Conservation Equations and the Fundamentals of Heat and Mass

Transfer
1. Transport model, consists of two major parts, governing equations PDE
and the constitutive equation.
ut + f x = f ( x, t , u )

2. Constitutive equation

f x = Duxx

, relate diffusion flux to local

material properties
3. Governing equations

ut + f x = f ( x, t , u )

is the mathematics form of

conservation equation and has universal form.

4. Conservation of equation is a balance equation, relate rate of
accumulation of the quantity to the quantity of it enters or is formed
5. Constitutive equation are empirical and material specific
ut + f x = f ( x, t , u )
6. Governing equations
are derived based on the concept
of control volume.
V (t ), S ( t )

7. Control volume can vary in shape and size

mean volume and

bounding surface changing with time

Fluid velocity v ( r , t )
CV velocity vs ( r , t )
Velocity in ref to CV , v - vs

8.

Velocity in ref to CV parallel of CV , ( v - vs ) .n

CV velocity vs ( r , t ) = 0

9. Fixed Control volume means

b ( r , t ) = amount / volume
BV ( r , t ) = rate of formation / volume
10.
11.Rate of accumulation of quantity per CV= net flux per surface + rate of
formation per CV

d
b dV =dt
V

F .n dS + B dV
v

12.
13.Once these integrations are done , it is function of time
14. Rate of change of concentration

db
, INTEGRATE over CV , meaning averagethe whole volume, independent of spatial var iable
dt
1 db
dV
V
dt
V
so it is natural the equation b is over volume,

mol
volume

15.A moving control volume which is translating, rotating and deforming.

vs =
/ 0

, it only effect flux (does not influence rate of formation) ,

therefore rate of accumulation=flux in respect to (v-vs)

16. Surface motion leads to additions flux relative to the surface.
17. If the motion is translating the velocity respect to CV, is +ve
parallel vs is same direction

18.Flux unit

kg
m2 s

vs .n dS
vs .n dS

as

d
b dV =dt
V

F .n dS + B dV + bv .n dS
v

+ bvs .n dS is positive as always follow n direction

S

d
b dV =
dt
V

dV +

{
V

.bv

dV
14444244443
s

rateof changeconcentration / volume

flux duetomoving CV

b( X , t )
b

t dV =- F .n dS + B dV
v

19.
20.For interface problems

d
b

bA dV = A dV + bAvs .n dS + bAvI .n dS

dt V
t
V
S
S
material derivative dueto rateof change + Flux dueto vs and vI

d
bB
bB dV =
dV + bB vs .n dS - bB vI .n dS

dt V
t
V
S
S

d
b
b dV = dV + b vs .n dS + ( bA - bB ) vs .n dS

dt V
t
V
S
S
as I moves space B bigger concentration reduces -

bv .n dS
I

n is anywhere pt outsidetheCVany condition

b
t dV + bvs .n dS + ( bA - bB ) vs .n dS =- F .n dS + BV dV + bvs .n dS
S
S
S
V 4244444444444444
S
1V444444444444444444
2444444444444444444
3 144444444444444
43
Outer regiondoes effected by vI

Outer region does not effected by vI

Inner working = As a whole

b
t dV + ( bA - bB ) vs .n dS =- F .n dS + BV dV
S 24444444444443 144444444
S
V
1V444444444444
4244444444
43
Outer regiondoes effected by v I

Outer region does not effected byvI

21.Inner working = big picture

22.Conservation equations valid at a given point in a continuum obtained
from control volume

V 0

is zero
23.CV reduced to a point.

as we want a given pt where a point volume

d
b dV =dt
V

F .n dS + B dV

d
b dV =dt
V

.F dV + B dV

db

dt +.F -

BV dV = 0

db
+ .F - BV V = 0
dt
V abritatry
db
+ .F - BV = 0
dt

24.

bA

dbA

dt dV = t dV + b v .n

dS + bAvI .nI dS =- FbA .na dS -

.n dS + bAvs .na dS + BAV dV + BAS dS

dbB
bB
dV
=
dt t dV + bBvs .nb dS - bBvI .nI dS =- FbB .nbdS V
V
V
V

.n dS + bBvs .nb dS + BBV dV + BBS dS

A s a

db

dt dV = t dV + bv .n dS + (b - b )v .n
s

t dV + (b - b )v .n
A

I I

dS =- Fa .na dS -

I I

dS =- Fa .na dS -

I I

dS =+ Fa .nI dS -

b b

I I

dS = Fa .nI dS -

( - Fa + avI ) .nI +( Fb - bvI ) .nI = BS

( Fb - bvI ) .nI - ( Fa - avI ) .nI = BS

F .n dS + B dS
b I

F .n dS + B dS
b I

bB E bB E

F .n dS - F .n dS + bv .n dS + B dV + B dS
b b

E E

E E

- na = nb = nI (SUPERIMPORTANT )

(b - b )v .n

F .n dS - F .n dS + B dV + B dS

b
Asl 0 dV = BV dV = 0,Vs vanishes, E vansihes
t
V
V

(b - b )v .n

bA E bA E

Fb - bvI

25.
, flux relative to surface
26.This derivation ignore interfacial accumulation
27.Total flux as expressed as convective and diffusion contribution.
Convective transport occurs when a constituent of the fluid (mass,
energy, a component in a mixture) is carried along with the fluid. The
amount carried past a plane of unit area perpendicular to the velocity
(the flux) is the product of the velocity and the (concentration or
quantity) /volume
b
+.F - BV = 0
t
say b = r
b
+.(r v + f ) = 0
t
no net mass flow, no flux due to diffusion
b
+.(r v) = 0 ( continuity equation )
t
r .(v) = 0

28.

.(v) = 0
no net mass flow, no flux dueto diffusion but got convection

29.
30.EG in membrane both same concentration therefore no gradient la
31.Diffusion due to gradient
32.Conservation of energy :Thermal Effects
i)
Energy equation relate to thermal effect, total derivative is taken as
not, but also can be broken down to the partial derivative with
ii)

material derivative
Energy equation must be satisfy at the boundaries between pure
material, but mutually insoluble

db
=- f + BV
dt
b = r C pT
f =q
BV = HV
dT
r C p
=- q + HV = k 2 q + HV
dt
q =- k T
HV = external power sources

iii)

kg .m 2
HV SI unit is 2 2
ms

( - Fa + avI ) .nI +( Fb - bvI ) .nI = BS

( fb + b ( v - vI ) ) .nI - ( f a + a ( v - vI ) ) .n = BS
14444444444444444244444444444444443
Simply means flux

( qb ) .nI - ( qa ) .nI = H S
HS = 0

iv)
v)

( qb ) .nI I = ( qa ) .n
( qnb ) = ( qna )

At contact point

T1 = T2

, at interface, meaning there is change

of temperature but same rate, no gradient but got convection, no

net change. Thermal equilibrium but heat flux is not zero, no
diffusion but due to convection or conduction
( qnb ) = h ( Tb - Ta ) = ( qna ) , b > a
vi)

Convection Boundary Condition

a) Fouriers law assume conduction heat transfer normal to the
interface
b) Assume phase 1 is solid and phase 2 is liquid

- k ( n T ) 1 = h ( T2 - TB )
14444244443 144424443
Solid

Liquid

T
- k
= h ( T - TB )

3
n
1 144422444
1444244
43
Liquid
Solid

c)
d) Summing of flux (integrate)=h(T-T)
e) Phase change
i)
Melting and evaporation bulk flow across a phase so
interfacial

( qnb ) = ( qna )

cant be used. Diffusion is zero

bulk flow not due to diffusion but convection. Bulk flow

is convection .
( Fb - bvI ) .nI - ( Fa - avI ) .nI = BS
( bv1 - bvI ) .nI - ( bv2 - avI ) .nI = BS
Assume BS = 0
b1 ( v1 - vI ) .nI = b2 ( v2 - vI ) .nI

ii)
iii)

b1 ( v1n - vIn ) = b2 ( v2 n - vIn )

,

say phase change leads to

bulk flow meaning convection not diffusion

Density different as phase 1 and phase 2 has different
densities

1 T 1 2T
T
T
v T
T
2T

+ HV
+ vr
+ q
+ vz
=a
r
+
+

2
2
2

t
r
r q
z
z r C p
r r r r q
Steady state =

T
=0
t

T
= 0 at r = 0
r
T
Convection
=r
1 T 1

a
r
+

r r

r2

h
(T - T ) at r = R
k
2T
2T
=- HV
+
2
q
z 2
rCp

qdue to symmetry can be cancel

z long can be neglected
1 T
HV
HV

= r
=

r
ar C p
k
r r
T
HV

= r
r

r
k

HV 2
T
=r +A
r
2k

T
= 0 at r = 0 A = 0
r
HV
T
=r
r
2k
HV 2
T =r +B
4k
Assume at surface
HV
HV 2
h
R =(R + B - T )
2k
k
4k
HV
h HV 2
h
h
R=
R B + T
2k
k 4k
k
k
h
h HV 2
HV
h
B=
R +
R + T
k
k 4k
2k
k
HV 2
HV
B=
R +
R + T
4k
2h
HV 2
r +B
4k
HV 2
H
H
T =r + V R 2 + V R +T
4k
4k
2h
HV 2
HV 2
H
T - T =
R r + V R
4k
4k
2h
2
2
H R
r HV

T - T = V
+
R
1
2h
4k
R2

T =-

vii)

T - T =

q=

HV R 2
r 2 HV

+
R
1- 2

2h
4k
R

T - T
r
hR
, h = , Bi =
Tc - T
R
k

viii)

Scaling and Approximation Technique

1. Simplification and obtaining approximate solutions
2. Simplification is the concept of scales, become dimensionless. Key to
simplification is by concept of scales
q=

3.

T1 - T2
= ( scaled var iable)
Ts

D T = Ts = scale ( max order of magnitude respect of T1 - T2 )

h=

4. Scale of a variable

r
3
= = 0.3 < h < 3 : 1
R 10

scaled variable =dimension

variable/scale
5. Steady or not steady states depend on time scales.
6. Scaling determine order of the unknown variable magnitude
7. Similarity method, perturbation method (small parameter).
: means order of magnitude

8.
9. Scaled variable

i)

Mathematics form in dimensionless, minimizing number of

variables and parameters. From many to two variables , to Bi and

HV R 2
r2

T - T =
1- 2

4k
R

(dependent ) q =

T - T
r
r
, (independent ) h = =
Ts
Rs R

HV R 2
k
Rs = R

Ts =

H R
dT Ts
:
: V
dr
Rs
k
d 2T HV
:
dr 2
k
1
q = ( 1- h2 )
4
T - T
T - T
q=
q( 1 = R ) =
= 0, q( 1) = 0
Ts
Ts

ii)

Independent and dependent variables are order of one during

iii)

scaling.
Magnitude various terms in an equation revealed by dimensionless

iv)
v)
vi)

parameter.
Length and time scales are called characteristic length and time.
Dimensionless variables also have scales in pure numbers.
How about scales of derivatives.
q : 1, h : 1,

vii)

dq
d 2q
: 1, 2 : 1
dh
d h

df
Df
:
dx D x
Df
- 0 Df
d2 f
Dx
:
= 2
dx 2
Dx
D x
dT D Ts
:
dr D hs
d 2T
:
dr 2

D Ts

viii)
ix)

D hs
D hs

- 0

DT
D 2hs

Physical meaning of
temperature
T - T =

HV R 2
r2

1- 2

4k
R

T - T
r
r
, (independent ) h = =
Ts
Rs R

HV R 2
k
Rs = R

Ts =

T
HV R
dT
: s :
dr
Rs
k
HV
d 2T
:
2
dr
k

x)

maximum order of magnitude of

T1 - T2

(dependent ) q =

q=

DT

1
1- h2 )
(
4

dq
h
=- ,
dh
2

d 2q
1
=2
dh
2

k d
dT

+ HV = 0
dr
r dr
dT
( 0) = 0
dr
T ( R ) = T
q=

T - T
T = qTs + T
Ts

h=

r
r = hR
R

k d
dT

+ HV = 0

r dr dr
d ( qTs +T
k
d

d ( hR )
( hR ) d ( hR )

+ HV = 0

d ( q)
kTs
d

h
+ HV = 0

d
h
d
h
(
)
h
R
(
)

d ( q)
HV R 2
1 d

h
+
=0

kTs
( h) d h
d ( h)
Ts =

HV R 2
k

d ( q)
HV R 2
1 d

h
+
=0

d
h
kT
( h) d h
(
)

s
xi)

k d
dT

+ HV = 0
dr
r dr
d
dT
r

r
=- HV

dr
dr
k
dT

r2

r
=HV + A

dr

2k
dT
as
( 0) = 0 A = 0
dr
dT
rHV

dr
2k
r 2 HV
+B
4k
T ( R ) = T
T =-

r 2 HV R 2 HV
T - T =+
4k
4k
H
T - T = V ( R 2 - r 2 )
4k
H R2 r 2

T - T = V
1- 2

4k
R
T - T

q=

r2
1

=
1- 2
q = ( 1- h2 )

HV R
4
R
4k

T - T

HV R
4k

h=

r
R

xii) Reduction of dimensionality

xiii)
a) Symmetry
(r , z ) instead of ( x, y, z )

i)
ii)

Symmetry can be exploited

A strategy exclusion of any spatial variable which is not
required by the conservation equation or interfacial

iii)

conditions.
In cylindrical form , temperature only depend on any
variable other than r, theta= 0 due to symmetry and z is

ignored due to long path of diffusion

b) Aspect ratio
i)
Aspect ratio is ratio of two linear dimension length/width
ii)
iii)

T
=0
y

If insulated
If has short diffusion path it is significant

xiv)
Equating conduction on the solid side of the Interfaceto convective
-k

T
= h ( Ts - T )
n s

T
= n.
n
- k ( n. T ) s = h ( Ts - T )
Tc - Ts
T
:
n s L ( half width)
Biot number =

T - Ts
hL solid resist
=
= c
k
fluid resist Ts - T

Tc > Ts>

as heat transfer from solid to surface

Biot number =

hL solid resist Tc - Ts
=
=
k
fluid resist Ts - T

xv)

the ratio of the temperature

differences indicates the relative thermal resistances. For large Bi,
Ts T

fluid is isothermal and

xvi) The Biot number (Bi) is a dimensionless quantity used in heat
transfer calculations. It is named after the French physicist JeanBaptiste Biot (17741862), and gives a simple index of the ratio of
the heat transfer resistances inside of and at the surface of a body.
xvii) Small Biot, the fluid resistance dominates and solid is nearly
isothermal, spatial variation is absence and 3D to zero
dimensional, we can use lumped model instead of distributed
model.
d
b dV =dt
V

q.n dS + B dV
v

q.n dS + = B dV
v

hS ( Ts - T ) = BvV

xviii)
xix) Consider steady state transfer from an extended surface or fin to
the surrounding air
xx)

Base fin is at

ratio
Bi =

L
? 1
W

T0

and ambient temperature is

. Length to width

, y big enough to be not significant assume T(x,z)

hw
Inside body resist
=
=1
k
Outside body resist

2T 2T
+
=0
x 2 z 2
B.C
T ( x, 0) = T0
dT
dx
Convection = h ( T - T )
Conduction =- k

-k

T
( x, L) = h ( T ( x, L) - T
z

T
( 0, z ) = 0
x
T
-k
( W , z ) = h ( T ( W , z ) - T
x

Biot =

)
x direction
644444
4
4744444448
T ( 0, z ) - T ( W , z )

inside resist of body

=
outside resist of body
T ( W , z ) - T

hw
=1
k

T ( 0, z ) - T ( W , z ) , small x direction temp field small impact

Given temp field T = T ( z )
T ( z) =

1
W

xxi)
T ( z) =

xxii)

1
W

T ( x, z ) dx
0

T ( x, z ) dx
0

meaning the average temperature of x field of

the x,z fields is equal to average T(z), approximation, summing the

T ( z)

x field and average it so it absorb into

L W

xxiii)

1
T=
T ( x, z ) dxdz
WL
0 0

average value .

2T 2T
+
=0
x 2 z 2
B.C
T ( x, 0) = T0
dT
dx
Convection = h ( T - T )
Conduction =- k

-k

T
( x, L) = h ( T ( x, L) - T
z

T
( 0, z ) = 0
x
T
-k
( W , z ) = h ( T ( W , z ) - T
x
1
W

2T ( x, z )
1 T ( z )
x 2 dx = W x
o

1
W

2T
2 1
z 2 dx = z 2 W
o

)
W

=0

h
( T ( z ) - T
kW

2T ( z )
T ( x, z )dx = z 2
o
W

2T ( z )
h
( T ( z ) - T ) = 0
2
z
kW
T ( 0) = T0 - k

xxiv)

T
( L) = h ( T ( L) - T
z

2T ( z )
z

h
( T ( z ) - T ) = 0
kW

T ( 0) = T0 - k

q=

T ( z ) - T
TS

T
( L) = h ( T ( L) - T
z
h=

z
hW
Bi =
W
k

TS 2q
Bi
- TS 2 = 0
2
2
W ( h)
W
2 q
( h)

- Bi ( q) = 0

xxv) Simplification Based On Time Scales

1) Temperature or concentration is perturbated at some location
finite time needed so that the effect can be noticed at a distant
from original source of disturbance .
2) Stagnant medium time involved is the characteristics time
3) Characteristics time is essential for diffusion and conduction as
time is needed for diffusion and conduction
4) Characteristic time key factor determining diffusion or
conduction model
5) Fast response use steady state or pseudo steady
6) Slow response model as infinite or semifinite, effect of one or
more boundaries never felt on the time scales

7)
xxvi) For small t , concentration changes from x=0, spread only fraction
the membrane thickness
xxvii) Example 3.4.1
Suppose V is very l arg e ( outer component ) , enough sup ply not to chnage concentration
For small time scale ( d = L )
C ( 0, t ) = KCo
C ( , t) = 0
Co does not change, meaning first principle breakdown
if t , ( d = L ) is false

xxviii) The similarity method is a technique , PDE into ODE

xxix) Regular Perturbation
C
2 C
=D 2
t
t
C ( x, 0) = 0
C ( 0, t ) = KC1 ( t )
C ( L, t ) = KC2 ( t )
Varible and const ( x, t , D, C , KC1 , KC2 )
q=

C
x2
x
, h=
=
KC0
Dt
4 Dt

x
C

=f

= f ( z )

KC0
4 Dt
xKC0
C
q
= KC0
= KC0 zt f ' =f'
t
t
2 4 Dt 3

q=

zt =-

x
2 4 Dt 3

Singular perturbation method

1 d
dT
rk ( t )
+ HV ( T ) = 0

r dr
dr

k = k
1 + a ( T - T )

HV = H
1 + a ( T - T )
hR
Bi =
? 1 Physical meaning Ts = T , solid resist high no transfer of heat
k
h=

r
T - T
T - T
, q=
=
, e = aH R 2 / k = aTS
2
R
H R / k
TS

dq
hRk
+ H

1
+
a
T
T
T
1 + a ( T - T )
(
)
S

= 0

d
h
R
(
)

1
d
hRk 1 + a ( qTS ) TS d q + H 1 + a ( qT ) = 0

d ( hR )

hR 2 d ( h)

1
d
hk 1 +( e) TS d q + H 1 +( e) = 0

d ( h)

hR 2 d ( h)

1 d
h 1 +( e) TS d q =- H R 1 +( e)

d ( h)

h d ( h)
k

1 d
h 1 +( e) T d q =- T 1 +( e)
S

S d ( h)

h d ( h)

1 d
h 1 +( e) d q + 1 +( e) = 0

d ( h)

h d ( h)

1
d
hR d ( hR )

dq
( 0) = 0
dh
T- T
T - T
q( 1) = 1 = 1
=0
TS
TS


d q

0 + e d q1
h
+

1
+
eq
1 +( eq0 )
(
)

= 0

d
h
d
h
(
)
(
)

d q
1 d
0
h
+1 = 0

d h
h d ( h)

( )
1 d
h d ( h)

0 ( e)
for q1
1 d
h d ( h)

dq

d q1

0
h
+ q = 0

q
+

d
h
d
h
(
)
(
)

Solution Method for Conduction and Diffusion Problems

1) Finite Fourier Transform (FFT), expanding the solution in term of a set of
known functions. Basis function and then determining the unknown
2)
3)
4)
5)

coefficients in the expansion.

FFT to PDE reduces spatial variable until only a two point BV or IV
FFT is basically equivalent to separation of variables
Point source solutions of DE (Greens functions) to solve linear problem
One spatial dimension be finite, Greens functions used in unbounded
domain

q = q( r , t ) , field var temperature or concentration

L be differential operator
L [ q] = S ( r )
L [ a1q1 + a2q2 ] = a1 Lq1 + a2 Lq2 ( Linear properties )
C
= D 2C - KC
t

L =
- D 2 + K

- D 2 + K

C = 0

q= C
Linear the unknown function cant be square or multiple together

6)
2 q 2 q
+
= 0 ( Laplace)
x 2 y 2
q( 0, y ) = 0
q( 1, y ) = 0
q( x, 0) = f 0 ( x)
q( x,1) = f1 ( x)
Assume the series Expansion

q( x, y ) = CnF n ( x) ( 2 functions each with one spatial var )

n=1

F n ( x ) = 2 sin ( npx ) , n = 1, 2,...

{

Basis function

Satisfactory of basis function with BC for x coordinate

F n ( 0) = 2 sin ( np0) = 0
{

Basis function

F n ( 1) = 2 sin ( np) = 0
{

Basis function

7)

qn ( y ) = F n ( x )q( x, y ) dx ( FFT )
0

1
1

2q 2q
2 q
2q

qn ( y ) = F n ( x ) 2 + 2
dx = F n ( x ) 2 dx + F n ( x) 2 dx

y
x
y
x

( x)

dx = 2
2
y
y

2q
q
F
(
x
)
n x 2 dx = F n x 0 0
u =F n v =
u'=

F n
x

( x )qdx =

qn
y 2

F n q
dx
x x

q
x

v'=

2 q
x 2

F ( 0/1) =0
BC vanish 0
447448
644
474448 6
1
1
1
F n q
F n
2F n
q
q
q
F n ( x) x 2 dx = F n x 0 - x x dx =F n x 0 - q x 0 + q x 2 dx
0
0
0
1

F n
v =q
x
2F n
2q
u'=
v
'
=
x 2
x 2
u=

F n ( x)
0

2F n
2q
2
2
dx
=
q
dx = ( np) qF n dx =- ( np) qn
2
2

x
x
0
0

F n ( x ) = 2 sin ( npx )
{

Basis function

F n
= 2np cos ( npx )
x
2F n
2
2
=- 2 ( np) sin ( npx ) =- ( np) F n
2
x

8)

 2q 2q
+
=0
x 2 y 2
2qn
2
- ( np) qn = 0
2
y

9)

Fundamental of Fluid Mechanics

1. Linear momentum of a rigid body of mass m and translational velocity
(center-of mass) velocity is mv
dv d ( mv )
F = ma = m

2.

dt

dt

, second law of newton , is rate of change of

momentum , where the body is of constant mass, this velocity is a center

of mass velocity How about the local velocity?
3. F is the net force acting on the rigid body, force exerted on the body by the
surrounding
4. Think in perspective of the control volume not the fluid

d ( mv )
dV = F
dt

1
V

d ( r v)
dV = F
dt

Assume control surface flow with fluid , does not mean zero v = vS

d ( r v)
( r v)
( r v)
dV =
dV + vS .( r v ) dV =
dV + .( r vv ) dV
dt

t
V
V
V
1V444442444443
flux dueto movement of
CV =convection

( r v)
dV + .( r vv) dV = F + vS .( r v ) dV t
V
1V444442444443

v .( r v ) dV
V

flux dueto movement of

CV =convection

( r v)
dV + .( r vv) dV = F
t
1V444442444443
flux dueto movement of
CV =convection

( r v)
dV + .( r vv) dV = F
t
1V444442444443
flux dueto movement of
CV =convection

5.
6. Any mass crossing the CV carries a certain amount of momentum, by means
of convective transport
( r v)
dV + .( r vvS ) dV =
t

r v( v -

vs ) .n dS + {F
14444444
42444444443 diffusion
S

In respect of CV
convection

7.
8. The evaluation of forces

Fundamental of Fluid Mechanics

1) The linear momentum of constant solid mass m and translational velocity v,
is mv (Physical meaning: Linear momentum of a constant mass solid m
with center of mass velocity v is given by mv)

For a const mass body

dv d ( mv )
=
dt
dt
This v is center of mass,
we want to uselocal velocity
F = ma = m

2)

, net force is rate of change of momentum equal to

net force. m is a constant mass

(Physical meaning: F=ma is newtons second law for a constant mass m,
the rate of change of momentum which is F=mdv/dt is equal to the net
force exerted on the body by surrounding
:the velocity here refer to the center of mass velocity of a body and not
the velocity of the whole body, as accumulation of small bodies represent
the body)
3) Integral and differentiation form is helpful in fluids ((Physical meaning:
integral of the GE means taking the whole lot instead of focusing on a
single small body and taking the whole fluid instead)
Use local velocities instead of center of mass velocity
4) Control volume that has always contain the same mass of fluid (Physical
meaning: since F=ma ,involves is a constant mass , the CV has to
contain the same mass to satisfy the F=ma for a constant mass
condition)
5) If the surface bounding the CV assumed to deform with the flow

VS = V

(Physical meaning: no flux and will always contain same material

which means the bounding surface velocity is equal to local fluid
velocity, this CV is call material volume same material at all time )

F = r
V

if

1
V

dv
d
dV = r v dV ( purpose of this is to use local velocity ) = total momentum
dt
dt V

( const ) dV = const
V

To Express in INTERGRAL
if

1
V

( const ) dV = const
V

F =
V

6)

d ( r v)
d
dV = ( r v)dV ( material volume)
dt
dt V
,

r v concentration of linear momentum ( amout / volume)

,

7) purpose of integral so is respect to fluid velocity instead of mass velocity

due to summing , integral
8) Momentum in CV
d
r v dV = F
dt
V
Since vs = v , No Flux
Material derivative
( r v)
d
r v dV =
dV + .( r vv ) dV = F

dt V
t
( r v)
+ .( r vv) = F
t

a)
9) Momentum in a moving CV
d
r v dV =dt
V
a)
b)

r v ( v -

vs ) .n dS + F

(Physical meaning: the rate of change of momentum + the

convective loss is equal to net force acting on the rigid body, if v=vs,

10)

it is a material volume )
Evaluation of forces

F = mg = r Vg =

i)
ii)
iii)

1
V

rVg dV = r g dV

Body forces
Surface forces are pressure and viscous forces
Surface forces are described using s(n), force per unit area on surface
F = s ( n) dS

with a normal surface s(n)

d
r v dV = F dV = r g dV + s .n dS = r g dV + s dV
dt
V
F = F ( body ) + F ( surface)

iv)
v)

d
( r v) = r g + s
dt

Surface forces is contributed by pressure and viscous stress, if the

s =- Pd+ t
s ( static fluid ) =- Pd

vi)
vii)
viii)

fluid is at rest, viscous stress is zero,

P has the same meaning of thermodynamics pressure
P = P( r ,T )
P = P( T )
, incompressible fluid density is constant,
,
d
( r v) = r g + s = r g - P + t ( cauchy momentum)
dt

d
( r v) = r g + s = r g - P + t ( cauchy momentum)
dt
Fluid static v = t = 0
0 = r g - P
P = r g

ix)
11)

In static fluid
Constitutive equation relates material properties such strain to

viscosity

t = t ( G)
G= measurelocal rate of deformation of fluid
t = m 2 v

i)
12)

For Newtonian fluid

Dynamics pressure why use this , convenience, advantageous to

combine pressure and gravitational term in navier-stokes or Cauchy

momentum

= P - r g

is used incompressible fluid with known

boundaries
d
( r v) = r g + s = r g - P + t
dt
d
( r v) = r g + s = r g - P + m 2v
dt
d
( r v) = r g + s =- + m 2v
dt
= 0 for static fluid

13)
14)
i)
ii)

Nondimensionalization and simplification of navier stokes

Introducing length, time , velocity , and pressure scales
Characteristic L ,Ls ,Characteristic v ,vs
r % t
v

%=
, t = , v%= ,
L
t
U
P
2
2 2
%
%
Dimensionless operator = L , = L
U = max velocity
v
v
%v%= L

=
0,
(
why
),
= const

U
U
Dimensionless var r%=

iii)

d
( r v) =- + m 2 v
dt
r
t
v

%=
Dimensionless var r%= , %
t = , v%= ,
L
t
U
P
2
2
2
%
%
Dimensionless operator = L , = L
U = max velocity
v

d
( r v) = r + v v=- + m 2v

dt
t

( vU

%% mU 2
%)
% v%
=- P
%
%
r
+
vU

.
vU
+ 2
(
)
(
)
( %

t
t
L
L
)

U ( v%)

%% mU 2
2
% v%
=- P
%
%
r
+
vU

.
v
+ 2
(
)
(
)
t ( %

t
L
L
)

%%
L U ( v%)
2
%2 v%
=- P L
%
%
r
+
vU

.
v
+
(
)
(
)

%
mU
mU
t ( t )

%%
r L2 U ( v%) r L2
P
%2 v%
% 2 ) .( v%) =+
vU
+
(
%
mU t ( t ) mU
mU
%%
r L2 ( v%) r UL
%.( v%) =- P L
%2 v%
+
v%)
+
(
tm ( %
t)
m
mU

%%

U
L
r ( v%) r UL

%.( v%) =- P L
%2 v%

%
+
v

+
(
)

1 mt ( %
U
t)
m
mU

%%

U
L
r ( v%) r UL

%.( v%) =- P L
%2 v%

%
+
v

+
(
)

%
1
U
mt ( t )
m
mU

ULr

Re =

m
1/ St = L / U t

iv)
v)

%%
Re ( v%)
%.( v%) =- P L
%2 v%
+ Re ( v%)
+
St ( %
t)
mU

Steady flows

%% 2
Re ( v%)
%.( v%) =- P L
% v%
+ Re ( v%)
+
%
St ( t )
mU
Steady flow

( v%)
=0
( %
t)

%% 2
%.( v%) =- P L
% v%
Re v%
+
mU
%.( v%) , fluid acceleration , inertial term
%.( v%) = a%, or convectivetransport
Nonlinear velocity term v%
Re coefficents of viscous term
Re ? 1inertial term significant
Re = 1inertial term not significant
Extreme cases Re 0
%% 2
P L
% v%
0 =+
mU

0 =-

%% 2
P L
% v%
+
mU

%%, P L = 1, properly scaled

%%cant betoo big or small as q : 1
for small
mU
%%+
%2v%( viscous pressure scale ) - creeping flowlow Re
0 =-

a)

%2 v%

derived from viscous term

%%
%.( v%) =- P L
%2 v%
Re v%

+
mU
%%
%.( v%) =- P L
%2 v%
Re v%

+
mU
ULr
Re =
m
Re , mis extremely small , vis cos ity term can be neglected
%%
%.( v%) =- P L
Re v%

mU
Re must be kept for any value
= P - r g ( depend on velocity field )
%.( v%) =
%%
v%

%%cant be too big or small as q : 1

properly scaled

c)

1) Stream function
a) Solving incompressible fluid, only two non-vanishing
velocity components and two spatial coordinates are
involved.
b) Flow of planar character
c) For 2D described by rectangular coordinates

y
y
, v y =y
x
Why choose this ?
vx =

y y
=0
x y y x
vx

r
+
v

v
=+
m

vx
(
)

s
x

x
v y

r + vs ( v y )
=+ m 2v y

y
t

.v =

2 vx

2 vx

r
+ ( vs ( vx ) )
=+
m

xy
y
yt y

2 v y

v y

r
+
v

v
=+
m

( ( y ) ) xy

x
x

v y
vx v y

2 v x

r + r ( v ( vx ) ) v ( vy ) )
= m (

y x

t
x
y

y x

vx v y
y y
=
+
= 2y
y x y y x x

Dynamics Pressure;

1. Solving incompressible fluid flow with known

boundaries (no free surface i.e. Confined pipe)
advantageous to combine pressure and gravity term of
Navier -Stokes and Cauchy momentum equation using
dynamics pressure.
2. What advantage? solved without referring to the
gravitational term
3.

= P - r g

so that navier-stokes can be expressed as

Dv
=- + m 2 v
Dt

for static fluid r

Dv
=- + m 2 v r ( 0) =- + m 2 ( 0)
Dt

= 0

Unidirectional and Nearly Unidirectional Flow

1) Solutions are organized in term of number of direction and
dimensions
2) Characteristic of flow dimension and direction.
3) Number of direction refer to non-vanishing velocity term
(most crucial)
4) Unidirectional in cylindrical not in rectangular for Couette

5) Only unidirectional flow has exact solution (only one

nonzero velocity component)- Poiseuille Flow (driven by
pressure) in pipe one nonzero is

vz ( r )

steady flow due to

pressure flow , time dependent

6) Number of dimension refer to spatial coordinates
7) Steady or time dependent also crucial
8) Number of direction most crucial
9) Pressure driven flow in confined flow Poiseuille flow
10)
Entrance and edge effects
11)
Viscous flow nearly unidirectional
12)
Steady Flow with a Pressure Gradient
i) Fully developed , for an incompressible fluid flowing
in tube or other channel of constant cross section area ,
velocity does not vary with the direction (spatial
ii)

independent, no acceleration)
Occur after a distance from inlet , called the entrance

length
iii) Normally unidirectional
iv) Say x direction , the velocity is assumed to be fully

v)
vi)

developed
v = v ( y, z, t )
vx
=0
t

, say is unidirectional means

v y = vz = 0

Say incompressible .v, ( const density )

.v =

vx v y vz
+
+
x
y
z

vx
= 0 ( direction of flow)
x
Occur at certain dist from tube inlet - entrance length
If fully developed in x direction flow
fully developed - unidirectional
Incompressible and fully developed

vx
= 0 means v x = const
x

v ( x, y , z , t ) v ( y , z , t )
.v =
.v =

v y
y
v y
y

vz
=0
z

vz
=0
z

How about unidirectional ( i.e v y = v z = 0) what conditions lead to this

y
y
and vz =( stream function )
z
y
v y vz
y y
.v =
+
=
=- wx ( always streamline ) - An impemeable
y
z
y z z y
wx = vorticity
vy =

If vorticity vanishes y must satisfy laplace equation

vii)
viii) If no rotation a fully developed tube will be fully
developed,

r
+ v ( vx )
=+ m 2 vx

vx vx vx
2 v x 2 v x 2 v x
v

r
+
v
+
+
=+
m
+ 2 + 2

x
y
z

vx vx
2 vx 2 vx
v

r
+
v
+
=+
m
+ 2

y
z

2 v x 2 v x
v

r
=+
m
+

x
z 2
y

with velocity v y = vz = 0 =

=
, = ( x, t )
y
z

v y = 0 implies a y = g = 0
= P - r g
Since v is zero the normal pressureis const = ( 0) = 0

ix)

vx vx
+
= 0 as Inertia in x direction
y
z

2 v
2 v

=
/ 0 as viscous shear involve y , z also significant
2x + 2x

z
y

2 v x 2 vx
v

r
=+
m
+

x
z 2
y

= ( x, t ) = ( x ) ( steady state)

2 v x 2 v x
d

= m 2 + 2

dx
z
y

= ( x ) ,

x)

d
= const
dx


2 vx 2 vx
d

= m
+ 2

dx

y
z

assume z dim ension is L arg e

2 v
d

= m
2x

dx
y
2 v x 1 d
=
y 2
m dx
no slip condition vx ( H ) = 0

xi)

2 v x 1 d
=
y 2
m dx
vx 1 d
=
y+A
y
m dx
1 d 2
vx =
y + Ay
2m dx
1 d 2
1 d
vx ( H ) =
H + AH = 0 H =A
2m dx
2m dx
1 d 2 1 d
vx =
y Hy
2m dx
2m dx

Scaling and Approximation Technique

1.

The PDE of the governing equation is

quite complex and need simplification to

solve it
2.
What method to obtain an approximate
method?

3.

Experience to find the differential

equation and boundary conditions is like an

art to represent the real model

4.
Assumption steady state, 1D but how
this assumption comes from?
5.
This assumption comes concept of
scales.
6.
Orders of magnitude
a) Order of magnitude; determine
which parameter is significant and
which is not. ~, parameter which is
to a given problem.
b) x~y, difference is less than order
10,<10 (less than order 10)
c) Algebraic sign is ignored as the
order is utmost important say 10,100

and even is -100 it is more important

than 10 in term of variable.

x: 1

0.1 x 10

d)
,
good starting point
Dimensionless of governing equations to

7.

minimize the number of variables and

parameter
8.
Say in a set of parameter and variable ,
we can set different set of quantities to
represent the parameter or variable , like eg
h=

9.

r r
or ( depend on the problem)
R L

Scaling, special dimensionless, making

dependent and independent in order 1 , by
doing this order of parameter or variable
appear and we can do simplification.

10.
11.

100q- h 100qas horder 1

Length and time scales are important

called characteristic length and time for

steady state or transient or which spatial can
be ignored.
12. Our GE is ODE or PDE our scales must
be also. scale which measure the change .

Unidirectional and Nearly Unidirectional Flow

1. Two fluid dynamics characteristic are dimension and direction , which are
vx =

2.
3.
4.
5.

1 d 2 1 d
y Hy
2m dx
2m dx

helpful to organizing the solution eg ,

Direction is the non-vanishing velocity term
Dimension refers to the spatial coordinates
Another characteristic is steady or time dependent flow
Flow involving incompressible flow, number of direction is most crucial as
.v =

vx v y vz
+
+
=0
x
y
z
vx 0 & v y = vz = 0

6. Most flows are unidirectional meaning ?

Only one non

vanishing velocity
7. Viscous flow are normally unidirectional
8. Nearly unidirectional means , inertia term not important and viscous term
important
9. Steady flow with pressure gradient

The flow of an incompressible flow, physical meaning :

v
v
v
.v = x + y + z = 0
x
y
z
The flowis fully developed in flow x direction, physical meaning :
v ( x, y , z , t ) v ( y , z , t )
This occurs at dist from inlet called entrancelength and
.v =

v y
y

vx
=0
x

vz
=0
z

Unidirectional flow means velocity at flow exist only and v y & v z = 0

Lets consider navier - stokes

vx
r
+ v vx

=
t

2 vx 2 vx 2 vx

+
+
+ m 2 + 2 + 2

y
z
x y z
x

Convective / Inertial not import

as v y & vz = 0 a y & az = 0
= P- r g
= ( x, t )

vx

= t

2 vx 2 vx

+
m
+

2
2

z
y

Steady state

2 v x 2 v x

=
m
+

dx

z 2
y

For steady state = ( x, t ) ( x )

a)

d
= const
dx

b)

Laminar Flow High Reynolds Number

Re =

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

inertial force
r v v
r vL
=
=
2
viscous force m v 2
m
x

Reynolds number
High Reynolds number means inertial force is more prominent.
Involve high velocity and large length and low kinematic viscosities
Flow outer or inviscid
Flow- inner or boundary layer regions
Boundary layer separation is discussed
Viscous force are generally absence in high Reynolds flow
High Reynolds number flow
a) Inviscid (outer flow)
1) Reynolds number measure importance or inertial effect
(convective momentum transfer) to viscous effect (diffusion
transfer)
2) High Reynolds number viscous force are absent
3)

m= 0

v
r
+ v v

=-

Steady flow
r ( v v ) =-

v2

v v = v

v2

r

=- P - r gh

4)
9. Dimensionless form of the Navier-Stokes equation
%%
Re ( v%)
%.( v%) =- P L
%2 v%
+ Re ( v%)
+
St ( %
t)
mU
%%
P L
%2v%
+
mU
%%
%.( v%) =- P L
%2 v%
Re ( v%)
+
mU
%%+ Re- 1
%2v%
( v%) %.( v%) =-

%.( v%) =Let say steady state Re ( v%)

%.( v%) =
%%
If Re ? 1 viscous term canbe ignored ( v%)

10.

Laminar Boundary Layer Flow (Bejan,2013)

1. Consider heat transfer from solid object to fluid stream in external flow
2. Eg, flat plate of temperature
T

T0

suspended in uniform stream of velocity

and Temperature
3. We want to know a) net force stream on the plate b) heat transfer stream to
plate

4. Stream acts like a drag force on the plate and therefore translate in pressure
drop as the u=0 at y=0, we can carry out force balance analysis
5. Heat transfer solid and fluid also must be answer

Shear force , t = m

y

y =0
Heat flux, q = h ( T - T )

6.
7. As observed that fluid layer at y=0 , stuck to solid wall- no slip condition
8. Meaning motionless at y=0, heat conduction by pure conduction

q =- k

y

y=0
u v
+ = 0 ( continuity equation )
x y

u
u
1 P
2u 2u

+v
=+v
2 + 2

x
y
r x
y
x
navier - stokes
2
2

v
v
1 P

u +v
=+v
+ 2

x
y
r y
y
x
u

T
T
2T 2T

u
+v
=a 2 + 2
energy equation

x
y
y
x

9.
10.At solid wall , no slip u=0, impermeability v=0,T=T0
11.Concept of boundary layer
velocity changes from , 0 u U
Temp changes from , To u T

a)
b) Pradlts idea outside the boundary layer, he imagines a free
stream, flow region not affected by obstruction and heating
surface.

u = U , v = 0, T = T , P = P ( free stream )
c)
d)

From u = 0 to u = U , say the characteristic length is given by d

e)

f)

x
y
u
: 1,
: 1,
: 1
L
d
U
Inertia
U
U
U , v
L
d
PRESSURE
1P
r L
Friction
Same reasoning
u v
+ =0
x y
by same reasoning

g)

U
v
:
L
d

U U
,v
L
d

if L ? d, v

h)

U
more pro min ent
d

u
u
1 P
2u

+v
=+v
2

x
y
r x
y

2v
v
v
1 P

+v
=+v
2

x
y
r y
y

i)

j)
12.Scale analysis

u v
+
= 0 ( continuity equation )
x y
U
v
:
, L d
L
d
d
v
:
=1
L U
means v is much smaller than U

u
u
1 P
2u 2 u

+v
=+v
2 + 2

x
y
r x
y
x

U
U
1 P
U
U
+ v =+v
+ 2

L
d
r x
d
L d

U
U
1 P
U
U
U + v =+v
= 2

L
d
r x
d

U
U
1 P
U
U + v =+v

L
d
r x
U

u
u
1 P
2u
+v
=+v
2

x
y
r x
y

v
v
1 P
2 v 2 v
+v
=+v
2 + 2

x
y
r y
y
x

v
U
U
1 P
v
+ v =+v
+ 2

L
L
d
r y
d
L d
v
U
U
1 P
v
U + v =+v
= 2

L
L
d
r y
d
v
U
U
1 P

U + v =+v

d2
L
d
r y
U

v
v
1 P
2 v

+v
=+v

x
y
r y
y

same Arguement
u

T
T
2T 2T

+v
=a
+ 2

2
energy equation

x
y
y
x

T
T
2T

+v
=a

x
y
y

pressure : friction balance

P
P
dP =
dx +
dy
x
y
dP P P dy
=
+
dx x y dx

2u 2u
2u

Viscous force m
=
m
2 + 2

2 v 2 v
2 v

m 2 + 2
= m

y 2

y
x
P mU
:
x
d2
P mv
:
y d2

P dy
mv
d

2
v
L
y dx
d
:
:
P
mU
U
x
d2
u v
+ =0
x y
by same reasoning

:
L

d
P dy
P

=
1
as
small
relativeto

y dx
x

U
v
:
L
d

k)

dP P
=
dx x
This mean boundary layer pressureis equal to outside streampressure
u

u
u
1 P
2 u

+v
=+v
2

x
y
r x
y

P dP
=
x
dx

u
u
1 dP
2 u

u
+v
=+v 2

x
y
r dx
y

l)
13.Scale analysis

u
u
1 dP
2 u

+v
=+v

x
y
r dx
y

Significant pressure and velocity change near solid wall

1)
2)

t = m

y
y =0
U
t: m
d
Thus estimate t , extent of dmust be evaluated
PRESSURE drop in flow direction is not significant over longitudinal length L,

u
u
2u

+v
= v
2

x
y
y

INERTIA : FRICTION
U
U
U
U , v : v 2
L
d
d
as L d
m
d:
v
d
: Re- 1/2 L
L

dP
=0
dx

u
df
df
=
u =U
U
dh
dh
we knowthat

d
y 1/ 2
= Re- 1/ 2
Re = h y = xh Re- 1/ 2
x
x

u v
+
=0
x y
u

u
u
2u
+v
= v
2

x
y
y

u = v = 0 at y = 0
u = U as y 0
y
y
, v =y
x
y y y y
=0
y x y x y y

Let u =

y y y y
y
2 y
3y

==
v
=0
2
3

y x y x y y
x y y
y
y
y
== 0 at y = 0
y
x
y
= U as y 0
y
y
=u
y
2 y u '
=
d
y 2
3y u ''
=
d2
y 3
y
=- v
x
2 y v '
=
L
x 2
3y v ''
=
L2
y 3

v u ''

14.

d2

) =0

The law of heat conduction, also known as Fourier's law, states that the time
rate of heat transfer through a material is proportional to the negative
gradient in the temperature and to the area, at right angles to that gradient,
through which the heat flows. We can state this law in two equivalent forms:
the integral form, in which we look at the amount of energy flowing into or
out of a body as a whole, and the differential form, in which we look at the
flow rates or fluxes of energy locally.
Newton's law of cooling is a discrete analog of Fourier's law, while Ohm's
law is the electrical analogue of Fourier's law.
Differential form
The differential form of Fourier's Law of thermal conduction shows that the
local heat flux density,

, is equal to the product of thermal conductivity, ,

and the negative local temperature gradient,

. The heat flux density is

the amount of energy that flows through a unit area per unit time.
where (including the SI units)
is the local heat flux density, Wm2
is the material's conductivity, Wm1K1,
is the temperature gradient, Km1.
The thermal conductivity, , is often treated as a constant, though this is not
always true. While the thermal conductivity of a material generally varies
with temperature, the variation can be small over a significant range of
temperatures for some common materials. In anisotropic materials, the
thermal conductivity typically varies with orientation; in this case
represented by a second-order tensor. In non-uniform materials,

is

varies

with spatial location.

For many simple applications, Fourier's law is used in its one-dimensional
form. In the x-direction,

Integral form
By integrating the differential form over the material's total surface , we
arrive at the integral form of Fourier's law:
where (including the SI units):
is the amount of heat transferred per unit time (in W), and
is an oriented surface area element (in m2)
The above differential equation, when integrated for a homogeneous
material of 1-D geometry between two endpoints at constant temperature,
gives the heat flow rate as:
where
A is the cross-sectional surface area,
is the temperature difference between the ends,
is the distance between the ends.
This law forms the basis for the derivation of the heat equation.