, a late Campanian
through Danian biostratigraphic sequence could be
determined based on both planktic foraminifera and
calcareous nannofossils. The zonal schemes used in
this study are briefly outlined below and correlated
with commonly used zonal schemes (Figure 8).
The standard planktic foraminiferal zonal
scheme divides the Maastrichtian into three zones
(Abathomphalus mayaroensis, Gansserina gansseri and
Globotruncana aegyptiaca; Figure 8). In this study we
use the new zonal scheme by Li & Keller (1998a, b)
who subdivided the Maastrichtian into nine zones
labelled CF1CF8a and b (CF for Cretaceous
Foraminifera) that provide higher resolution age control. This new zonation was developed based on high
resolution quantitative planktic foraminiferal analyses
of DSDP Site 525 and sections in Tunisia. The
biozonation for the K/T transition and lower Danian
is from Keller et al. (1995). Age estimates for Late
803
Figure 6. Photograph of the Bir Abu Minqar horizon at Gebel Gifata showing repeated erosion between calcareous
sandstone, siltstone and glauconitic sandstone. MSF, maximum flooding surface; HST, sea-level highstand; LST,
sea-level lowstand; TST, transgressive system track.
Cretaceous zones are based on foraminiferal datum

events of DSDP Site 525 tied to the palaeomagnetic
stratigraphy of the same core. Age extrapolation for
the Tunisian sections is based on biostratigraphic
correlation and event stratigraphy, including sea-level
changes and stable isotope stratigraphy (Li et al.,
1999, 2000). These datum events and biozones are
broadly valid for the eastern Tethys region, including
Egypt. In the Western Desert of Egypt, nine planktic
foraminiferal zones could be recognized spanning the
time interval from the late Campanian to the late
Paleocene.
Calcareous nannofossil zonation for the Danian is
based on lowmiddle latitude nannofossil zonal
schemes by Sissingh (1977) and Roth (1978) for the
Maastrichtian, and Martini (1971) for the Paleocene.
These zonal schemes were subsequently subdivided
by Perch-Nielsen (1979, 1981a, b, 1983), Romein
(1979), Okada & Bukry (1980) and Doeven (1983)
(Figure 8). Seven calcareous nannofossil zones could
be identified in this study.
Macrofossils are generally scarce in Maastrichtian

Paleocene sections in Egypt, as well as worldwide, and
many of the species present are long-ranging and,
therefore, provide limited age control. Kassab et al.
(1995) published a revised macrofossil biozonation for
the Western Desert, and although some of the proposed zones are ecologically restricted to the area,
others provide excellent marker horizons over wide
geographic regions. For example, the Exogyra overwegi
Zone is approximately equivalent to the lower part
of planktic foraminiferal zone CF7 and lower part
of calcareous nannofossil zone CC25a. Venericardia
libyca is characteristic of the Danian, and heteromorphic ammonites (Solenoceras, Exiteloceras, and
?Bostrycoceras) occur regionally at the base of the
Dakhla Formation, coincident with zones CF8b and
CC23b (Figure 3).
6.1. Upper Campanian
The oldest fossiliferous sediments were encountered
near the base of the Gebel Gifata section in the
804
Figure 7. Details of lithology, sample intervals, biostratigraphies and species occurrences of planktic foraminifera and
calcareous nannofossils across the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary at the Gebel Gifata section. The two resistant
calcareous sandstone and siltstone layers form prominent stratigraphic horizons in the outcrop photograph, Figure 5.
Figure 8. Summary of commonly used planktic foraminiferal and calcareous nannofossil zonal schemes, age estimates, and their recognition in the
Western Desert of Egypt. The datum events for Maastrichtian planktic foraminiferal zones are based on the palaeomagnetic record, the
foraminiferal ranges of DSDP Site 525A, and biostratigraphic correlations to sections in Tunisia (Li & Keller, 1998a, b).

805
806
phosphatic sandstone and micritic limestone that

mark the top of the Duwi Formation. Planktic
foraminiferal assemblages in this interval are characterized by Globotruncana aegyptiaca, G. bulloides, G.
linneiana, G. fornicata and G. plummerae and indicate a
latest Campanian age, or zone CF8a (Figure 4). The
lowermost 3 m of the overlying Dakhla Formation
contain well-preserved, abundant and diverse
assemblages including common rugoglobigerinids,
such as Rugoglobigerina rugosa and R. hexacamerata,
along with G. bulloides, G. fornicata, G. linneiana, G.
plummerae and Planoglobulina carseyae. These assemblages indicate the earliest Maastrichtian zone CF8b,
as suggested by the absence of Gansserina gansseri and
presence of R. hexacamerata. The calcareous nannofossil assemblages are represented by Aspidolithus
parcus, Quadrum gothicus, Q. sissinghii, Q. trifidum,
Tranolithus phacelosus, Reinhardtites levis, Eielithus
turriseielii, Rhagodiscus angustus, Arkhangelskiella
symbiformis, Micula decussata and Prediscosphaera
cretacea (Figure 4). These assemblages indicate zone
CC23, which spans the Campanian/Maastrichtian
transition (Figure 8). The Campanian/Maastrichtian
boundary is tentatively identified based on planktic
foraminifera (zone CF8a/CF8b boundary, see below).
6.2. Campanian/Maastrichtian boundary
The Campanian/Maastrichtian stage boundary has
not yet been formally defined because of the poor
correlation between macro- and microfossil zonations.
Planktic foraminiferal workers commonly place this
boundary at the top of the Globotruncanita calcarata
Zone (e.g. Robaszynski et al., 19831984; Caron,
1985; Li & Keller, 1998a, b), and calcareous nannofossil specialists have placed it within NC20 (Bralower
et al., 1995), or within CC23 (e.g., Sissingh, 1977;
Perch-Nielsen, 1985). Macrofossil workers place this
boundary at the top of the Baculites senseni (ammonite) Zone, or the overlying B. eliasi Zone (e.g.,
Gradstein et al., 1995). Stratigraphic correlations
between these zonal schemes indicate that the G.
calcarata last appearance datum (LAD) is significantly
older than the macrofossil zone that defines the
Campanian/Maastrichtian boundary (Kennedy et al.,
1992). The Subcomission of Cretaceous Stratigraphy
has proposed that the Campanian/Maastrichtian
boundary be placed at the ammonite first appearance
datum (FAD) of Pachydiscus neubergicus (Odin, 1996).
The FAD of P. neubergicus has an estimated age of
71.60.7 Ma based on linear interpolation between
K/Ar ages of two bentonites (Obradovich, 1993) at
the base of C32N.1n (Gradstein et al., 1995). This
interval corresponds to within the upper G. aegyptiaca
Zone (CF8) and near the FA of Rugoglobigerina

hexacamerata and Planoglobulina carseyae that subdivide CF8 into two subzones CF8a and CF8b (Li
& Keller, 1998b; Li et al., 1999). An alternative
marker species is the first appearance of Gansserina
gansseri, though it is significantly younger (70.39 Ma;
Figure 8).
In this study, we followed Li et al. (1999) who used
the planktic foraminifer R. hexacamerata FAD as a
marker for the Campanian/Maastrichtian boundary.
The age of this datum event is estimated at 71 Ma
based on biostratigraphic correlation with the geomagnetic time scale at DSDP Site 525A (Li & Keller,
1998a). This stratigraphic interval corresponds to
within the calcareous nannofossil zone CC23 and top
of NC20 (see Bralower et al., 1995; Li & Keller,
1998a; Figure 3). Accordingly, the Campanian/
Maastrichtian boundary coincides with the lithologic
boundary between the Duwi Formation and the
overlying Dakhla Formation (Figure 4).
However, there are significant dierences in the
placement of the Campanian/Maastrichtian boundary
based on macrofossils and microfossils by earlier
workers. For example, a Maastrichtian age was
assigned to the Duwi Formation based on the ammonite Bostrychoceras polyplocum (El Akkad & Dardir,
1966; Abdel Razik, 1969; Issawi et al., 1978), and the
bivalves Lopha vilei, Ostrea and Alectryonia (Hassan,
1973; El Deftar et al., 1978; Issawi et al., 1978).
However, the same species were also used by various
authors (e.g., Awad et al., 1964; El Naggar, 1966;
Abdel Razik, 1972) to assign a late Campanian age,
suggesting that these ammonite index species and
bivalves span the Campanian/Maastrichtian boundary. This was also observed by Reiss (1962) and
El Naggar (1966) who correlated the ammonite
Bostrychoceras polyplocum to the late Campanian
planktic foraminiferal zone G. calcarata, which confirms that the Duwi Formation is of late Campanian
age. More recently, Faris (1984), Schrank (1984) and
Schrank & Perch-Nielsen (1985) concluded that the
Dakhla shales are of Maastrichtian age and that the
upper portion of the Duwi Formation may be of late
Campanianearly Maastrichtian age. Based on a
summary of available biostratigraphic data, Glenn
(1990) concluded that the Campanian/Maastrichtian
stage boundary is within the upper 10 m of the
Duwi Formation at Gebel Duwi, the type locality in
the Eastern Desert. Similarly, Hamama & Kassab
(1990) placed the Campanian/Maastrichtian boundary near the top of the ammonite Bostrychoceras
polyplocum Zone, coincident with the contact between
the Duwi and Dakhla formations at Gebel Abu Had
and Wadi Hamama. Recent studies, including ours,
thus place this stage boundary at the top of the

Duwi Formation.
6.3. Lower Maastrichtian
Shales and thin silt and calcareous sandstone layers
characterize the lower Maastrichtian Mawhoob Shale
Member of the Dakhla Formation at Gebel Gifata
(Figures 2, 3), Bir Abu Minqar (Figure 9) and North
El Qasr (Figure 10). Microfossils are very rare in the
lower Maastrichtian of North El Qasr and Bir Abu
Minqar and indicate a zone CF7 and CC25a age (G.
gansseri and A. cymbiformis; see also Hermina, 1990).
The Northwest Qur El Malik section contains neither
calcarous nannofossils nor foraminifera, although a
relatively diverse macrofossil assemblage is present,
indicating the presence of the Exogyra overwegi Zone
(Figure 11). Ammonites are abundant in the uppermost 5 m and consist of Libycoceras acutodorsatus and
Brahmaites brahma. To the north in the Farafra area,
the sediments change to the chalk and chalky limestone of the Khoman Formation as a result of a deeper
depositional environment beyond the reach of terrigenous influx (Figure 12). An early Maastrichtian
chalk of zone CF7 and CC25a age was sampled above
a prominent dark phosphate horizon in the White
Desert. However, at the North Farafra section,
collected in the North Gunna area, the lowermost
sediment samples are of late Maastrichtian zones
CF3CF4 and CC25b age that correlate with the
uppermost part of G. gansseri Zone of Samir (1995).
Only in the lowermost 3 m of the Dakhla Formation
at Gebel Gifata was the basal Maastrichtian identified,
based on microfossil assemblages that indicate planktic foraminiferal zone CF8b (FAD of R. hexacamerata)
and nannofossil assemblages indicative of zone CC23
(Figure 4). The first G. gansseri (well-developed
forms) appear at 14 m (DL276) and mark the base
of zone CF7. This level corresponds to the base of
calcareous nannofossil zone CC24 (see Figure 8). The
macrofossil assemblage in this interval includes
Chlamys (Aequipecten) acuteplicatus, Nuculana producta, Inoceramus faragi, Alectryonella panda and
numerous impressions of heteromorphic ammonites
(e.g., Baculites, Exiteloceras, Solanoceras; Figure 3).
This ammonite fauna is known to exist on a regional
scale in eastern and western Egypt (Kassab et al.,
1978; Kassab & Zakhira, 1995), and has also been
described from the basal Dakhla Shale Member of
Mut by Barthel & Herrmann-Degen (1981). Reiss
et al. (1985) correlated this fauna to the Bostrychoceras
polyplocum Zone of the late Campanian. In our study,
these faunas are correlated with the lower parts of
both the early Maastrichtian planktic foraminiferal
807
zone CF7 and the calcareous nannofossil zone CC24

(Figure 4).
The sediments between 20 and 88 m at Gebel
Gifata consist of alternating layers of dark grey siltstones and thin layers of phosphatic skeletal sands or
shell hash (Figure 3). This interval is devoid of both
planktic foraminifera and calcareous nannofossils. In
the lower part (upper part of the Mawhoob Shale
Member, between 35 and 63 m), invertebrate fossils
are rare and only bivalves (e.g., Arca, Arcotrigonia,
inoceramids, pectinids) were observed (DL275
271; Figure 3). However, the overlying 1015-mthick interval that marks the lower part of the Beris
Mudstone Member (Exogyra overwegi Zone) is very
rich in the oyster Exogyra overwegi (Munier-Calmas),
many of which are still in life positions. Exogyra is a
marine oyster that is widely distributed in deposits
representing Late Cretaceous shelf habitats at water
depths of less than 50 m (Reiss, 1984). Hence, the
presence of this oyster bed indicates deposition in an
inner neritic environment. In the 10 m above the
Exogyra beds only disarticulated and fragmented
specimens are present and none was found above
130 m (sample DL248, Figure 3). In the upper part of
the calcareous sandstone layers of the Beris Mudstone
Member Exogyra is absent and other megafossils are
abundant, including cephalopods (Baculites inornatus,
Diplomoceras sp., Exiteloceras sp., Eutrephoceras sp.),
bivalves [e.g., Chlamys (Aequipecten) acuteplicatus,
Veniella, Inoceramus, Nuculana producta, Venericardia
quassi, and rare oysters], gastropods (e.g., Turritella
sexlineata), rare solitary corals (sample DL259), shark
teeth, fish bones, scales, reptile teeth (?pliosaurs), and
occasionally wood and leaves (sample DL223; Figure
3). This assemblage indicates a shallow, nearshore or
lagoonal environment.
Above the microfossil-barren layer at Gebel Gifata,
rich planktic foraminiferal assemblages are indicative
of the upper part of zone CF7, characterized by
common rugoglobigerinids (Rugoglobigerina macrocephala, R. rugosa, R. scotti; Figure 4). Deposition of
these assemblages probably occurred in a marginal
marine environment with an influx of open marine
species, as suggested by high foraminiferal-species
richness, the presence of deeper-water (thermocline)
dwelling species (globotruncanids), and the low abundance of benthic foraminifera (c. 10%) relative to
planktic foraminifera. Calcareous nannofossil assemblages in this interval consist mainly of solutionresistant taxa, although the presence of Lithraphidites
paraquadratus and absence of L. quadratus indicate the
early Maastrichtian zone CC25a, correlative with
planktic foraminiferal zone CF7 (Figures 4, 8). The
Figure 9. Lthological column, microfossil and macrofossil biozones, and species ranges of planktic foraminifera, calcareous nannofossils, and macrofossils at the
Bir Abu Minqar section.
808
809
Figure 10. Lithological column, microfossil and macrofossil biozones, and species ranges of planktic foraminifera, calcareous
nannofossils, and macrofossils at the North El Qasr section.
presence of Braarudosphaera bigelowii and A. cymbiformis also indicates marginal marine conditions
(Perch-Nielsen, 1985).
6.4. Lower/Upper Maastrichtian boundary
This boundary has not yet been formally defined
(Odin, 1996). It is generally placed at the first
appearance of the planktic foraminifera Gansserina
gansseri (Robaszynski et al., 19831984; Caron,
1985; Li & Keller, 1998a, b), or at the FAD of
Abathomphalus mayaroensis or Racemiguembelina fructicosa (Nederbragt, 1991). However, it is well known
that the FAD of A. mayoraensis is diachronous and
occurs earlier in high latitudes (see Pardo et al., 1996).
Numerically, the early/late Maastrichtian boundary
has been placed at 69.5 Ma within the upper part of
C31R (Gradstein et al., 1995), an interval that corresponds to the FAD of R. contusa (=base of CF6, Li &
Keller 1998a). Li et al. (1999) used the FAD of R.

fructicosa to approximate the early/late Maastrichtian
boundary at 68.2 Ma based on biostratigraphic correlation with the geomagnetic time scale at DSDP Site
525. Calcareous nannofossil workers generally place
this boundary at the base of the A. cymbiformis
Zone (CC25, e.g., Sissingh, 1977; Roth, 1978;
Perch-Nielsen, 1985), which corresponds to the base
of CF6 (Figure 3). In this study we follow Gradstein
et al. (1995) and Li & Keller (1998a, b) by using the
FAD of R. contusa at 69.56 Ma as a marker species for
the early/late Maastrichtian boundary. This datum
event coincides with the FAD of the calcareous nannofossil L. quadratus (base of zone CC25b) that is
employed by many workers as marker for this boundary (Bralower et al., 1995). In the Gebel Gifata
section, the early/late Maastrichtian boundary occurs
within the middle part of the Beris Mudstone Member
of the Dakhla Formation.
810
Figure 11. Lithological column, macrofossil ranges, and biozones at the Northwest Qur El Malik section. This section does
not contain any microfossils.
6.5. Upper Maastrichtian

At Gebel Gifata two 1-m-thick calcareous sandstone
layers, located in the interval between 96 m and
103 m, contain low-diversity upper Maastrichtian
planktic foraminiferal assemblages consisting of
shallow-water or surface-dwelling species (Figure 4).
We tentatively place these species assemblages
within zone CF6 because of the presence of common
rugoglobigerinids. The index species Rosita contusa
first appears at 103 m. A zone CF6 age is also
suggested by the presence of the calcareous nannofossil species L. quadratus that marks the base of the L.
quadratus Zone (CC25b; Figure 4). The nannofossil
assemblages are similar, but relatively less diverse than
those of the underlying zone CC25a. Deposition of
these microfossil assemblages probably occurred in an
inner neritic environment, as suggested by generally
lower species diversity and absence of deeper dwelling
globotruncanid species. The presence of abundant
macrofossils, vertebrate bones (Figure 3), Fe-rich
sand and very abundant benthic foraminifera (c. 95%

relative to planktic foraminifera) indicates that
deposition occurred in a very shallow, high-energy,
inner neritic to littoral environment. The overlying
17 m of shale are devoid of microfossils and only rare
macrofossils are present, such as small nuculanid and
pectinic bivalves that suggest dysaerobic conditions.
At Bir Abu Minqar zone CF6 planktic foraminiferal
assemblages are tentatively identified in calcareous
sandstone layers although the index species Rosita
contusa was not observed (Figure 9). A major hiatus is
present at this interval with early Paleocene zone
P1d above the early late Maastrichtian zone CF6.
Macrofossils present in the calcareous sandstone layer
below the hiatus include Baculites anceps, B. vertebralis,
Eutrephoceras sp., Glyptoxoceras sp. and Hercoglossa a.
danica. The presence of the Danian species H. a.
danica indicates that early Tertiary nautilids are
mixed with Maastrichtian faunal elements at this
hiatus.
Figure 12. Lithological column and planktic foraminiferal and calcareous nannofossil species ranges and biozones at the Farafra section, located about 15 km north
of Qasr El Farafra at the North Gunna locality that is marked by a group of three isolated conical hills. The basal part of the section was sampled in the White
Desert, about 25 km to the north.

811
812
In the upper part of the Beris Mudstone Member at

Gebel Gifata, two graded shell hash beds are present
between 120122.5 and 126.5127.5 m with mudclasts and Thalassinoides burrows at the base and top
that mark erosional surfaces (Figure 4). Calcareous
nannofossils in this interval are indicative of the upper
zone CC25b (M. decussata/concava, W. barnesae, P.
cretacea, A. cymbiformis, L. quadratus, C. ehrenbergii, E.
turriseielii and P. stoveri; Figure 4). Only rare planktic
foraminifera are at the base of these shell hash beds
(e.g., H. globulosa, P. carseyae, A. blowi, A. cretacea, R.
rugosa; Figure 4). However, near the top of the
shell hash are more diverse assemblages, including Gansserina aegyptiaca, G. gansseri, P. carseyae, P.
costulata, P. deformis, P. elegans, H. globulosa, H. punctulata, R. rugosa and A. cretacea. Although the zone
CF4 index species (Abathomphalus mayaroensis or
Racemiguembelina fructicosa) are absent, the presence
of relatively common G. gansseri within these assemblages suggests a CF4 age that corresponds to the
upper part of CC25b (Figures 4, 8). Gansserina gansseri has been observed to reappear in significant
abundance (c. 10-15%) near the top of its range
within CF4 (Li & Keller, 1998a, b; Abramovich et al.,
1998). Similar assemblages were observed at North El
Qasr, in two sandstone beds near the top of the
section (Figure 10). At Bir Abu Minquar the interval
from the upper Maastrichtian zone CF6 through the
lower Danian is missing owing to a hiatus (Figure 9).
The predominance of benthic foraminifera (>95%)
in these two shell hash beds suggests that deposition
occurred within a shallow, high-energy, inner neritic
to littoral environment, with either periodic marine
incursions transporting open marine planktic foraminiferal assemblages into the coastal areas, or reworking
and transport. The former is indicated by the excellent
preservation of planktic foraminifera and absence of
broken or abraided shells that would be expected if the
assemblages were reworked and transported in a highenergy environment. The dark grey silt between these
two shell hash beds is devoid of microfossils, similar to
the barren intervals below and above, and suggests
that deposition alternated between neritic and
lagoonal to brackish environments.
At Farafra, the same statigraphic interval was
deposited in a deeper middle neritic environment, as
indicated by the diverse foraminiferal assemblages and
chalk deposition (Figure 12). At this locality, the
lower 7 m of the exposed outcrop contain assemblages
that suggest a CF4CF3 age, though the zonal index
species (A. mayaroensis, R. fructicosa, P. hariaensis) are
not present probably owing to the shallow depth of
deposition of this succession. However, a CF4 assemblage is indicated near the base of the section by the
presence of R. plummerae, which disappeared within

CF4, and a CF3 assemblage is indicated by the
disappearance of G. gansseri in sample FA14, that
marks the top of CF3 (Figure 12). Well-preserved and
diverse upper Maastrichtian calcareous nannofossils
indicative of zone CC25b are present in this interval.
At Gebel Gifata, the Lower Kharga Shale Member
of the Dakhla Formation consists of dark grey shale
that is barren of microfossils, but contains fish scales,
callianassid pincers, and rare bivalves indicating a
shallow marine environment (Figure 3). Other invertebrate fossils are rare and restricted to nuculanid and
pectinid bivalves, and an isolated fragment of a
scaphitid ammonite (sample DL20). At the top of this
interval, a 1-m-thick calcareous shale (samples DL3
DL1) contains a low-diversity solution-resistant calcareous nannofossil assemblage indicative of zone
CC26a, including the index species Micula murus
(Figure 4). A low-diversity, shallow-water, late
Maastrichtian planktonic foraminiferal assemblage is
present and dominated by H. dendata, H. globulosa,
H. navarroensis and Guembelitria cretacea, as well as
abundant benthic foraminifera (c. 65%) and common
macrofossils (e.g., Veniella drui, V. quassi, Chlamys
sp., Lithophaga). All of these fossils indicate that
deposition occurred in an inner neritic environment.
Although there are no age-diagnostic species present,
the common presence of G. cretacea along with small
biserial taxa suggests a CF3 age characterized by a
Guembelitria acme in the eastern Tethys (Abramovich
et al., 1998).
6.6. Cretaceous/Tertiary transition
The K/T boundary is marked by a major hiatus in all
of the sections examined. At Gebel Gifata, a pronounced erosional surface marks a hiatus between the
top of the dark grey shale (Lower Kharga Shale Unit)
and the overlying 25-cm-thick yellow calcareous sandstone that marks the base of the Bir Abu Minqar
horizon. The calcareous sandstone and overlying siltstone (samples DK2, DK3) contain rounded quartz
grains, phosphate nodules, glauconite and abraded
benthic foraminifera. An early Danian planktic foraminiferal zone P1c assemblage is present and consists
of Guembelitria cretacea, Globoconusa daubjergensis,
Woodringina hornerstownensis, W. claytonensis, Parasubbotina pseudobulloides, Subbotina triloculinoides and
Chiloguembelina kelleri (Figure 7). Rare biserial
Cretaceous species are also present (H. globulosa).
Sample DK3 contains a low-diversity calcareous nannofossil assemblage which consists of Cruciplacolithus
primus, C. tenuis, Prinsius martinii, P. dimorphosus
and Neochiastozygus primitivus, as well as common
Cretaceous survivor species (Figure 7). This assemblage is indicative of the early Danian zone NP2,
which is equivalent to planktic foraminiferal zone P1c
(Figures 7, 8). Similarly, the presence of abundant
macrofossil species Venericardia libyca (Zittel) indicates the Venericardia libyca Zone of Danian age (e.g.,
Kassab & Zakhera, 1995; Figure 3). Most of the
macrofossil specimens are isolated shells that indicate
transport, but in pockets near the base of the sandstone layer many specimens are still closed and may
represent little-transported or autochthonous assemblages. Thus, micro- and macrofossil assemblages
indicate the presence of a major hiatus at the K/T
transition, as indicated by the juxtaposition of the
calcareous nannofossil zones CC25a and NP2, as well
as the planktic foraminiferal zones CF3 and P1c at
Gebel Gifata, and the overlying Danian Venericardia
libyca (macrofossil) zone. This hiatus spans about
1 m.y. (64.565.5 Ma) from the lower Danian planktonic foraminiferal zone Plc and calcareous nannofossil zone NP1 through the uppermost Maastrichtian
zone CF2 or CC26b (M. prinsii zone; Figures 7, 8).
Major K/T hiatuses are also present at other
Western Desert sections. At Bir Abu Minquar the K/T
hiatus spans from the Danian zone P1dP2 or NP4 to
the early late Maastrichtian zone CF6 or CC25b
(c. 6169 Ma; Figure 9). At Farafra the K/T hiatus
spans the Danian zone P2 and NP4 to the early late
Maastrichtian CF3CF4 and CC25b (c. 6166 Ma;
Figure 12). A hiatus of this magnitude was also
reported by Samir (1995), although his G. gansseri
Zone (Caron, 1985) encompasses our zones CF4
CF7 (Figure 8).
6.7. Early Paleocene
Above the K/T hiatus at Gebel Gifata, sediments
contain early Danian zone Plc planktic foraminiferal
assemblages characterized by few Guembelitria cretacea
and G. trifolia and common Parasubbotina pseudobulloides, Subbotina triloculinoides, Woodringina hornerstownensis, W. claytonensis and Chiloguembelina morsei
(Figure 7). A morphologically small and low-diversity
benthic foraminiferal assemblage indicates a lowoxygen environment. These foraminifera suggest that
sediment deposition occurred within a low-energy,
low-oxygen middle neritic environment. Calcareous
nannofossils in this interval also contain a lowdiversity assemblage with low-species abundances.
Only five Danian species (Cruciplacolithus primus, C.
tenuis, P. martinii, P. dimorphosus and N. primitivus)
characteristic of zone NP2, and two survivor species
(Thoracosphaera operculata and B. begelowii) are
present. The presence of the latter species supports
813
deposition in a neritic environment. In addition,

Venericardia libyca, Nucula chargensis and Nuculana
protexta are present and suggest low-oxygen shallowwater conditions (Figure 3).
At 10 m above the K/T boundary at Gebel Gifata is
a 40-cm-thick limestone with mudclasts at its base
(Figure 4). The upper part has a sugary texture, is rich
in glauconite, and underlies a thin glauconite layer.
Foraminifera are rare and poorly preserved owing to
dissolution. Species identified include Praemurica
inconstans, Planorotalites compressa, W. hornerstownensis, S. triloculinoides and G. cretacea, which indicate an
upper zone Plc(2) faunal assemblage. Above the glauconite is another 40-cm-thick limestone layer with a
similar planktic foraminiferal assemblage (P. pseudobulloides, P. varianta, S. triloculinoides). A 50-cm-thick
glauconite layer disconformably overlies the limestone and contains a diverse Plc(2) assemblage with
abundant planktic foraminifera (Figure 7).
The marly shales above the glauconite layer are
rich in planktic foraminifera, including common
Morozovella trinidadensis, Praemurica inconstans, abundant P. compressa, P. pseudobulloides, P. varianta, G.
daubjergensis, and few C. midwayensis. Praemurica
taurica and P. pentagona are conspicuously absent.
This assemblage indicates a zone Pld age.
Nannofossils in this interval indicate a zone NP4 age
(Figure 7). Benthic foraminifera are rare (c. 10%),
relative to planktic foraminifera (c. 90%). The low
benthic/planktic ratio, high abundance of planktic
foraminifera, and absence of coarse detrital influx in
the sediment indicate a deeper middle to outer neritic,
open marine environment.
From 11 m above the K/T boundary up to the top
of the section, there is a notable increase in abundance
and diversity of calcareous nannofossil species that is
characteristic of zone NP4 (Eshet et al., 1992; Figure
7). The calcareous survivor species are also present
and include B. bigelowii, Thoracosphaera spp., and
Zygodiscus sigmoides. Similar nannofossil assemblages
are present at Bir Abu Minqar between samples AM2
and AM3, and also indicate a NP4 age (Figure 9).
Below this horizon (sample AM4) are diverse mixed
Maastrichtian and Danian planktic foraminiferal
assemblages in a glauconitic calcareous sandstone that
disconformably overlies Maastrichtian shale. Danian
planktic foraminifera within this mixed assemblage
indicate a zone P1d age, and reworked Maastrichtian
species indicative of zone CF6 are present. The presence of the Danian nautilid Hercoglossa danica also
suggests faunal mixing. Thus erosion at Bir Abu
Minquar during the early Danian removed the K/T
boundary and late Maastrichtian intervals (Figure 9).
814
Strong erosion during the Danian is also evidenced

at Farafra where a P2 planktic foraminiferal assemblage and a lower zone NP4 calcareous nannofossil
assemblage overlie late Maastrichtian zone CF43
and CC25b assemblages (Figure 12). Above this
erosion surface, the assemblages change to P3a with
the first appearance of M. angulata, followed by
zone P3b with the appearance of G. velascoensis, P.
chapmani, and Igorina pusilla. These foraminiferal
assemblages mark the Selandian, as also indicated
by the presence of the NP4 calcareous nannofossil
assemblage (e.g., Cruciplacolithus edwardsii, C. danicus,
C. primus, C. tenuis, E. macellus, C. pelagicus, E.
cava/ovalis, E. robusta, F. janii, N. modestus, and P.
dimorphosus). At the top of the outcrop a zone P4
(Thanetian) assemblage is present, as marked by the
presence of G. pseudomenardii, M. velascoensis, M.
occlusa, and M. subbotina (Figure 12). Age equivalent
Thanetian calcareous nannofossil assemblages are
represented by zones NP6 and NP7. The upper parts
of zones NP4 and NP5 are missing and mark a
distinct hiatus between the Dakhla and Tarawan
formations.
7. Mineralogy and geochemistry of the
Gebel Gifata section
Sediments at Gebel Gifata are dominated by phyllosilicates (4080%). Calcite is present only in the Duwi
Formation and in calcareous sandstone layers (20
80%) of the Dakhla Formation (Figure 13). Feldspar
(plagioclase) and anhydrite (late diagenetic product
linked to arid climate; Chamley, 1989) are minor
constituents (05%), though generally more abundant
in the lower part of the section. Quartz is nearly absent
in the lower 30 m of the section, but gradually
increases to a maximum of 40% at the top of the
Mawhood Shale Member, coincident with the base of
the Exogyra overwegi Zone. Quartz enrichment at
this stratigraphic horizon was also observed at the
Northwest Qur El Malik section. Above this interval,
quartz is a minor constituent with peaks (1015%) in
thin sandy layers, except for the Upper Kharga Shale
Member at the top of the section. Maximum detrital
influx thus occurred during deposition of the lower
Maastrichtian zone CF7 at Gebel Gifata and
Northwest Qur El Malik, and suggests uplift and
subsequent erosion to the southwest. The presence of
the Exogyra overwegi marker horizon in these sections
indicates shallowing, possibly linked to uplift of the
Gilf El Kebir Spur (Barthel & Hermann-Degen,
1981) and/or falling sea level.
The main clay phases at Gebel Gifata are kaolinite
(3080%), smectite (1060%), chlorite (030%) and
mica (010%). The constant presence of smectite

indicates the absence of a strong diagenetic overprint
owing to burial, as also suggested by the low temperature value of the S2 peak that indicates immature
organic matter. The smectite presence also implies a
detrital origin that may reflect local uplift and/or
variations in weathering processes and soil formation
in the bordering continental areas (Chamley, 1989;
Weaver, 1989). Kaolinite increased from 4060% at
the base of the section (CF8 zone) to 6080% in CF4,
and reached a maximum abundance of 8090% in
the uppermost part of the section that spans the
late Maastrichtianearly Danian (CF3P1c interval;
Figures 14, 15).
During the Late Cretaceous, the section at Gebel
Gifata was near the palaeoequator (Smith et al.,
1982). An equatorial position is also indicated by the
high abundance of kaolinite, which suggests warm
wet, tropical and subtropical conditions characterized
by low seasonality contrasts, and predominantly
chemical weathering (high kaolinite and smectite, very
low mica and chlorite contents). The increase in
kaolinite towards the K/T transition was also observed
in Tunisia (Keller et al., 1998; Li et al., 2000; Adatte
et al., in press), and suggests a change towards more
humid conditions with enhanced runo. Tropical to
subtropical environmental conditions are also indicated by the presence of the mangrove palm Nypa
(pollen grains Spinizonocolpites, Proxapertites) and their
fruit in the early Danian zone P1d at Bir Abu Minqar
(Figure 9; Schrank, 1984, 1987; Ganz et al., 1990b).
Today, Nypa mangroves thrive in humid tropical
swamps, estuaries and tidal shores. Their presence in
the Dakhla shale thus indicates a warm, humid
climate and proximity to land. Moreover, the presence
of the pollen grain Tricolpites reticulatus, which is
comparable to products of extant Gunnera that is
restricted to environments of heavy rainfall and higher
altitudes (>750 m), indicates significant elevation
nearby with heavy rainfall during the Late
Maastrichtianearly Danian (Schrank, 1984).
8. Cyclic deposition
Cyclic deposition of alternating calcareous sandstones
and shales at Gebel Gifata has been analyzed for four
stratigraphic horizons (Exogyra overwegi Zone, upper
CF7, CF4, and K/T transition CF3P1c). The calcareous sandstone-shale cycles are characterized by significant dierences in clay mineral abundances,
except for chlorite and mica, which show similar
patterns in both lithologies (average 11 and 6% in
sandstone layers, and 5 and 3% in shale layers
815
Figure 13. Bulk rock composition of the Dakhla Formation at Gebel Gifata. The maximum terrigenous influx occurred
during deposition of the Mawhoob Shale Member in the early Maastrichtian, suggesting subsidence of the Dakhla Basin.
816
Figure 14. Clay mineralogy and geochemistry of two sedimentary cycles in the early Maastrichtian zone CF7: Exogyra beds
in the lower part of planktic foraminiferal zone CF7, and the upper part of CF7, and calcareous nannofossil zone CC25a;
see text for discussion.
Figure 15. Clay mineralogy and geochemistry of two sedimentary cycles in the late Maastrichtian planktic foraminiferal zone
CF4 and calcareous nanofossil zone CC25b, and the K/T transition (CF3/Plc and CC26a/NP2); see text for discussion.
respectively). In general, kaolinite is more abundant in

shale intervals than in calcareous sandstone layers
(average 63 and 50% respectively), whereas smectite
is more abundant in calcareous sandstones than
in shales (average 33 and 29% respectively, Figures
14, 15). This represents an inverse trend since smectite is generally more abundant in shales, indicating
periods of sea-level high-stands and more open
environments, whereas kaolinite is generally more
common in calcareous sandstone representing near-
shore conditions (Chamley, 1989; Chamley et al.,

1990). In the cyclic deposition at Gebel Gifata, smectite in shales is generally transformed into chlorite-like
phyllosilicates (chlorite-smectite mixed layers). This
diagenetic alteration compromises the K/S ratio as an
indicator of original climate and sea-level variations.
The observed inverse trend in smectite can be
explained by degradation and partial destruction of
smectite by organic acids under strongly reducing
conditions (Chamley, 1989). This clay degradation in
817
Figure 16. Sequence stratigraphy and sea-level changes across the shale/calcareous sandstone cycle near the top of planktic
foraminiferal zone CF7 and calcareous nannofossil zone CC25a. The undulating erosional surfaces between the dark
shales and calcareous sandstone layers and between the fine- and coarse-grained calcareous sandstone layers mark
sea-level changes.
black shales probably occurred close to the sedimentwater interface. Under such conditions, smectite
preferentially degrades into a chlorite-smectite mixed
layer, or chlorite-like mineral, whereas the more
resistant kaolinite is preferentially preserved.
Clues to the nature and variation of cyclic sediment
deposition at Gebel Gifata can be gleaned from thin
sections. Near the base of the section (sample
DL280), abundant phosphatic bioclasts and
lithoclasts are present in a poorly sorted layer that
contains phosphatic fish bones and scales, teeth,
lithoclasts, faecal pellets, rare benthic foraminifers,
and varying amounts of sand and silt-sized quartz.
No ooids or oncoids have been observed. The
iron-stained micritic (phosphatic?) matrix is frequently dolomitic. Cyclic deposition of the early
Maastrichtian Exogyra overwegi and upper CF7 zones
(Figures 14, 16) is marked by silt-rich shales and
bioclastic sandstones with phosphatic bioclasts consisting mainly of fish remains (scales, bones and
teeth). The non-phosphatic fraction increased, including abundant planktic and benthic foraminifera and
minor amounts of silty detritus. In addition, hematite
and goethite grains or coatings are frequently present,

though no phosphatic matrix was observed. Cyclic
deposition in the upper Maastrichtianlower Paleocene (samples DL130 to DK18; Figure 15), is
characterized by micritic shales and bioclastic sandstones with shell-rich intervals and phosphatic
lithoclasts and glauconite at the top of the cycles. The
latter two are presumably of authigenic and peloidal
origin, as suggested by their typically mammilate to
lobate-shaped form and absence of distinct internal
structure.
Organic carbon and Rock-Eval pyrolysis data
indicate that total organic carbon (TOC) values are
generally very low and rarely exceed 0.5 wt.%,
with average values about 0.25 wt.% (Figures 14, 15).
Higher values are generally associated with
hardgrounds and hiatuses. All of the kerogens present
are thermally immature, as indicated by the low to
slightly elevated temperature maximum (Tmax)
values of 435451C. The pyrolysis-data further suggest a terrigenous source (Type III or IV), high
sediment dilution, and perhaps oxidizing bottom conditions. However, post-depositional alteration is also
818
Figure 17. Sequence stratigraphy and sea-level changes across the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary disconformity at Gebel
Gifata. The disconformity juxtaposes the late Maastrichtian planktic foraminiferal zone CF3 and calcareous nannofossil
zone CC26a with the early Danian Bir Abu Minqar horizon of planktic foraminiferal zone Plc and calcareous nannofossil zone NP2 age. The undulating erosional surfaces between the dark shale and calcareous sandstone layers at the
top and bottom, and within the calcareous sandstone layer mark changes in sea levels.
indicated by the low hydrogen index (HI) (30

40 HC/g TOC) and extraordinarily high oxygen index
(OI) (200580 mg CO2/g TOC) values. This indicates that the main part of the organic matter in the
shale has been altered and destroyed.
Phosphorus (P) concentrations of the dierent
P-bearing phases reveal highly variable patterns
throughout the four cyclic intervals of the Dakhla
section analyzed, although no larger general trends in
the P-geochemistry are apparent (Figures 14, 15).
Therefore, major variations in the P-concentrations
are confined to the lithologic changes from phosphatepoor shale (<0.1 mg/g total P) to the more P-enriched
bioclastic calcareous sandstone beds (0.55 mg/g total
P), although P-concentrations can also be increased in
adjacent shales. The elevated P contents of bioclastic
sandstone beds are derived mainly from the higher
calcium fluor apatite (CFA) (up to 5 mg/g) and
detrital P values (up to 0.1 mg/g), whereas organic P
(about 0.1 mg/g) shows no major changes, and ironbound P values are highly irregular (<0.1 to 1 mg/g).
Since phosphate from the CFA phase is associated
mainly with authigenic P-rich minerals and secondarily with biogenic apatite debris (e.g., fish teeth and
bones), these results confirm the observations from
thin-section studies that reveal biogenic apatite debris
as the main source of phosphate. In addition, elevated
detrital P values, equivalent to detrital (igneous/
metamorphic) fluor apatite and residual phases,

argue for a condensed/winnowed or reworked origin
of these beds. The unusual high iron-content (with
up to 40 mg/g) points to a high fluvial input as
also suggested by the high phyllosilicate kaolinite
contents.
9. Sequence stratigraphy of cycles

The 23 calcareous sandstone-shale cycles identified in
the Gebel Gifata section exhibit similar features. Two
representative examples from the lower Maastrichtian
(upper part of zones CF7 and CC25a) and the K/T
transition (CF3P1c; Figures 16, 17) show similar
lithologies, disconformities and microfacies. In each
cycle, the dark silty shales represent sea-level highstands, whereas the calcareous sandstones represent
sea-level lowstand periods, as suggested by the lithologies, fossil content, and erosional surfaces. The
monotonous dark grey silty shales are generally barren
of microfossils. Deposition of this succession occurred
during sea-level highstands in restricted inner neritic
to lagoonal environments characterized by euryhaline,
dysaerobic, or low oxygen conditions probably related
to a stagnating sea. The contact between the shale and
the overlying calcareous sandstone is generally marked
by an undulating erosional surface (Figures 16, 17).
Above this erosive contact, the lower part of the

calcareous sandstone is coarse-grained, strongly
bioturbated, and generally consists of accumulated
bivalves, other fossil debris and occasional wood fragments that reflect high hydrodynamic conditions
(tempestite). These coarse-grained sediments may
represent sandbars deposited in well-oxygenated shallow waters during sea-level lowstand (LST) periods.
The upper part of the calcareous sandstone is generally finer grained and overlies an undulating surface
that is interpreted as a sea-level rise (transgressive
system track, TST). The glauconitic and/or phosphatic silty-shale layer enriched with marine plankton
that generally overlies this interval (Figures 16, 17)
represents a period of condensed sedimentation and
maximum influx of terrestrial organic matter that
corresponds to a maximum flooding surface (MSF).
The overlying shale represents a sea-level highstand
(HST) period; microplankton are generally very
rare or absent, probably as a result of inhospitable
conditions owing to stagnation.
10. Discussion
10.1. Age and hiatuses
The relative ages and hiatuses of five sections in the
Western Desert between Dakhla and Farafra were
determined based on high-resolution sample analysis
and biostratigraphic integration of planktic foraminifera, calcareous nannofossils and macrofossils. This
approach provided improved biostratigraphic control
and more accurate determination of the extent of
hiatuses than has previously been achieved (Figure
18). However, the relative ages obtained are not as
good as one could hope for because macrofossil and
microfossil assemblages are generally restricted to
calcareous sandstone layers; the shale layers are barren. Nevertheless, this study has added significantly to
the age control and environmental history of the
region.
A major hiatus spans the late Maastrichtianearly
Paleocene interval in all sections. At Gebel Gifata this
hiatus extends from about 64.5 Ma in the early
Danian (zones NP1 or Plc) to about 66 Ma (within
zones CC26a or CF3) in the late Maastrichtian. At
North El Qasr the upper Maastrichtian is missing as at
Gebel Gifata (lower Danian was not sampled). At Bir
Abu Minqar and Farafra a hiatus spans from about
61 Ma in the late Danian (zone P2 or NP4) to about
66 Ma in the late Maastrichtian (zone CF3 or CC26a;
Figure 18).
Our age determinations do not always agree with
those published by other workers, nor are the hiatuses
819
necessarily at the same stratigraphic levels. In most

cases this is owing to the higher resolution planktic
foraminiferal zonal scheme used in this study, the
integration of nannofossil, foraminiferal, and macrofossil zonations, and the outcrop locality and higher
sample resolution. For example, Samir (1995) placed
the K/T hiatus at the Farafra section (North Gunna
locality) at the base of a thick Danian limestone in
the Dakhla Formation However in our section, the
first Danian assemblage appears in the chalk 3 m
below this limestone layer. There is a bioturbated
hardground at the base of the Danian limestone
that indicates erosion and/or non-deposition, but the
extent of this hiatus within zone P3a could not be
determined. It is possible that erosion in the sections
sampled by Samir (1995) resulted in the juxtaposition
of the Danian limestone and Maastrichtian chalk.
In fact, we observed that erosion is variable along
the hill slope of North Gunna and that the position
of the hiatus can vary by several meters depending
on the locality sampled. Possible confusion may arise
from the use of dierent zonal schemes (see Figure
8). For example, Samirs (1995) G. gansseri Zone is
not equal to the G. gansseri (CF7) zone of this study,
but spans a much longer interval encompassed by
zones CF7 to CF4 (Figure 8). Therefore, Samirs G.
gansseri Zone could represent anything within the
CF7CF4 interval, but our study suggests that it
represents the top and is most likely equivalent to
our zone CF4.
10.2. Age of Dakhla Formation and its members
Our age determination for the Dakhla Formation and
its members confirms that the Dakhla Formation
spans the Maastrichtian and lower Paleocene. The
Duwi/Dakhla Formation contact at the Gebel Gifata
section is at the top of a 5-m-thick white micritic and
phosphatic limestone which contains a zone CF8a (G.
aegyptiaca) assemblage that spans 7172.5 Ma (Li
et al., 1999). Thus, the Duwi/Dakhla contact at the
top of this limestone is about 71 Ma. Abbas &
Habib (1969) referred to this limestone as Isocardia
chargensis limestone and Barthel & Herrmann-Degen
(1981) called it the Qur El Malik Member of
the Dakhla Formation. The Duwi/Dakhla contact
coincides with a major global cooling and sea-level
regression at about 71 Ma (e.g., Haq et al., 1987;
Barrera et al., 1997; Li et al., 1998a), which contributed to widespread erosion in shallow, continentalshelf environments of Tunisia (Li et al., 1999) and
Egypt.
The Mawhoob Shale Member spans the lower 40 m
of the Dakhla Formation and its sediments are mostly
820
Figure 18. Stratigraphic summary, age distribution of hiatuses, barren intervals and fossiliferous horizons, tectonic activity,
and climate changes inferred from clay mineralogy and fossil assemblages in the Maastrichtianlower Paleocene (Dakhla
Formation) of the Western Desert. The hiatuses are largely correlated with tectonic activity (Bahariya arch uplift) during
the late Maastrichtianearly Paleocene which we estimate to have been most active between 61 and 65.5 Ma, except for
the Bir Abu Minqar area where uplift began as early as 69 Ma. The coastal onlap curve of Haq et al. (1987) and Li
et al. (1999, 2000) shows major sea-level lowstands at 61.2, 64.5, 65.5, and 68 Ma, which were likely contributors to the
widespread erosion in the Western Desert. Climate changed from seasonally humid conditions in the earlyearly late
Maastrichtian to perennially humid conditions during the latest Maastrichtian and early Paleocene. Ages for Paleocene
zone boundaries are from Berggren et al. (1995) and for the Maastrichtian from Li & Keller (1998a, b; Li
et al., 1999).
barren of microfossils; only very rare macrofossils are

present (Figure 3). The upper boundary is within the
lower part of CF7 (G. gansseri; Figure 18). A tentative
age estimate for the Mawhoob Shale is about 1 m.y.
(7170 Ma). The Beris Mudstone Member is 80 m
thick and contains microfossils and macrofossils only
in the calcareous sand and siltstone beds (Figures 3,
4). Planktic foraminiferal assemblages of zones CF7,
CF6 and CF4 and nannofossil assemblages of zones
CC25a and CC25b are present and indicate an age of
about 67.570 Ma. This age estimate has at least a
0.5 m.y. uncertainty at the top and bottom because
the upper and lower boundaries of the Beris
Mudstone are within barren intervals of zones CF7
and CF4 (Figure 18).
The Lower Kharga Shale Member spans 55 m, has

very few macrofossils, and is generally barren of
microfossils, except for the top just below the Bir Abu
Minqar horizon. A late Maastrichtian age of about
65.5 Ma (CF3, CC26a; Figure 4) is indicated for the
top of the Lower Kharga Shale. A major hiatus
separates this unit from the overlying Bir Abu Minqar
horizon, which is of early Danian age, about 64.2
64.5 Ma, as indicated by the presence of planktic
foraminiferal zone Plc(l) and nannofossil zone NP2
(Figures 4, 18). A Danian age is also indicated by the
presence of Venericardia libyca (Kassab & Zakhira,
1995). We collected the lower 15 m of the Upper
Kharga Shale, which consist of shales that are
mostly barren of microfossils or macrofossils but
821
Figure 19. All illustrations are from the Gebel Gifata section. Scale bar represents about 2 m. (XPL, cross polarized light;
TL, transmitted light). A, B, Ahmuellerella octoradiata, sample DL181, Zone CC25b. A, XPL; B, TL. C, D,
Arkhangelskiella cymbiformis, sample DL113, Zone CC25b. C, XPL; D, TL. E, Braarudosphaera bigelowii, DK22, Zone
NP4, XPL. F, G, Chiastozygus amphipons, sample DL169, Zone CC25b. F, XPL; G, TL. H, Cribrosphaerella ehrenbergii,
sample 131, Zone CC25b, XPL. I, J, Eiellithus turriseielii, sample DL113, Zone CC25b. I, XPL; J, TL. K, L,
Lithraphidites carniolensis, sample DL196, Zone CC25a. K, XPL; L, TL. M, N, Lithraphidites quadratus, sample DL169,
Zone CC25b. M, 13: TL; N, XPL. O, P, Micula decussata, sample DL169, Zone CC25b. O, TL; P, XPL. Q, Micula
murus, sample DK1, Zone CC26a, XPL. R, S, Prediscosphaera cretacea, sample DL127, Zone CC25b. R, TL; S, XPL.
T, Prediscosphaera spinosa, sample DL169, Zone CC25b, XPL.
contain discrete horizons rich in microfossils spanning

planktic foraminiferal zones PlcPld and calcareous
nannofossil zones NP2NP4, 64.262 Ma (Figure
18).
10.3. Tectonic activity and sea-level changes

During the Late Cretaceous, the structural dierentiation of the Northeast African Plate increased, leading to the onset of the Red Sea rifting owing to the
822
Figure 20. All illustrations from the Gebel Gifata section. Scale bar represents about 2 m. (XPL, cross polarized light; TL,
transmitted light). A, Quadrum sissinghii, sample DL279, Zone CC23. XPL. B, Quadrum trifidum, sample DL279, Zone
CC23, XPL. C, D, Reinhardtites levis, sample DL276, Zone CC24, XPL. E, F, Rhagodiscus angustus, sample DL169,
Zone CC25b. E, TL; F, XPL. G, H, Podorhabdus decorus, sample 181, Zone CC25b. G, XPL; H, TL. I, J, Tranolithus
phacelosus, sample 169, Zone CC25b. I, TL; J, XPL. K, Thoracosphaera sp., sample DL195, Zone CC25a, XPL. L,
Vekshinella stradneri, sample DL131, Zone CC25b, XPL. M, Watznaueria barnesae, sample DL167, Zone CC25b, XPL.
N, O, Zygodiscus sigmoides, sample DK20, Zone NP4. N, XPL; O, TL. P, Cruciplacolithus primus, sample DK8, Zone
NP2, XPL. Q, Coccolithus pelagicus, sample DK20, Zone NP4, XPL. R, Cruciplacolithus tenuis, sample DK22, Zone NP4,
XPL. S, Cruciplacolithus edwardsii, sample DK22, Zone NP4, XPL. T, Chiasomolithus danicus, sample DK22, Zone NP4,
XPL.
progressive uplift in the southern part of Egypt and a

dextral strike-slip fault along the pre-existing ENE
striking faults (Klitzsch, 1986). This tectonic activity
reactivated the subsidence of the Paleozoic Dakhla
Basin and uplift of the Kharga-Aswan Platform. In
the Western Desert of Egypt, a NNWSSE-trending
relief dominated both sediment deposition and
basin development during the Late Cretaceous
according to Klitzsch & Wycisk (1987). Beginning
in the Campanian and accelerating in the early
Maastrichtian, sediment deposition was associated
primarily with the Gilf El Kebir spur to the southwest
of Dakhla, and the Bahariya arch that ends near
the Farafra Oasis (Barthel & Hermann-Degen,
1981). The Gilf El Kebir spur acted as a source of
clastic material throughout the Maastrichtian and
Paleocene.
The variable depositional rates recorded for the
lower and middle Maastrichtian in the Dakhla
Formation of the Western Desert, and particularly in
Gebel Gifata zones CF7 (8.7 cm/1000 yr) and CF4
(0.6 cm/1000 yr), strongly suggest that the depositional environment was controlled by regional
tectonic activity, as well as sea-level fluctuations.
Tectonic activity is indicated by peak clastic (sand)
deposition during the early Maastrichtian zones CF6
and CF7, beginning just above the Exogyra overwegi
marker horizon at Gebel Gifata (Figures 3, 9, 18), and
maximum sediment deposition also occurred in the
Northwest Qur El Malik area (=Ammonite Hills
section of Barthel & Hermann-Degen, 1981; Figure
11), which points to a primary source from the
southwest. There is significant lateral variation in
sediment thickness and erosion in zones CF7CF4
from Gebel Gifata to Bir Abu Minqar (Figures 1, 18)
that may be linked to tectonic activity. The maximum
sediment deposition at Gebel Gifata indicates that this
locality was probably deposited at the centre of a
subsiding Dakhla depression (Barthel & HermannDegen, 1981; Hendriks et al., 1984, 1987). In contrast, decreased sediment deposition (and increased
erosion) during this interval towards the northwest
most likely reflects localized uplifts (e.g., Gilf El
Kebir).
Minimum sediment deposition as a result of major
erosion occurred during the late Maastrichtianearly
Paleocene (Figure 18), with Gebel Gifata continuing
to receive the highest sediment influx (Figure 1).
Erosion at Gebel Gifata spans the early Danian zone
Plc through the late Maastrichtian zones CF12
(c. 64.565.5 Ma), and increased to the northwest,
reaching a maximum at Bir Abu Minqar (hiatus from
CF2 to CF6, c. 6169 Ma, Figure 18). A major hiatus
spanning zones CF2CF3 (c. 6165.5 Ma) is also
823
present in the Farafra area where sediment deposition

occurred in a deeper middle to outer neritic environment, and a hiatus of similar magnitude was identified
at the nearby Ain El Khadra section by Ibrahim &
Abdel-Kireem (1997). The widespread erosion during
the late Maastrichtian in the Western Desert is generally attributed to uplift of the Bahariya arch (Said,
1961; Abdel-Kireem & Samir, 1995; Galal, 1995;
Abdel-Kireem et al., 1996; Ibrahim & Abdel Kireem,
1997) within the Syrian arc system (Almogi-Labin
et al., 1990). Our study suggests that localized uplift
in the Bir Abu Minqar area may have continued
through the middle and late Maastrichtian, whereas
at other localities uplift and erosion was restricted
to the late Maastrichtian beginning about 66 Ma
(Figure 18).
Although tectonic activity contributed to erosion in
the Western Desert, major eustatic sea-level changes
may have been the primary controlling factors for widespread erosion and hiatuses. This is indicated by the
coincidence of hiatuses with known eustatic sea-level
changes detailed by Haq et al. (1987) and Li et al.
(1999). In addition, a study of Tunisian sections
has revealed major sea-level fluctuations from the
Maastrichtian through the early Paleocene (Li et al.,
1999, 2000), with many of the sea-level lowstands
correlative with the coastal onlap curve of Haq et al.
(1987). Major eustatic sea-level regressions occurred
at about 61.2 and 64.5 Ma in the Danian, at 65.5, 67
and 68 Ma in the late Maastrichtian, and at 71 Ma at
or near the Campanian/Maastrichtian boundary, as
also observed in the Western Desert of Egypt (Figure
18). Additional smaller scale sea-level fluctuations
occurred in the early Danian and caused widespread
erosion at the P0/Pla, Pla/Plb and Plb/Plc boundaries
(MacLeod & Keller, 1991; Keller & Stinnesbeck,
1996; Keller et al., 1998). It is likely that major
sea-level regressions were primarily responsible for
the widespread erosion in the Western Desert,
though local tectonic activity may have significantly
contributed to local erosion and sediment deposition
patterns.
11. Conclusions
1. Application of integrated biostratigraphies based
on planktic foraminifera, calcareous nannofossils and
macrofossils yields higher resolution age control
than obtained previously for the Maastrichtianearly
Paleocene Dakhla Formation of the Western Desert,
Egypt. Age estimates for the Dakhla Formation and its
members based on the type section at Gebel Gifata are
as follows: (a) Dakhla Formation base: c. 71 Ma, base
of planktic foraminiferal (PF) zone CF8b and lower
824
part of calcareous nannofossil (CN) zone CC23b, at

the Duwi/Dakhla contact (El Hindawi locality); (b)
Mawhoob Shale Member: c. 7170 Ma, base of
PF zone CF8b to upper CF7, lower part of CN
zone CC23b to upper CC25a; (c) Beris Mudstone
Member: c. 7067.5 Ma, upper PF zone CF7 to
middle CF4 and upper CN zone CC25a to upper
CC25b; (d) Lower Kharga Shale: c. 67.565.5 Ma,
middle PF zone CF4 to upper P1b, and upper CN
zone CC25b to upper NP1; (e) Bir Abu Minqar
Horizon: c. 64.564.2 Ma, PF zone Plc(l) and CN
zone NP2; (f) base of Upper Kharga Shale:
c. 64.2 Ma, base of PF zone Plc(2) and CN zone NP3.
2. Major depositional hiatuses span the upper
Maastrichtian through lower Paleocene in all sections
examined, though erosion generally increased from
Gebel Gifata and North El Qasr (c. 64.565.5 Ma)
to Bir Abu Minqar (c. 61.269 Ma). A major hiatus
(c. 61.265.5 Ma) is also present in deposits
of the deeper open marine environment in the
Farafra area. These hiatuses appear to be linked
primarily to major sea-level regressions and secondarily to regional tectonic activity (Bahariya arch
uplift).
3. Variable sedimentation rates for the lower and
middle Maastrichtian Dakhla Formation at Gebel
Gifata PF zones CF7 (8.7 cm/1000 yr) and CF4
(0.6 cm/1000 yr), and lateral variation in sediment
thickness suggest that the sediment deposition was
strongly influenced by regional tectonic activity,
including the uplift of the Gilf El Kebir Spur and
subsidence of the Dakhla Basin.
4. Sediment deposition was predominantly cyclical,
consisting of alternating shales and calcareous sandstones that are characterized by significant dierences in clay mineralogies, geochemistry and fossil
contents. In each cycle, the dark silty shales are
generally barren of microfossils and represent deposition during sea-level highstands in restricted inner
neritic to lagoonal environments characterized by
euryhaline, dysaerobic or low oxygen conditions
probably related to stagnating seas. The overlying
fossiliferous calcareous sandstones reflect highenergy conditions during sea-level lowstand periods.
The glauconitic silty shales overlying the sandstones
represent periods of condensed sedimentation with
influxes of terrestrial organic matter during maximum flooding, followed by deposition of dark
muds (forming shales) during sea-level highstand
periods.
5. Climatic conditions inferred from clay mineralogy and fossils indicate a tropical to subtropical
environment characterized by seasonally humid conditions during the early to middle Maastrichtian.
Perennially humid conditions prevailed during the

latest Maastrichtian and early Paleocene with Nypa
palm mangroves in tropical swamps, estuaries and
tidal shores.
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge discussions with Jerry
Baum and Karl Follmi, as well as comments and
suggestions by two anonymous reviewers. This
publication was sponsored by the US-Egypt Science
and Technology Joint Fund in cooperation with
NSF and NRC under Project OTH2-008-001-98,
NSF INT-9811030 (AT and GK), Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft DFG grant Sti 128/4-1
(WS) and the Swiss National Science Fund No.
8220-02837 (TA).
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Cretaceous Research (2001) 22, 795827

doi:10.1006/cres.2001.0291, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on

Maastrichtian to Paleocene depositional

K W: Maastrichtian; K/T; mineralogy; sedimentology; biostratigraphy; Western Desert; Egypt.

Corresponding author: gkeller@princeton.edu

interest due to the phosphate-rich deposits of the

the interval between the Duwi Formation of late

the Cenomanian deposits of the Bahariya Formation

Maastrichtian to Paleocene palaeoenvironment, Western Desert, Egypt

biostratigraphies; (3) geochemically evaluate the

bioturbation, erosion surfaces and hardgrounds.

Maastrichtian to Paleocene palaeoenvironment, Western Desert, Egypt

Isocardia chargensis limestone and subsequently by

the northwest, the Lower Kharga Shales abruptly

Maastrichtian to Paleocene palaeoenvironment, Western Desert, Egypt

Figure 5. Photograph of the upper Maastrichtian Beris

shark teeth and interior moulds of gastropods (Figure

nite in a marine environment. This glauconite layer

Maastrichtian to Paleocene palaeoenvironment, Western Desert, Egypt

Cretaceous zones are based on foraminiferal datum

Macrofossils are generally scarce in Maastrichtian

Maastrichtian to Paleocene palaeoenvironment, Western Desert, Egypt

phosphatic sandstone and micritic limestone that

Zone (CF8) and near the FA of Rugoglobigerina

Maastrichtian to Paleocene palaeoenvironment, Western Desert, Egypt

thus place this stage boundary at the top of the

zone CF7 and the calcareous nannofossil zone CC24

Maastrichtian to Paleocene palaeoenvironment, Western Desert, Egypt

Keller 1998a). Li et al. (1999) used the FAD of R.

6.5. Upper Maastrichtian

sand and very abundant benthic foraminifera (c. 95%

Maastrichtian to Paleocene palaeoenvironment, Western Desert, Egypt

In the upper part of the Beris Mudstone Member at

presence of R. plummerae, which disappeared within

Maastrichtian to Paleocene palaeoenvironment, Western Desert, Egypt

deposition in a neritic environment. In addition,

Strong erosion during the Danian is also evidenced

mica (010%). The constant presence of smectite

Maastrichtian to Paleocene palaeoenvironment, Western Desert, Egypt

respectively). In general, kaolinite is more abundant in

shore conditions (Chamley, 1989; Chamley et al.,

Maastrichtian to Paleocene palaeoenvironment, Western Desert, Egypt

and goethite grains or coatings are frequently present,

indicated by the low hydrogen index (HI) (30

metamorphic) fluor apatite and residual phases,

9. Sequence stratigraphy of cycles

Maastrichtian to Paleocene palaeoenvironment, Western Desert, Egypt

Above this erosive contact, the lower part of the

necessarily at the same stratigraphic levels. In most

barren of microfossils; only very rare macrofossils are

The Lower Kharga Shale Member spans 55 m, has

Maastrichtian to Paleocene palaeoenvironment, Western Desert, Egypt

contain discrete horizons rich in microfossils spanning

10.3. Tectonic activity and sea-level changes

Maastrichtian to Paleocene palaeoenvironment, Western Desert, Egypt

progressive uplift in the southern part of Egypt and a

present in the Farafra area where sediment deposition

part of calcareous nannofossil (CN) zone CC23b, at

Perennially humid conditions prevailed during the

Maastrichtian to Paleocene palaeoenvironment, Western Desert, Egypt

Galal, G. M. I. 1995. Paleoecology of microfossils and facies geology in

Kassab, A. S. & Zakhira, M. S. 1995. Maastrichtian and Paleocene