CHEMICAL FOR CONSUMER

SOAP
What is soap?
Soap is sodium salt or potassium salt of long-chain fatty acids.

General formula
RCOONa+

or
R: containing 12 to 18 carbon atoms. It can be saturated or
unsaturated. [please refer to fatty acids in carbon compound]

RCOOK+

The history of soap manufacturing

Soaps can be prepared through saponification.

What is saponification?
The saponification process is the process of hydroliyzing fats or oil under alkaline conditions.
Therefore,
The saponification process involves boiling fats or oils with concentrated sodium hydroxide to
produce glycerol and the sodium salts of fatty acids or soaps.
General equation
Fats/oils + concentrated alkalis soap + glycerol
What is fat?
Fats/oils are natural ester that produce by combination of fatty acid with glycerol.
What happen to the fat during saponification?
Fats/oils undergoes hydrolysis in alkali condition and then break up to fatty acid and glycerol. Then, fatty
acid will react with alkali to form sodium salts of fatty acid (soap).
Consider this reaction;
Fats/oil in concentrated sodium hydroxide Fatty acid + glycerol

Fatty acid + alkali/sodium ion sodium salt fatty acid/soap + water

Overall: Fats/oil + alkali/sodium ion soap + glycerol
Preparation of soap by saponification

STEP 1: Palm oil and concentrated sodium hydroxide solution is poured into a beaker, heated,
stirred until it boiling the layer of oil dissaperar] and cooled.
Glass rod
Beaker
Palm oil
Concentrated sodium hydroxide
solution
Wire gauze

Tripod stand

Bunsen burner

STEP 2: Water and a few spatulas of sodium chloride was added,boiled again and cooled. White
precipitate is formed and floats on the surface of the mixture.
Spatula
Sodium chloride
Distilled water

Precipitation of soap
is float

Mixture of fatty acids, salts and

water

Sodium chloride reduces the solubility of soap in water, therefore soap is easily to precipitate and
floats.

STEP 3: Mixture is filtered by filter paper.

Filter paper
Residue
(soap)

Mixture of fatty acids, salts and

water

Filter funnel
Conical flask
Filtrate

STEP 4: Solid soap is washed with distilled water to remove excess alkali and salt.

Residue (soap)

Distilled water

Filtrate

Procedure:
1. 10 cm3 of palm oil is measured with measuring cylinder 10ml and poured into a beaker 250ml.
2. 50 cm3 of concentrated sodium hydroxide solution 5 mol dm-3 measured with measuring cylinder
50ml and poured in the beaker.
3. The mixture is heated and stirred with glass rod until its boiling for 5 minutes. Then, the flame is
turned off and the mixture is left to cool.
4. 50 cm3 water and a few spatulas of sodium chloride was added to the mixture and boiled again for 5
minutes. Then, the flame is turned off and the mixture is left to cool.
[white precipitate is formed and floats].
5. The mixture is filtered with filter paper, and the residue (soap) is washed by distilled water.

Example:

Palm oil + sodium hydroxide sodium palmitate

Soap
Sodium palmitate
Sodium stearate
Sodium oleat

+ glycerol

Chemical formula
CH3(CH2)14COONa
CH3(CH2)16COONa
CH3(CH2)CH=CH(CH2)COOK

Potassium soap is usually used for bathing because its more softer and milder than sodium.

DETERGENT
What is detergent?
Detergent is sodium salt for sulphonic acid. Sulphonic acid is an organic acid with chain lengths of
12 to 18 carbon per molecule.
Two common detergent;

i. Sodium alkyl sulphate

R

O Na+

O Na+

ii. Sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate

R

(R represent hydrocarbon chain that contain 12 to 18

carbon)
Types of detergent
(a)
(b)
(c)

Anionic detergent
Cationic detergent
Non-ionic detergent

Sodium alkyl sulphate & Sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate are anionic detergent.
PREPARATION OF SODIUM ALKYL SULPHATE
Step 1: Sulphonation

Step 2: Neutralization
The alkyl sulphonic acid is neutralized by using sodium hydroxide.

Alkyl sulphonic
acid

Sodium
hydroxide

PREPARATION OF SODIUM ALKYLBENZENE SULPHONATE

Step 1: Alkylation

Long chain
alkene
Step 2: Sulphonation

Alkyl benzene

Concentrated
sulphuric acid

Step 3: Neutralization

+ NaOH

Na+

Sodium
hydroxide

The cleansing action of soap and detergent

The cleansing action for soaps and detergent results from their ability;
i.
to lower the surface tension of water,
ii.
to emulsify oil or grease / dirt, and
iii.
to hold them in suspension in water.
This ability is due to the structure of soaps and detergent
Structure of soaps
Soap consists of sodium/potassium cations and soap anions.
When a sodium/potassium soap is dissolve in water, it will form soap anions and sodium ion, Na+ or
potassium ion, K+
Sodium soap soap anions + sodium cations [Na+]
Potassium soap soap anions + potassium cations [K+]
What is soap anions?

CH3

CH2

CH2

CH2

CH2

CH2

CH2
CH2

CH2

CH2

CH2
CH2

CH2

CH2

Hydrophobic
[hydrocarbon chains]

CH2
C

O
Hydrophilic
[carboxilate group]

COO
Soap anions
From the diagram above shows that the structure of soap anions consists of,
i. hydrocarbon chains known as hydrophobic part
ii.
carboxylate/ionic group known as hydrophilic part
Structure of detergent
Detergent of sodium cations and detergent anions.
When a detergent is dissolve in water, it will form detergent anions and sodium ion, Na+.
What is detergent anions?
i) Sodium alkyl sulphate detergent

CH3

CH2

CH2
CH2

CH2

CH2

CH2
CH2

CH2

CH2

CH2
CH2

CH2

CH2
CH2

Hydrophobic
[hydrocarbon/alkyl chains]

OSO Na+

O
Hydrophilic
[sulphate ions]

OSO3
Alkyl sulphate ion
From the diagram above shows that the structure of alkyl sulphate anions consists of,
i. hydrocarbon/alkyl chains known as hydrophobic part
ii. sulphate/ionic group known as hydrophilic part
i) Sodium alkyl benzene sulphonate detergent

CH3
CH2

CH2

CH2
CH2

CH2

CH2
CH2

CH2

CH2

CH2
CH2

CH2

Hydrophobic
[hydrocarbon/alkyl benzene chains]

CH2

SO
Na+

O
Hydrophilic
[sulphonate ions]

Alkylbenzene sulphonate anions

SO3

From the diagram above shows that the structure of alkyl benzene sulphonate anions consists of,
i.
hydrocarbon/alkyl benzene chains known as hydrophobic part
ii.
sulphonate/ionic group known as hydrophilic part

In water, soap and detergent dissolves to form soap anions and detergent anions. The anions will carry out the
cleansing action, because these anions consists of hydrophobic and hydrophilic part.
Why?
Hydrophobic is water-hating part, is soluble in oil/grease/dirt, but insoluble in water.
Hydrophilic is water-loving part, is soluble in water but insoluble in oil/grease/dirt.
Both of the properties of anions, makes soap and detergent act as an effective cleansing agent.

How soap and detergent carry out the cleansing action?

Sodium ion

Soap/detergent ion

+
+

Grease/dirt

Dirt cloth
- The cloth is dipped in a soap or detergent solutions.
- Soap and detergent reduces the surface tension of water.
- This increase the wetting ability of water, therefore the surface of
the cloth is wetted thoroughly.

+
+

Hydrophilic part

Hydrophobic
part

- Hydrophilic part dissolves in water.

- Hydrophobic part dissolves in dirt/grease.

- Mechanical agitation during scrubbing helps pull the dirt/grease

free, and break the grease into small part.

+
+

- The droplets do not coagulate and redeposit on the surface of the

cloth because the repulsion between the negative charges on their
surface.
- The droplets is suspended in the water forming an emulsion.
- Rinsing washes away these droplets and leaves the surface clean.
The effectiveness action of soap and detergent
Advantages of soap
1. Soap are effective cleaning agent in soft water.
- Soft water did not contains Mg2+ ions and Ca2+ ions.
- Example: rain water, tap water

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2.

Soap does not polluted the environment.

- Soap is biodegradable (can be decomposed by bacteria)
because it was made from substance that found in animal
and plant.

3.

Soap will not harmed the aquatic life.

- Soap will not change pH value of river and pool because
soap is salt and weak alkali.

Disadvantage of soap
1. Soap is not suitable for use in hard water.
a. Hard water contains Mg2+ ions and Ca2+ ions.
b. Example: Sea water, river water
Why not suitable?
c. Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions react with the soap ions to form an insoluble precipitate known as soap
scum.
d. Soap scum reduces the amount of soap available for cleaning, thus wasting soap.
e. Soap scum does not rinse away easily.
f. Soap scum can form deposits on clothes causing them to be grey or yellow in colour.
2. Soap did not effective in acidic water.
- Soap ion react with ion H+ to produce carboxylic acid
molecule.
Advantage of detergent
1. Detergent is effective in hard and soft water.
g. Detergent do not form scum with hard water.
h. Detergent form soluble substances with calcium or magnesium ions.
2. Detergent effective in acidic water
- Detergent ion did not combine with H+ .
3. Detergent is synthetic cleansing agent.
- Structure of the hydrocarbon chain can be modified to
produce detergents with specific properties.
Disadvantage of detergent
1. Detergent can cause pollution to environment
i. Detergents not biodegradable, so that it cannot be
decomposed by bacteria
2. Detergent harmed to aquatic life
- Detergent contains phosphate fertilizer will increases the
growth of seaweed and algae in pond or river. Lots of
soluble oxygen in water will be use up by bacteria to
decompose seaweed and algae when the plant died.
The content of oxygen in water decreases, thus can kill
aquatic life.
3. Detergent produce a lot of foam.
- Foam can cover the water surface and prevent the
oxygen dissolves into water, thus will kill aquatic life.

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Additives in detergent
The main substance in detergent is sodium alkyl benzene sulphonate and sodium alkyl sulphate. Example of
detergent is shampoo, clothes washing powder and dishes washing liquid.
Various type of additive is also added to detergent to enhance the cleaning efficiency and to meet the needs of
consumers.
additives

Function

Whitening agent (sodium perborate)

Biological enzymes (amilase, lipase,
protease, selulase)
Fluorescent agent
(Blancophor)
Buildup agent
(sodium tripoliphosphate)
Drying agent
(sodium sulphate,
Sodium silicate)
Stabilizers
Perfumes
Antiseptic substance

React as bleach agent to vanished the colour stain but did not fade the
colour of the clothes.
React to substance that in organic properties like blood, food and water.
Enzymes dissolve and change it to substance that can dissolve in water.
Make the clothes more white, shiny and bright.
Soften hard water, expel ion Mg2+ dan Ca2+ . increase the pH value
Ensured that the detergent is always in a dry condition.
To prevent the formation of foam
To make clothes smell fresh and clean.
To kill all microorganism that cause disease and smell.

Medicine
Medicine

Traditional

Modern

Traditional medicine: derived from natural sources such as

plants and animal without being
processed chemically
Traditional medicine
Ginseng
Aloe vera
Mint
Garlic
Ginger
Quinine
Cocaine

uses
To improve the overall health and increasing energy, endurance and reducing fatigue
Treating itchy skins and burns on the skins
Increase body temperature and make it sweating
As antibiotic and use to treat injured, asthma, flu and also decreasing high blood,
Treating stomach pain, supplying heat energy to keep body warm and preventing flu
attack
Treating malaria and preventing muscle cramps
anesthetic

Modern medicine : - known as chemotherapy

- made in various type like pill, capsule, paste and solution

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Modern medicine is classified in 4 categories:

1. ANALGESICS

Relieve pain or sometimes called pain killer

example :

Aspirin (acetyl salicylic)

- Pain killer
- Reduce fever
- Treat arthritis (muscle aches)
- Prevent clotting of blood and reduce the risk of heart attacks and stroke
Paracetamol / panadol
- Pain killer
- Reduce fever
- Replace aspirin for children
Codeine
- Relieve minor to moderate pain
- Suppressing cough
- Can cause addicted

2. ANTIBIOTIC

Destroy or prevent the growth of infectious microorganism

Example :

Penicillin
- Treat disease cause by bacteria, such as pneumonia, gonorrhea and syphilis
Streptomycin
- treating tuberculosis

3. PSYCHOTHERAPEUTIC MEDICINE

Treating mental
or emotional illness
Function

Group

Example

Stimulants

- stimulate(excite) the activity of brain and central

nervous system
- increasing alertness and physical abilities to prepare
for demanding or energetic activities

Amphetamines
Dextoamphetamine
Femetrazin

Antidepressants

- increase the brains level of neurotransmitters, thus

improving mood and also make a person feel calm
and sleepy

Barbiturate
Tranquilizer

Antipsychotic

- treating schizophrenia (people lose touch with

reality)

Chlozapin
Chlorpromazine
Haloperidol

4. Hormone and Steroid

Hormone is a organic substance that produce by human endocrine gland to control
physiology process and homeostasis
Hormone example : Insulin - treating diabetes

Steroid is natural lipid compound.

Steroid is divide to steroid anabolic and corticosteroid
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Group

Function

Example

Steroid anabolic

- use to treating AIDS and cancer

Metandrostenolone (Dianabol)
Testosteronpropionat (Testex)

Corticosteroid

- having anti inflammation characteristics and treating

asthma and arthritis rheumatoid (joint illness)

Cortisone
Prednisone

Side effects of modern medicine

Modern medicine have side effects:
Type of modern drug
Aspirin
(analgesic)
Penicillin
(antibiotic)
Amphetamines
(psychotherapeutic)
(stimulant)
Barbiturate
(psychotherapeutic)
(antidepressant)
Haloperidol
(psikoteraputik)
(antipsychotic)
Cortisone (Steroid)
(Corticosteroid)

Side effect
Bleeding in stomach, allergic reaction, skin rashes and asthmatic attacks
Allergic reactions, coma and rash
Excitable and talkative, can cause heart attack, anxiety, sleepiness, aggressive
behavior and decrease appetite.
Addicted,

Sedative (imagination), Increase the weigh, dizzy, giddy, constipation and active.
Increase the weigh, high blood pressure, joint illness, muscle cramps, headache,

Additive Substances In Food

FOOD ADDITIVES
TYPES

Preservatives

Antioxidants

Flavoring agents
Stabilizers agents
Thickening agents

EXAMPLE

FUNCTION

Sodium nitrite,
Sodium benzoate,
Ethanoic acid,
Sulphur dioxide
Ascorbic acid,
Ascorbile palmitate,
Citric acid,
Isopropyl citrate
Monosodium glutamate,
Aspartame,
Ester
Acacia gum,

To prevent the growth of

microorganisms such as bacteria and
fungus.

starch,

To thicken the liquid and to prevent

To prevent the oxidation of fats and

oils by oxygen in the air
To make food taste better
To enable oil and water in the food to
mix together properly
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jelly,
gelatin,
pectin
Azo compound (yellow, red, brown,
black)
Tartrazine
Dyes
Triphenyl compounds (green, blue,
hyacinth)
Effects of food additives on health

the food from becoming liquid.

To give colour

types

effects

Sodium nitrite
(preservatives)

Cancer

Sodium benzoate (preservatives)

Nerve disrupted and allergy

Monosodium glutamate (flavoring)

Tatrazine
(colouring)

Out of breath, dizzy, giddy, vomit, weak the body.

Asthma ,rash, hyperactive

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