Math 535 - General Topology

Fall 2012
Homework 1, Lecture 8/27
Definition. Let V be a (real or complex) vector space. A norm on V is a function kk : V R
satisfying:
1. Positivity: kxk 0 for all x V and moreover kxk = 0 holds if and only if x = 0.
2. Homogeneity: kxk = ||kxk for any scalar and x V .
3. Triangle inequality: kx + yk kxk + kyk for all x, y V .
A normed vector space is the data (V, kk) of a vector space V equipped with a norm kk.
Problem 1.

Let (V, kk) be a normed vector space. Define a function d : V V R by

d(x, y) := kx yk.

Show that d is a metric on V , called the metric induced by the norm kk.
Problem 2.

Denote by kk2 the standard (Euclidean) norm on Rn , defined by

! 21
n
X
kxk2 :=
x2i
.
i=1
n

Now consider the function kk1 : R R defined by

n
X
kxk1 :=
|xi |.
i=1

a. Show that kk1 is a norm on Rn .

Remark. The norms kk1 and kk2 are special cases of the so-called p-norm, for any real number
p 1 or p = . See:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lp_spaces#The_p-norm_in_finite_dimensions.
b.

Find constants C, D > 0 satisfying

kxk2 Ckxk1
kxk1 Dkxk2

for all x Rn .
Definition. Two norms kk1 and kk2 on a vector space V are equivalent if they can be
compared as in Problem 2b.
Definition. Two metrics d1 and d2 on a set X are topologically equivalent if for every
x X and  > 0, there is a > 0 satisfying
d1 (x, y) < d2 (x, y) < 
d2 (x, y) < d1 (x, y) < .
In other words, the identity function (X, d1 ) (X, d2 ) is a homeomorphism.
1

Problem 3.
metrics.

Show that equivalent norms on a vector space V induce topologically equivalent

Problem 4. (Bredon Prop. I.1.3) Show that topologically equivalent metrics induce the
same topology (which explains the terminology). In other words, if d1 and d2 are topologically
equivalent metrics on X, then a subset U X is open with respect to d1 if and only if it is
open with respect to d2 .

Math 535 - General Topology

Fall 2012
Homework 1, Lecture 8/29
Definition. Let (X, T ) be a topological space. A subset C X is closed (with respect to T )
if its complement C c := X \ C is open (with respect to T ).
Problem 5.

Show that the collection of closed subsets of X satisfies the following properties.

1. The empty subset and X itself are closed.

2. An arbitrary intersection of closed subsets is closed: C closed for all implies
closed.

C is

3. A finite union of closed subsets is closed: C, C 0 closed implies C C 0 is closed.

Remark. In fact, a collection of subsets satisfies these properties if and only if their complements form a topology. Moreover, open subsets and closed subsets determine each other.
Upshot: One might as well define a topology via a collection of closed subsets satisfying the
three properties above. Their complements then form the topology in question.
Problem 6. Let X be a set. Consider the collection of cofinite subsets of X together with
the empty subset:
Tcofin := {U X | X \ U is finite} {}.
a.

Show that Tcofin is a topology on X, called the cofinite topology.

b. Assuming X is infinite, show that the cofinite topology on X cannot be induced by a

metric on X.
Definition. Let X be a set.
The discrete topology on X is the one where all subsets are open:
Tdisc = P(X) = {U X}.
The anti-discrete (or trivial) topology on X is the one where only the empty subset
and X itself are open:
Tanti = {, X}.
Problem 7.

Let D be a discrete topological space and A an anti-discrete topological space.

a.

Describe all continuous maps f : D X, where X is an arbitrary topological space.

b.

Describe all continuous maps f : X A, where X is an arbitrary topological space.

c. Describe all continuous maps f : A X, where X is a metric space.

Remark. We will come back to the question of mapping into a discrete space when discussing
the notion of connectedness.
1

Math 535 - General Topology

Fall 2012
Homework 1, Lecture 8/31
Problem 8.
a.

Let f : X Y be a function between topological spaces, and let x X.

Show that the following conditions (defining continuity of f at x) are equivalent.

1. For all neighborhood N of f (x), there is a neighborhood M of x such that f (M ) N .
2. For all open neighborhood V of f (x), there is an open neighborhood U of x such that
f (U ) V .
3. For all neighborhood N of f (x), the preimage f 1 (N ) is a neighborhood of x.

b. Find an example of function f : X Y between metric spaces which is continuous at a

point x X, but there is an open neighborhood V of f (x) such that the preimage f 1 (V ) is
not an open neighborhood of x.
Upshot: The description preimage of open is open is really about global continuity, not
pointwise continuity (or even local continuity).
Problem 9.

Let X be a topological space and B a collection of open subsets of X.

a. Show that B is a basis for the topology of X if and only if for every open subset U X
and x U , there is a B B satisfying x B U .
b.

Assuming X is a metric space, show that the collection of open balls

B = {B 1 (x) | x X, n N}
n

is a basis for the topology of X.

Problem 10.
a.

Let X be a set and S a collection of subsets of X.

Show that the collection

T :=

( n

[\

)
S,i | S,i S

i=1

of (arbitrary) unions of finite intersections of members of S is a topology on X.

b. Show that T is the topology TS generated by S. In other words: T contains S and any
other topology T 0 containing S must satisfy T T 0 .

Math 535 - General Topology

Additional notes
Martin Frankland
August 31, 2012

Homeomorphisms

Definition 1.1. A map f : X Y between topological spaces is a homeomorphism if it is

continuous, invertible (i.e. bijective), and its inverse f 1 : Y X is also continuous.

Neighborhoods

Definition 2.1. Let X be a topological space. A neighborhood of a point x X is a subset

N X such that there is an open U satisfying x U N .

Bases and subbases

Definition 3.1. Let (X, T ) be a topological space. A basis for the topology T of X is a
collection B of subsets of X satisfying
(
)
[
T =
B | B B

i.e. open sets are precisely unions of members of B.

Exercise 3.2. Let X be a set. Show that a collection B of subsets of X is a basis for some
topology on X if and only if B satisfies the following conditions:
1. B covers X, i.e.

BB

B = X.

2. Finite intersections are unions: For any B, B 0 B, we have B B 0 =

family {B } of members of B.

B for some

Definition 3.3. Let (X, T ) be a topological space. A subbasis for the topology T of X is a
collection S of subsets of X satisfying
( n
)

[\
T :=
S,i | S,i S
i=1

i.e. finite intersections of members of S form a basis for the topology.

1

Comparing topologies

For a given set X, topologies on X can be partially ordered by inclusion.

Definition 4.1. Let X be a set, and T1 and T2 two topologies on X. We say T1 is smaller
than T2 , denoted T1 T2 , if the inclusion T1 T2 holds, viewed as subsets of the power set
P(X). In other words, every T1 -open is also T2 -open.
One can also say that T2 is larger than T1 .
Some references say that T1 is coarser than T2 , while T2 is finer than T1 .
Remark 4.2. The anti-discrete topology Tanti = {, X} is the least element in that partial
order, whereas the discrete topology Tdis = P(X) is the greatest element. In other words, the
inequalities
Tanti T Tdis
hold for any topology T on X.
Remark 4.3. By definition, the inequality T1 T2 holds if and only if the identity function
id : (X, T2 ) (X, T1 )
is continuous. Note the reversal, mapping from fine to coarse.
The poset of topologies on X has arbitrary meets (infima), described explicitly in the following
proposition.
T
Proposition 4.4. Let {T } be a family of topologies on X. Then the intersection T is a
topology on X, and therefore the infimum of the family {T }.
Proof. Exercise.
Remark 4.5. If we consider an empty family of topologies, then their intersection is
\
T = P(X) = Tdis

which is a topology on X. Thus the proposition also holds in that case.

Definition 4.6. Let X be a set and S be a collection of subsets of X. The topology generated
by S (if it exists) is the smallest topology TS containing S. In other words, it satisfies S TS
and for any other topology T 0 containing S, we have TS T 0 .
Note that this universal property makes TS unique, if it exists.
Proposition 4.7. For any collection of subsets S, the topology TS exists.
Proof. The topology
TS =

topologies T
such that ST

has the required properties.

The following proposition provides an explicit description of TS .
2

Proposition 4.8. The topology generated by S is

( n
)

[\
TS =
S,i | S,i S
i=1

i.e. the topology for which S is a subbasis.

Proof. Homework 1 Problem 10.

Math 535 - General Topology

Fall 2012
Homework 1 Solutions
Definition. Let V be a (real or complex) vector space. A norm on V is a function kk : V R
satisfying:
1. Positivity: kxk 0 for all x V and moreover kxk = 0 holds if and only if x = 0.
2. Homogeneity: kxk = ||kxk for any scalar and x V .
3. Triangle inequality: kx + yk kxk + kyk for all x, y V .
A normed vector space is the data (V, kk) of a vector space V equipped with a norm kk.
Problem 1.

Let (V, kk) be a normed vector space. Define a function d : V V R by

d(x, y) := kx yk.

Show that d is a metric on V , called the metric induced by the norm kk.
Solution. We check the three properties of a metric.
1. Positivity:
d(x, y) = kx yk 0 for all x, y V,
d(x, y) = 0 kx yk = 0
xy =0
x = y.
2. Symmetry:
d(y, x) = ky xk
= k(1)(x y)k
= |1|kx yk
= kx yk
= d(x, y).
3. Triangle inequality:
d(x, y) = kx yk
= kx z + z yk
kx zk + kz yk
= d(x, z) + d(z, y).

Problem 2.

Denote by kk2 the standard (Euclidean) norm on Rn , defined by

! 21
n
X
.
kxk2 :=
x2i
i=1
n

Now consider the function kk1 : R R defined by

n
X
kxk1 :=
|xi |.
i=1

a.

Show that kk1 is a norm on Rn .

Solution. We check the three properties of a norm.

1. Positivity:
kxk1 =

n
X

|xi | 0 for all x Rn ,

i=1
n
X
kxk1 = 0
|xi | = 0
i=1

|xi | = 0 for 1 i n
xi = 0 for 1 i n
x = 0.
2. Homogeneity:
n
X
kxk1 =
|xi |
i=1
n
X
=
|||xi |
i=1
n
X
= ||
|xi |
i=1

= ||kxk1 .
3. Triangle inequality:
kx + yk1 =

n
X
|xi + yi |
i=1

n
X

(|xi | + |yi |)

i=1
n
n
X
X
=
|xi | +
|yi |
i=1

i=1

= kxk1 + kyk1 .
2

Remark. The norms kk1 and kk2 are special cases of the so-called p-norm, for any real number
p 1 or p = . See:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lp_spaces#The_p-norm_in_finite_dimensions.

b.

Find constants C, D > 0 satisfying

kxk2 Ckxk1
kxk1 Dkxk2

for all x Rn .
Solution. Claim: kxk2 kxk1 for all x Rn . In other words, we can take the constant
C = 1.
Proof 1. The claim is equivalent to
kxk22 kxk21
n
X

x2i

i=1
n
X

!2
n
X
|xi |
i=1

x2i

i=1

n
X

x2i +

i=1

X
|xi ||xj |
i6=j

|xi ||xj |

i6=j

which holds for all x Rn .

ith

z}|{
Proof 2. Write ei for the standard basis vector ei = (0, . . . , 0, 1 , 0, . . . , 0). Then we have
kxk2 = k

n
X

xi ei k2

i=1

n
X

kxi ei k2

i=1

n
X

|xi |kei k2

i=1

n
X

|xi |

i=1

= kxk1 .

For the bound kxk1 Dkxk2 , here are two solutions.

Solution 1: Crude bound. Noting |xi | kxk2 , we obtain
kxk1 =

n
X

|xi |

i=1
n
X

kxk2
i=1

= nkxk2
so that we can take the constant D = n.
Solution 2: Better bound. The 1-norm can be expressed as a dot product
kxk1 =

n
X

|xi |

i=1

n
X

sign(xi )xi

i=1

=sx
where s Rn is the vector with entries 1 given by si = sign(xi ). Lets say sign(0) = +1 by
convention.
The Cauchy-Schwarz inequality yields
kxk1 = s x
ksk2 kxk2

= n kxk2
so that we can take the constant D =

n.

Remark. In fact, this is the best possible bound, because equality

is achieved by the vector

u = (1, 1, . . . , 1). Indeed, we have kuk1 = n whereas kuk2 = n.

Definition. Two norms kk1 and kk2 on a vector space V are equivalent if they can be
compared as in Problem 2b.
Definition. Two metrics d1 and d2 on a set X are topologically equivalent if for every
x X and  > 0, there is a > 0 satisfying
d1 (x, y) < d2 (x, y) < 
d2 (x, y) < d1 (x, y) < .
In other words, the identity function (X, d1 ) (X, d2 ) is a homeomorphism.

Problem 3.
metrics.

Show that equivalent norms on a vector space V induce topologically equivalent

Solution. Let kk1 and kk2 be two norms on V , and let C, D > 0 be constants satisfying
kxk2 Ckxk1
kxk1 Dkxk2
for all x V . Thus the induced metrics satisfy
d2 (x, y) = kx yk2
Ckx yk1
= Cd1 (x, y)
and likewise d1 (x, y) Dd2 (x, y) for all x, y V .
Take K := max{C, D}. Let x V and  > 0 be given. Pick :=
chosen uniformly, independently of x). Then we have
d1 (x, y) < d2 (x, y) Cd1 (x, y)
< C
K
=
and likewise
d2 (x, y) < d1 (x, y) Dd2 (x, y)
< D
K
= .


K

(which in this case can be

Problem 4. (Bredon Prop. I.1.3) Show that topologically equivalent metrics induce the
same topology (which explains the terminology). In other words, if d1 and d2 are topologically
equivalent metrics on X, then a subset U X is open with respect to d1 if and only if it is
open with respect to d2 .
Solution. By symmetry of the situation, it suffices to show one side of the equivalence. Let
U X be a subset which is open with respect to d1 . We want to show that U is open with
respect to d2 .
Let x U . Because U is open with respect to d1 , there is an -ball (in the d1 metric) around
x entirely contained in U , i.e. B1 (x) U , for some  > 0.
Because d2 is topologically equivalent to d1 , there is some > 0 satisfying B2 (x) B1 (x). In
particular we have
B2 (x) B1 (x) U
so that U is open with respect to d2 .

Definition. Let (X, T ) be a topological space. A subset C X is closed (with respect to T )

if its complement C c := X \ C is open (with respect to T ).
Problem 5.

Show that the collection of closed subsets of X satisfies the following properties.

1. The empty subset and X itself are closed.

2. An arbitrary intersection of closed subsets is closed: C closed for all implies
closed.

C is

3. A finite union of closed subsets is closed: C, C 0 closed implies C C 0 is closed.

Solution.
1. The empty set is closed because its complement c = X is open.
The entire set X is closed because its complement X c = is open.
T
2. Let C be closed for all and consider the intersection C . Its complement
!c
\
[
C =
Cc

is a union of open sets, therefore open. Thus

C is closed.

3. Let C, C 0 be closed and consider the union C C 0 . Its complement

c

(C C 0 ) = C c C 0c
is a finite intersection of open sets, therefore open. Thus C C 0 is closed.

Remark. In fact, a collection of subsets satisfies these properties if and only if their complements form a topology. Moreover, open subsets and closed subsets determine each other.
Upshot: One might as well define a topology via a collection of closed subsets satisfying the
three properties above. Their complements then form the topology in question.

Problem 6. Let X be a set. Consider the collection of cofinite subsets of X together with
the empty subset:
Tcofin := {U X | X \ U is finite} {}.
a.

Show that Tcofin is a topology on X, called the cofinite topology.

Solution. By problem 5, it suffices to check that the collection of subsets

{F X | F is finite} {X}.
satisfies the axioms of closed subsets.
1. The empty set is finite, and therefore belongs to the collection, whereas X belongs to
the collection by definition.
2. T
Let C be a family of subsets that are either finite or all of X. Then the intersection
C is finite (if at least one C is finite) or all of X (if all C are X).
3. Let C, C 0 be subsets that are either finite or all of X. Then the union C C 0 is finite (if
both C and C 0 are finite) or all of X (if at least one of C or C 0 is X).
b. Assuming X is infinite, show that the cofinite topology on X cannot be induced by a
metric on X.
Solution. Let Br (x) be an open ball not containing all of X. If the complement Br (x)c is
infinite, then we are done: we have found an open subset which is not cofinite.
If the complement Br (x)c is finite, then pick a point y Br (x)c and choose a radius  > 0
small enough so that the open ball B (y) does not intersect Br (x); any value  d(x, y) r
will do. Then B (y) is finite, and thus its complement B (y)c is infinite, since X is infinite. We
are done: we have found an open subset B (y) which is not cofinite.
Slightly different solution. If X is infinite, then:
Any cofinite subset of X is infinite;
Any cofinite subset and any infinite subset must intersect.
In particular, any two non-empty open subsets of X intersect.
However, in any metric space containing at least two points, we can find non-empty open subsets
that do not intersect. Indeed, pick distinct points x and y, and take small enough open balls
Br (x) and Br (y) around them; any radius r d(x,y)
will guarantee Br (x) Br (y) = .
2
Therefore the cofinite topology on X cannot be induced by a metric.

Remark. In a few lectures, we will say that such a topology is not Hausdorff, hence not metrizable.
10

Definition. Let X be a set.

The discrete topology on X is the one where all subsets are open:
Tdisc = P(X) = {U X}.
The anti-discrete (or trivial) topology on X is the one where only the empty subset
and X itself are open:
Tanti = {, X}.
Problem 7.
a.

Let D be a discrete topological space and A an anti-discrete topological space.

Describe all continuous maps f : D X, where X is an arbitrary topological space.

Solution. The condition that f 1 (V ) be open in D for any open V X is automatically

satisfied, since every subset of D is open. Thus every function f : D X is continuous.

Remark. We will come back to the question of mapping into a discrete space when discussing
the notion of connectedness.
b.

Describe all continuous maps f : X A, where X is an arbitrary topological space.

Solution. For any function f : X A, we have f 1 () = and f 1 (A) = X, both of which

are open in X. Since and A are the only open subsets of A, every function f : X A is
continuous.
c.

Describe all continuous maps f : A X, where X is a metric space.

Solution. Let f : A X be a continuous. We claim that f is a constant function.

Pick some a A and look at its value x := f (a) X. For any other point y X, pick an open
subset V X satisfying x V but y
/ V . Since f is continuous, the preimage f 1 (V ) is open
in A. The condition f (a) = x V yields a f 1 (V ) so that f 1 (V ) is non-empty and must
therefore be all of A, the only non-empty open subset of A.
Now the condition f (A) V implies that f never takes the value y
/ V . Since y was an
arbitrary point distinct from x, we conclude that f is the constant function with value x.

Remark. The proof still holds whenever X is a T1 space, a property that will be discussed in a
few lectures.

11

Problem 8.
a.

Let f : X Y be a function between topological spaces, and let x X.

Show that the following conditions (defining continuity of f at x) are equivalent.

1. For all neighborhood N of f (x), there is a neighborhood M of x such that f (M ) N .
2. For all open neighborhood V of f (x), there is an open neighborhood U of x such that
f (U ) V .
3. For all neighborhood N of f (x), the preimage f 1 (N ) is a neighborhood of x.

Solution. (1 2) Let V be an open neighborhood of f (x). Since V is in particular a

neighborhood of f (x), the assumption (1) guarantees that there is a neighborhood M of x
such that f (M ) V . Let U be an open of X satisfying x U M . Then U is an open
neighborhood of x satisfying f (U ) f (M ) V .
(2 3) Let N be a neighborhood of f (x). Let V be an open of Y satisfying f (x) V N .
Then we have x f 1 (V ) f 1 (N ). By the assumption (2), f 1 (V ) is an open neighborhood
of x, so that f 1 (N ) is a neighborhood of x.
(3 1) Let N be a neighborhood of f (x) and take M := f 1 (N ). By the assumption (3),
f 1 (N ) is a neighborhood of x, and moreover it satisfies f (f 1 (N )) N .
b. Find an example of function f : X Y between metric spaces which is continuous at a
point x X, but there is an open neighborhood V of f (x) such that the preimage f 1 (V ) is
not an open neighborhood of x.
Upshot: The description preimage of open is open is really about global continuity, not
pointwise continuity (or even local continuity).
Solution. Consider the step function f : R R defined by
(
0 if x 43
f (x) =
1 if x > 43.
Then f is continuous at x = 0 (in fact everywhere except at 43). However, take the open
neighborhood ( 21 , 12 ) of f (0) = 0. Its preimage under f is


1 1
1
f
( , ) = (, 43]
2 2
which is not open in R.

12

Problem 9.

Let X be a topological space and B a collection of open subsets of X.

a. Show that B is a basis for the topology of X if and only if for every open subset U X
and x U , there is a B B satisfying x B U .
Solution. () Assume B is a basis for the topology. Let U X be open
S (WLOG non-empty)
and x U . Because B is a basis, U can be written as a union U = B for some family of
subsets B B. Thus x is in at least one of those subsets Bx , yielding x Bx U .
() To show that B is a basis, there are two things to check.
1) Every union of members of B is open in X. This is automatic, because each B B was
assumed to be open.
2) Let U X be open (WLOG non-empty). We want to show that U is a union of subsets
in the collection B. By assumption
S on B, for each x U , there is some Bx B satisfying
x Bx U . Thus we have U = xU Bx .
b.

Assuming X is a metric space, show that the collection of open balls

B = {B 1 (x) | x X, n N}
n

is a basis for the topology of X.

Solution. We use the criterion from part (a).
Let U X be open and x U . Then there is some radius r > 0 such that the open ball of
radius r centered at x is contained within U , i.e. Br (x) U .
Pick n large enough so that

1
n

r. Then we have x B 1 (x) Br (x) U .

n

13

Problem 10.
a.

Let X be a set and S a collection of subsets of X.

Show that the collection

T :=

( n

[\

)
S,i | S,i S

i=1

of (arbitrary) unions of finite intersections of members of S is a topology on X.

Solution. We check the properties of a topology.
1. Because unions indexed by the empty family are allowed, the empty set =
T.

S is in

T
Because intersections indexed by the empty family are allowed, the entire set X = S
is in T .
S T
S Tn
2. Finite intersections of members of T are in T . Let U = ni=1
S,i and V = j=1
S,j
be members of T . Their intersection is
!
!
n
n
[\
[\
U V =
S,i
S,j
i=1

n
[ \
,

j=1

S,i

i=1

n
\

!
S,j

j=1

which is in T since each S,i and S,j is in S.

3. Arbitrary unions of members of T are in T . Let {U =
members of T . Then their union is

()

[
[ [ n\

U =
S,i

i=1

()

n\

which is in T .

14

i=1

S,i

S Tn()

i=1

} be a family of
S,i

b. Show that T is the topology TS generated by S. In other words: T contains S and any
other topology T 0 containing S must satisfy T T 0 .
Solution.
1. T contains S: Any S S can be viewed as the union of one set which is the intersection
of one set, namely S itself, which is in S. Therefore we have S T .
2. Let T 0 be
S. For any family of subsets S,i S, the finite interT a topology containing
section ni=1
S,i is in T 0 , since T 0 is a topology. Moreover, the union
n
[\

S,i

i=1

is also in T 0 , since T 0 is a topology. Thus we have T T 0 , as claimed.

15

Math 535 - General Topology

Additional notes
Martin Frankland
September 5, 2012

Subspaces

Definition 1.1. Let X be a topological space and A X any subset. The subspace topology
on A is the smallest topology TAsub making the inclusion map i : A , X continuous.
In other words, TAsub is generated by subsets V A of the form
V = i1 (U ) = U A
for any open U X.
Proposition 1.2. The subspace topology on A is
TAsub = {V A | V = U A for some open U X}.
In other words, the collection of subsets of the form U A already forms a topology on A.

Products

Before discussing the product of spaces, let us review the notion of product of sets.

2.1

Product of sets

Let X and Y be sets. The Cartesian product of X and Y is the set of pairs
X Y = {(x, y) | x X, y Y }.
It comes equipped with the two projection maps pX : X Y X and pY : X Y Y onto
each factor, defined by
pX (x, y) = x
pY (x, y) = y.
This explicit description of X Y is made more meaningful by the following proposition.
1

Proposition 2.1. The Cartesian product of sets satisfies the following universal property. For
any set Z along with maps fX : Z X and fY : Z Y , there is a unique map f : Z X Y
satisfying pX f = fX and pY f = fY , in other words making the diagram
Z
fX

!f

fY

X Y
pX

pY

"

commute.
Proof. Given fX and fY , define f : Z X Y by
f (z) := (fX (z), fY (z))
which clearly satisfies pX f = fX and pY f = fY .
To prove uniqueness, note that any pair (x, y) X Y can be written as
(x, y) = (pX (x, y), pY (x, y))
i.e. the projections give us each individual component of the pair. Therefore, any function
g : Z X Y can be written as
g(z) = (pX (g(z)), pY (g(z)))
= ((pX g)(z), (pY g)(z))
so that g is determined by its components pX g and pY g.
In slogans: A map into X Y is the same data as a map into X and a map into Y .
Yet another slogan: X Y is the closest set equipped with a map to X and a map to Y .
As usual with universal properties, this characterizes X Y up to unique isomorphism. This
statement is made precise in the following proposition.
Proposition 2.2. Let W be a set equipped with maps X : W X and Y : W Y satisfying

=
XY
the universal property of the product. Then there is a unique isomorphism : W
commuting with the projections, i.e. making the diagrams

W
X

X Y
#

X Y

pX
Y

commute.

pY

Proof. Starting from the data of the maps X : W X and Y : W Y , the universal property
of X Y provides a unique map : W X Y commuting with the projections.
Likewise, starting from the data of the maps pX : X Y X and pY : X Y Y , the universal
property of W provides a unique map : X Y W commuting with the projections.
We claim that is an isomorphism, with inverse .
The composite : W W is a map into W commuting with the projections. But so is the
identity map idW : W W . By uniqueness (guaranteed in the universal property of W ), we
obtain = idW .
Likewise, the composite : X Y X Y is a map into X Y commuting with the
projections. But so is the identity map idXY : X Y X Y . By uniqueness (guaranteed
in the universal property of X Y ), we obtain = idXY .

2.2

Product topology

The next goal is to define the product X Y of topological spaces X and Y such that it satisfies
the analogous universal property in the category of topological spaces.
In other words, we want to find a topology on X Y such that the projection maps pX : X Y
X and pY : X Y Y are continuous, and such that for any topological space Z along with
continuous maps fX : Z X and fY : Z Y , there is a unique continuous map f : Z X Y
satisfying pX f = fX and pY f = fY .
Definition 2.3. Let X and Y be topological spaces. The product topology TXY on X Y
is the smallest topology on X Y making the projections pX : X Y X and pY : X Y Y
continuous.
In other words, TXY is generated by strips of the form
p1
X (U ) = U Y
p1
Y (V ) = X V
for some open U X or some open V Y .
Proposition 2.4. The collection of rectangles
{U V | U X is open and V Y is open}
is a basis for the product topology on X Y .
Proof. Finite intersections of strips
(U Y ) (X V ) = U V
provide all rectangles. However a finite intersection of rectangles
(U1 V1 ) (U2 V2 ) = (U1 U2 ) (V1 V2 )
is again a rectangle, since U1 U2 X is open and V1 V2 Y is open.
Proposition 2.5. The topological space (X Y, TXY ) along with the projections pX : X Y
X and pY : X Y Y satisfies the universal property of a product.
3

Proof. Let Z be a topological space along with continuous maps fX : Z X and fY : Z Y .

In particular, these continuous maps are functions, so that there is a unique function f : Z
X Y satisfying pX f = fX and pY f = fY . In other words, f is given by
f (z) = (fX (z), fY (z)) .
It remains to check that f is continuous. For any rectangle U V X Y where U X is
open and V Y is open, its preimage is
f 1 (U V ) = {z Z | f (z) U V }
= {z Z | fX (z) U and fY (z) V }
= fX1 (U ) fY1 (V ).
Since fX and fY are continuous, the subsets fX1 (U ) and fY1 (V ) are open in Z, and so is
their intersection fX1 (U ) fY1 (V ). Since those rectangles U V form a basis for the product
topology on X Y , the function f : Z X Y is continuous.
Remark 2.6. Why did we choose the smallest topology making the projections pX and pY
continuous?
If there is a product topology TXY satisfying the universal property, consider any other topology T on X Y making the projections pX and pY continuous. Then the universal property
of TXY provides a unique continuous map f making the diagram
(X Y, T )
pX

pY

!f

(X Y, TXY )
pX

pY

y
%

commute. As a function, f : X Y X Y must be the identity:

f (x, y) = (pX (x, y), pY (x, y))
= (x, y).
The identity id : (X Y, T ) (X Y, TXY ) being continuous means precisely the inequality TXY T . That is why TXY had to be the smallest topology making the projections
continuous.
Exercise 2.7. Let (X, dX ) and (Y, dY ) be metric spaces.
1. For points (x, y) and (x0 , y 0 ) in X Y , define their distance as the sum
d ((x, y), (x0 , y 0 )) := dX (x, x0 ) + dY (y, y 0 ).
Show that d is a metric on X Y .
2. Show that the metric d induces the product topology on X Y .

Math 535 - General Topology

Fall 2012
Homework 2, Lecture 9/5
Problem 1. (Brown Exercise 2.4.5) Consider X = [0, 2] \ {1} as a subspace of the real line
R. Show that the subset [0, 1) X is both open and closed in X.
Problem 2. (Bredon Exercise I.3.8) Let X be a topological space that can be written as a
union X = A B where A and B are closed subsets of X. Let f : X Y be a function,
where Y is any topological space. Assume that the restrictions of f to A and to B are both
continuous. Show that f is continuous.
Problem 3. A map between topological spaces f : X Y is called an open map if for every
open subset U X, its image f (U ) Y is open in Y .
a. (Munkres Exercise 2.16.4) Let X and Y be topological spaces. Show that the projection
maps pX : X Y X and pY : X Y Y are open maps.
b. Find an example of metric spaces X and Y , and a closed subset C X Y such that the
projection pX (C) X is not closed in X.
In other words, the projection maps are (usually) not closed maps.

Math 535 - General Topology

Additional notes
Martin Frankland
September 7, 2012

Infinite products

Definition 1.1. Let {X }A be

Q a family of topological spaces. The product topology
TprodQon the Cartesian product X is the smallest topology making all projection maps
p : X X continuous.
In other words, the product topology is generated by subsets of the form p1
(U ) for U X
open.
A basis for Tprod is the collection of large boxes
Y
{ U | U X is open, and U = X except for at most finitely many }

Q
Q
Proposition 1.2. The topological space ( X , Tprod ) along with the projections p : X
X satisfies the universal property of a product.
Proof. Let Z be a topological space along with continuous maps f : Z X for all A.
In particular, these continuous maps are functions, so that there is a unique function f : Z
Q
X whose components are p f = f . In other words, f is given by
f (z) = (f (z))A .
It remains to check that f is continuous. The product topology is generated by subsets of the
form p1
(U ) for U X open. Its preimage under f is


1
f 1 p1
(U ) = (p f ) (U )
= f1 (U )
which is open in Z since f : Z X is continuous.
Definition 1.3. The box topology Tbox on the Cartesian product
which the collection of boxes
Y
{ U | U X is open}

is a basis.
1

X is the topology for

Note that we always have Tprod Tbox , and equality holds for finite products. For an infinite
product, the inequality is usually strict.
Q
Exercise 1.4. Show that the projection maps p : X X are open maps in the box
topology (and therefore also in the product topology).

Disjoint unions

In this section, we describe a construction which is dual to the product. The discussion will be
eerily similar to that of products, because the ideas are the same, and because of copy-paste.

2.1

Disjoint union of sets

Let X and Y be sets. The disjoint union of X and Y is the set

X q Y = {w | w X or x Y }.
It comes equipped with the inclusion maps iX : X X q Y and iY : Y X q Y from
each summand. This explicit description of X q Y is made more meaningful by the following
proposition.
Proposition 2.1. The disjoint union of sets X qY , along with inclusion maps iX and iY , is the
coproduct of sets, i.e. it satisfies the following universal property. For any set Z along with
maps fX : X Z and fY : Y Z, there is a unique map f : X q Y Z whose restrictions
are f iX = fX and f iY = fY , in other words making the diagram
Y

X
iX

iY

X qY
fX

!f

fY

Z t

commute.
Proof. Given fX and fY , define f : X q Y Z by
(
fX (w) if w X
f (w) :=
fY (w) if w Y
which clearly satisfies f iX = fX and f iY = fY .
To prove uniqueness, note that any element w X q Y is in one of the summands:
(
iX (w) if w X
w=
iY (w) if w Y.

Therefore, any function g : X q Y Z can be written as

(
g(iX (w)) = (g iX )(w) if w X
g(w) =
g(iY (w)) = (g iY )(w) if w Y
so that g is determined by its restrictions g iX and g iY .
In slogans: A map out of X q Y is the same data as a map out of X and a map out of Y .
Yet another slogan: X q Y is the closest set equipped with a map from X and a map from
Y .
As usual with universal properties, this characterizes X q Y up to unique isomorphism.

2.2

Coproduct topology

The next goal is to define the coproduct X q Y of topological spaces X and Y such that it
satisfies the analogous universal property in the category of topological spaces.
In other words, we want to find a topology on XqY such that the inclusion maps iX : X XqY
and iY : Y X q Y are continuous, and such that for any topological space Z along with
continuous maps fX : X Z and fY : Y Z, there is a unique continuous map f : X qY Z
whose restrictions are f iX = fX and f iY = fY .
Definition 2.2. Let X and Y be topological spaces. The coproduct topology is the largest
topology on X q Y making the inclusions iX : X X q Y and iY : Y X q Y continuous.
1
This means that a subset U X q Y is open if and only if i1
X (U ) is open in X and iY (U ) is
open in Y .
1
More concretely, noting i1
X (U ) = U X and iY (U ) = U Y , open sets can be described as
U = UX q UY where UX = U X is open in X and UY = U Y is open in Y .

This definition works for an infinite disjoint union as well.

Definition 2.3. Let {X }A
` be a family of topological spaces. The coproduct topology
T
`coprod on the disjoint union X is the largest topology making all inclusion maps i : X
X continuous.
`
This means that a subset U X is open if and only if i1
(U ) is open in X for all A.
`
More concretely, noting i1
(U ) = U X , open sets can be described as U =
U where
U = U X is open in X . That is, open subsets are disjoint unions of open subsets from
each of the summands.
`
Proposition 2.4. Each summand X X is open in the coproduct topology.
Proof. Write X =

U where
(
X
U =

is open in X for all .

3

if =
if =
6

`
Remark 2.5. More generally, the same proof shows that each inclusion map i : X X
is an open map.
`
Proposition
2.6.
The
topological
space
(
X , Tcoprod ) along with the inclusions i : X
`
X is a coproduct of topological spaces.
Proof. We verify the universal property of a coproduct.
Let Z be a topological space along with continuous maps f : X Z for all `
A. In
particular, these continuous maps are functions, so that there is a unique function f : X
Z whose restrictions are f i = f . In other words, f is given by
f (w) = f (i (w)) = f (w)
where is the unique index for which w X .
It remains`to check that f is continuous. Let U Z be open and consider its preimage
f 1 (U ) X . To show that this subset is open, it suffices to check that its restriction to
each summand is open:


i1
f 1 (U ) = (f i )1 (U )

= f1 (U )
is indeed open in X since f : X Z is continuous.
`
Upshot: A map f : X Z is continuous if and only if its restriction f i : X Z to
each summand is continuous.

Math 535 - General Topology

Fall 2012
Homework 2, Lecture 9/7
Problem 4. (Munkres Exercise 2.19.7) Consider the set of sequences of real numbers
Y
RN = {(x1 , x2 , . . .) | xn R for all n N}
R
=
nN

and consider the subset of sequences that are eventually zero

R := {x RN | xn 6= 0 for at most finitely many n}.
a. In the box topology on RN , is R a closed subset?
b. In the product topology on RN , is R a closed subset?
Problem 5. Let X be a topological space, S a set, and f : X S a function. Consider the
collection of subsets of S
T := {U S | f 1 (U ) is open in X}.
a. Show that T is a topology on S.
b. Show that T is the largest topology on S making f continuous.
c. Let Y be a topological space. Show that a map g : S Y is continuous if and only if the
composite g f : X Y is continuous.
d. Show that T is the smallest topology on S with the property that a map g : S Y is
continuous whenever g f is continuous.
Problem 6. Consider the subset X = {0} { n1 | n N} R viewed as a subspace of the real
line R. As a set, X is the disjoint union of the singletons {0} `
and { n1 } for all n N. However,
show that X does not have the coproduct topology on {0} q nN { n1 }.

Math 535 - General Topology

Fall 2012
Homework 2 Solutions
Problem 1. (Brown Exercise 2.4.5) Consider X = [0, 2] \ {1} as a subspace of the real line
R. Show that the subset [0, 1) X is both open and closed in X.
Solution. [0, 1) is open in X because we can write
[0, 1) = (8, 1) X
and (8, 1) is open in R.
On the other hand, [0, 1) is closed in X because we can write
[0, 1) = [0, 1] X
and [0, 1] is closed in R.

Problem 2. (Bredon Exercise I.3.8) Let X be a topological space that can be written as a
union X = A B where A and B are closed subsets of X. Let f : X Y be a function,
where Y is any topological space. Assume that the restrictions of f to A and to B are both
continuous. Show that f is continuous.
Solution.
Lemma. Let A X be a closed subset. If C A is closed in A, then C is also closed in X.
e A for some closed subset C
e X.
Proof. Since C is closed in A, it can be written as C = C
Therefore C is an intersection of closed subsets of X, and thus is closed in X.
Let C Y be a closed subset. Its preimage under f is the union




f 1 (C) = f 1 (C) A f 1 (C) B
= (f |A )1 (C) (f |B )1 (C).
Since the restriction f |A : A Y is continuous, (f |A )1 (C) is closed in A, and thus closed in
X by the lemma. Likewise, (f |B )1 (C) is closed in X. Therefore their union
f 1 (C) = (f |A )1 (C) (f |B )1 (C).
is closed in X, so that f in continuous.

Remark. The same proof shows that the statement still holds if A and B are both open in X.

Problem 3. A map between topological spaces f : X Y is called an open map if for every
open subset U X, its image f (U ) Y is open in Y .
a. (Munkres Exercise 2.16.4) Let X and Y be topological spaces. Show that the projection
maps pX : X Y X and pY : X Y Y are open maps.
Solution.
Lemma. A map f : X Y is open if and only if f (B) Y is open in Y for every B B
belonging to some basis B of the topology on X.
Proof. () Each member B B is open in X.
() Let U X be open in X. Then U is a union U =
Its image under f is
!
[
f (U ) = f
B

B of basic open subsets B B.

f (B )

where each f (B ) is open in Y by assumption. Thus f (U ) is a union of open subsets and hence
open.
Take an open box U V X Y , where U X is open and V Y is open. Its projection
onto the first factor is
pX (U V ) = U X
which is open in X. Since open boxes form a basis of the topology on X Y , the lemma
guarantees that pX is an open map, and likewise for pY .

b. Find an example of metric spaces X and Y , and a closed subset C X Y such that the
projection pX (C) X is not closed in X.
In other words, the projection maps are (usually) not closed maps.
Solution. Take X = Y = R and consider the hyperbola in R R
1
C = {(x, ) | x 6= 0} = {(x, y) R R | xy = 1}.
x
Its projection onto the first factor is
pX (C) = R \ {0}
which is not closed in R.
To show that C is closed in RR, note that the function f : RR R defined by f (x, y) = xy
is continuous, and C is the preimage C = f 1 ({1}). Since the singleton {1} is closed in R, C
is closed in R R.

Problem 4. (Munkres Exercise 2.19.7) Consider the set of sequences of real numbers
Y
RN = {(x1 , x2 , . . .) | xn R for all n N}
R
=
nN

and consider the subset of sequences that are eventually zero

R := {x RN | xn 6= 0 for at most finitely many n}.
a. In the box topology on RN , is R a closed subset?
Solution. Yes, R is closed in the box topology.
Let x RN \ R , which means that the sequence x has infinitely many non-zero entries xn 6= 0.
For all those indices n, pick an open neighborhood UQ
n of xn R which does not contain 0. For
other values of n, take Un = R. Then the open box n Un is an open neighborhood of x which
does not intersect R .
Q
Indeed, for any y n Un and every index n such that xn 6= 0, we have yn Un so that yn 6= 0
by construction. Because there are infinitely many such indices, we conclude y
/ R .
b. In the product topology on RN , is R a closed subset?
Solution. No, R is not closed in the product topology.
Q
Let x RN \ R and consider any open neighborhood U = n Un of x which is a large box,
i.e. Un R is open for all n and Un = R except for finitely many n. In particular, there is a
number N such that Un = R for all n N . Consider a sequence y with yn = 0 for all n N
and yn Un for 1 n < N . Then we have y U R .
Because large boxes form a basis of the product topology, every open neighborhood of x
intersects R . Therefore R is not closed.
Remark. In fact, the argument shows that x is not an interior point of RN \ R , so that the
interior of RN \ R is empty. Equivalently, the closure of R is all of RN , i.e. R is dense in
RN .

Problem 5. Let X be a topological space, S a set, and f : X S a function. Consider the

collection of subsets of S
T := {U S | f 1 (U ) is open in X}.
a. Show that T is a topology on S.
Solution.
1. The preimage f 1 (S) = X is open in X, so that the entire set S is in T . Likewise,
f 1 () = is open in X, so that the empty set is in T .
2. Let U be a family of members of T . Then we have
!
[
[
f 1
U =
f 1 (U )

S
where each f 1 S
(U ) is open in X by assumption. Thus f 1 ( U ) is also open in X, so
that the union U is in T .
3. Let U and U 0 be members of T . Then we have
f 1 (U U 0 ) = f 1 (U ) f 1 (U 0 )
where f 1 (U ) and f 1 (U 0 ) are open in X by assumption. Thus f 1 (U U 0 ) is also open
in X, so that the finite intersection U U 0 is in T .
b. Show that T is the largest topology on S making f continuous.
Solution. Note that T makes f continuous by construction: for all U T , the preimage
f 1 (U ) X is open in X.
Let T 0 be a topology on S making f continuous. Then for every U T 0 , the preimage f 1 (U )
is open in X, which means U T . This proves T 0 T .
c. Let Y be a topological space. Show that a map g : S Y is continuous if and only if the
composite g f : X Y is continuous.
Solution. () The maps f and g are continuous, hence so is their composite g f .
() Assume g f is continuous; we want to show that g is continuous. Let U Y be open
and take its preimage g 1 (U ) S. To check that this subset is open, consider its preimage


f 1 g 1 (U ) = (g f )1 (U ) X
which is open in X since g f is continuous. By definition of T , g 1 (U ) is indeed open in S.

d. Show that T is the smallest topology on S with the property that a map g : S Y is
continuous whenever g f is continuous.
Solution. Let T 0 be a topology on S with said property. We know that f : X (S, T ) is
continuous, but it can be written as the composite
f

id

X
(S, T 0 )
(S, T ).
By the property of T 0 , the composite id f being continuous guarantees that the identity
id : (S, T 0 ) (S, T ) is continuous, i.e. T T 0 .

Problem 6. Consider the subset X = {0} { n1 | n N} R viewed as a subspace of the real

line R. As a set, X is the disjoint union of the singletons {0} `
and { n1 } for all n N. However,
show that X does not have the coproduct topology on {0} q nN { n1 }.
Solution. In the coproduct topology on {0} q
topology), the summand {0} is open.

1
nN { n }

(which happens to be the discrete

However, in the subspace topology on X, the singleton {0} is not open. Indeed, any open ball
Br (0) around 0 will contain other points n1 Br (0), for all n such that n1 < r.