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PARTICLES,
BUBBLES &
DROPS
Their Motion, Heat
and Mass Transfer

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PARTICLES,
BUBBLES &
DROPS
Their Motion, Heat
and Mass Transfer
E. E. Michaelides
Tulane University, USA

)Jj5 World Scientific

NEW JERSEY

LONDON

SINGAPORE

BEIJING

SHANGHAI

HONG KONG

TAIPEI

CHENNAI

Published by
World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224
USA office: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601

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UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

PARTICLES, BUBBLES AND DROPS THEIR MOTION, HEAT AND

MASS TRANSFER
Copyright 2006 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval
system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the Publisher.

For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright
Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to
photocopy is not required from the publisher.

ISBN 981-256-647-3
ISBN 981-256-648-1 (pbk)

Printed in Singapore by World Scientific Printers (S) Pte Ltd

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To my children

Emmanuel, Dimitri and Eleni

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Preface

It has been almost thirty years since the publication of the classic
book with a similar title, written by Clift, Grace and Weber. During this
time a vast body of literature on particles, bubbles and drops have
been created. The field of Multiphase Flows has grown tremendously
and is now regarded by some as a discipline. Engineering applications,
products and processes with particles, bubbles and drops have grown
exponentially. An increasing number of conferences, scientific fora and
archival journals are committed to the dissemination of information on
the flow, heat and mass transfer involving particles, bubbles and
drops. Perhaps the most important development of the last thirty years
is the emergence of the computer as a tool for scientific inquiry and
engineering optimization. Numerical computations and "thought
experiments" have almost replaced physical experiments. The literature
on computational fluid dynamics with particles, bubbles and drops has
grown at an exponential rate in the last twenty five years, giving rise to
new results and theories, better understanding of the complex transport
processes and has opened new fields of investigation.
There are many and important similarities in the flow behavior of
particles, bubbles and drops. The objective of this book is to present the
theories of these objects in a way which is as unified as the differences in
the flow behavior allow. The unified treatment of particles, bubbles and
drops involves a description of the similarities in the theory and results
and an exposition of the limitations of the results. Significant differences
in the flow behavior and transport properties are always pointed out.
Another objective of the book is to present the final results on the
transport properties of fluids with particles, bubbles and drops. Details of
Vll

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Vlll

Particles, bubbles and drops

the methods from which these results were derived are not described.
The interested reader will be able to find all of these details by consulting
the pertinent references, all of which are in the open literature.
In the exposition of the subject of flow, mass and heat transfer of
dispersed multiphase fluids, it is important to present in detail the theory
and results for a single particle, bubble or drop in a large fluid domain,
which may be applied to dilute mixtures. The first five chapters of this
book address this task. The next four chapters deal with interactions of
these immersed objects with solid and fluid walls, effect of their
interactions with fluid turbulence, electric and thermal influences and
effects of higher concentration and collisions with boundaries, which
may be applied to intermediate and dense mixtures. The last two chapters
present the relatively modern ways of modeling of dispersed mixtures
and several numerical methods that have been successfully used with
particles, bubbles and drops.
Many have helped in the writing of this book: My former student and
current research colleague, Prof. Zhi-Gang Feng supplied a great deal of
the computational results and a good number of the figures. Prof. Zu-Jia
Xu, also supplied some of the figures. Mr. Adam Baran and Mr. Lorenzo
Craig conducted useful literature searches on unfamiliar topics. Ms.
Valentina Tournier assisted greatly with some of the library work, the
references, and some figures. I am very indebted to my own family, not
only for their constant support, but also for lending a hand whenever it
was needed. My wife, Laura, proofread some of the earlier publications
this book is based on and was a constant source of inspiration.
Emmanuel devoted a good part of his vacation time to check the format
and accuracy of the references. Given that there are more than six
hundred references in this book, this was a task of Olympian proportions.
Dimitri has helped with the creation of the index and little Eleni was
always there to help and encourage. I owe to all my sincere gratitude.

Efstathios E. Michaelides
New Orleans, August 2005

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Contents

Preface

vii

1. Introduction

1.1

Historical background
1.1.1 Forces exerted by a fluid and the equation of motion
1.1.2 Heat transfer
1.2 Terminology and nomenclature
1.2.1 Common terms and definitions
1.2.2 Nomenclature
1.2.2.1 Latin symbols
1.2.2.2 Greek symbols
1.2.2.3 Subscripts
1.2.2.4 Superscripts
1.2.3 Common abbreviations
1.2.4 Dimensionless numbers (Lch=2a)
1.3 Examples of applications in science and technology
1.3.1 Oil and gas pipelines
1.3.2 Geothermal wells
1.3.3 Steam generation in boilers and burners
1.3.4 Sediment flow
1.3.5 Steam condensation
1.3.6 Petroleum refining
1.3.7 Spray drying
1.3.8 Pneumatic conveying
1.3.9 Fluidized beds

1
2
7
9
10
11
11
12
13
13
14
14
15
16
17
18
18
19
20
20
21
22

2. Fundamental equations and characteristics of particles,

bubbles and drops
23
2.1

Fundamental equations of acontinuum

2.1.1 The concept of a material continuum - basic assumptions
2.1.2 Fundamental equations in integral form
ix

23
24
27

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Particles, bubbles and drops

2.1.3 Fundamental equations in differential form
2.1.4 Generalized form of the fundamental equations
2.1.5 Conservation equations at the interfaces - jump conditions
2.2 Conservation equations for a single particle, bubble or drop
2.3 Characteristics of particles, bubbles and drops
2.3.1 Shapes of solid particles
2.3.1.1 Symmetric particles
2.3.1.2 Asymmetric or irregular particles
2.3.2 Shapes of bubbles and drops in motion - shape maps
2.4 Discrete and continuous size distributions
2.4.1 Useful parameters in discrete size distributions
2.4.2 Continuous size distributions
2.4.3 Drop distribution functions

33
36
37
41
43
44
44
45
48
53
54
57
59

Low Reynolds number

63

flows

3.1

Conservation equations
3.1.1 Heat-mass transfer analogy
3.1.2 Mass, momentum and heat transfer - Transport coefficients
3.2 Steady motion and heat/mass transfer at creeping flow
3.3 Transient, creeping flow motion
3.3.1 Notes on the history term
3.3.2 Hydrodynamic force on a viscous sphere
3.3.3 Equation of motion with interfacial slip
3.3.4 Transient motion of an expanding or collapsing bubble
3.4 Transient heat/mass transfer at creeping
flow
3.5 Hydrodynamic force and heat transfer for a spheroid at creeping flow
3.6 Steady motion and heat/mass transfer at small Re and Pe
3.7 Transient hydrodynamic force at small Re
3.8 Transient heat/mass transfer at small Pe

63
65
66
69
74
76
80
81
84
85
89
93
96
102

High Reynolds number

107

4.1

4.2

flows

Flow fields around rigid and fluid spheres

4.1.1 Flow around rigid spheres
4.1.2 Flow inside and around viscous spheres
Steady hydrodynamic force and heat transfer
4.2.1 Drag on rigid spheres
4.2.2 Heat transfer from rigid spheres
4.2.3 Radiation effects
4.2.4 Drag on viscous spheres
4.2.5 Heat transfer from viscous spheres
4.2.6 Drag on viscous spheres with mass transfer - Blowing effects

107
107
114
118
118
121
122
124
128
133

Contents

xi

Heat transfer from viscous spheres with mass transfer - Blowing

effects
136
4.2.8 Effects of compressibility and rarefaction
141
4.3 Transient hydrodynamic force
144
4.4 Transient heat transfer
151
4.4.1 Transient temperature measurements
155

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4.2.7

Non-spherical particles, bubbles and drops

157

5.1

Transport coefficients of rigid particles at low Re

5.1.1 Hydrodynamic force and drag coefficients
5.1.2 Heat and mass transfer coefficients
5.2 Hydrodynamic force for rigid particles at high Re
5.2.1 Drag coefficients for disks and spheroids
5.2.2 Drag coefficients and flow patterns around cylinders
5.2.3 Drag coefficients of irregular particles
5.3 Heat transfer for rigid particles at high Re
5.3.1 Heat transfer coefficients for disks and spheroids
5.3.2 Heat transfer coefficients for cylinders
5.3.3 Heat transfer coefficients for irregular particles
5.4 Non-spherical bubbles and drops
5.4.1 Drag coefficients
5.4.2 Heat transfer coefficients

157
158
161
165
165
168
172
175
175
177
179
181
181
190

Effects of rotation, shear and boundaries

191

6.1 Effects of relative rotation

6.2 Effects of flow shear
6.3 Effects of boundaries
6.3.1 Main flow perpendicular to the boundary
6.3.2 Main flow parallel to the boundary
6.3.3 Equilibrium positions of spheres above horizontal boundaries
6.4 Constrained motion in an enclosure
6.4.1 Rigid spheres
6.4.2 Viscous spheres
6.4.3 Immersed objects at off-center positions
6.4.4 Taylor bubbles
6.4.5 Effects of enclosures on the heat and mass transfer
6.5 Effects of boundaries on bubble and drop deformation
6.6 A note on the lift force in transient flows

192
195
202
203
205
211
213
213
217
218
219
221
222
225

Effects of turbulence

227

7.1 Effects of free stream turbulence

7.2 Turbulence modulation

227
232

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7.3
7.4

Drag reduction
Turbulence models for immersed objects
7.4.1 The trajectory model
7.4.2 The Monte-Carlo method
7.4.3 The two-fluid model
7.5 Heat transfer in pipelines with particulates
7.6 Turbophoresis and wall deposition
7.7 Turbulence and coalescence of viscous spheres

238
242
242
243
251
254
256
260

Electro-kinetic, thermo-kinetic and porosity effects

261

8.1

261
262
264
265
268
270
272
278
280
282
283
284
285
286

8.2
8.3

8.4

Electrophoresis
8.1.1 Electrophoretic motion
8.1.2 Electro-osmosis
8.1.3 Effects of the double layer on the electrophoretic motion
8.1.4 Electrophoresis incapillaries-microelectrophoresis
Brownian motion
Thermophoresis
8.3.1 Particle interactions and wall effects in thermophoresis
8.3.2 Thermophoresis in turbulent flows
Porous particles
8.4.1 Surface boundary conditions
8.4.2 Drag force on a porous sphere at low Re
8.4.3 Heat transfer from porous particles
8.4.4 Mass transfer from an object inside a porous medium

Effects of higher concentration and collisions

289

9.1

289
290
296
297
298
306
307
307
308
311
312
316
318
319
322
323

9.2

9.3

9.4
9.5

Interactions between dispersed objects

9.1.1 Hydrodynamic interactions
9.1.2 Thermal interactions and phase change
Effects of concentration
9.2.1 Effects on the hydrodynamic force
9.2.2 Effects on the heat transfer
9.2.3 Bubble columns
Collisions of spheres
9.3.1 Hard sphere model
9.3.2 Soft-sphere model
9.3.3 Drop collisions and coalescence
Collisions with a wall - Mechanical effects
Heat transfer during wall collisions
9.5.1 Spray deposition
9.5.2 Cooling enhancement by drop impingement
9.5.3 Critical heat flux with drops

Contents

10. Molecular and statistical modeling

10.1 Molecular dynamics
10.1.1 MD applications with particles, bubbles and drops
10.2 Stokesian dynamics
10.3 Statistical methods
10.3.1 The probability distribution function (PDF)

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11. Numerical methods-CFD

11.1 Forms of Navier-Stokes equations used in CFD
11.1.1 Primitive variables
11.1.2 Streamfunction-vorticity
11.1.3 False transients
11.2 Finite difference method
11.3 Spectral and finite-element methods
11.3.1 The spectral method
11.3.2 The finite element and finite volume methods
11.4 The Lattice-Boltzmann method
11.5 The force coupling method
11.6 Turbulent flow models
11.6.1 Direct numerical simulations (DNS)
11.6.2 Reynolds decomposition and averaged equations
11.6.3 The k- model
11.6.4 Large Eddy simulations (LES)
11.7 Potential flow-boundary integral method

xiii

325
325
331
333
337
338

343
345
345
346
347
348
350
350
351
354
359
360
360
364
365
367
370

References

373

Subject Index

407