NarragansettBay:HowHumanImpactHasAlteredOneofRIs

MostValuableResources

ByMaceyFarnsworth

BRISTOL,R.I.__StandalongtherockyshorelineatColtStateParkinBristol.Lookleftand
right,upanddownthesprawlingwaters.Gazeacrossthevastbaytotheoppositeshore.Take
justamomenttoappreciatethebeautyofNarragansettBay,thelargestestuaryinNewEngland
2
whichcovers147miles
andcradlesover30islandsranginginsize.

Nowlookdownintothewater.Thepicturesquebeautystopsassoonasthewaterdancesupon
theshore.Beneathyourfeetisacoastlinelitteredwithmoundsandmoundsofgarbage.Wedged
betweentherocksyouwillfindcigarettebuttsandfishingline,discardedcondomsandsoiled
diapers.Againandagainthewaterskipsontoshore,momentarilyhidingthefilth,beforethetide
pullsitoutandexposesthemessoncemore.Thetideissuckedawayastheconstantrhythmof
wavesscoopsdebrisfromtheshoreandcarriesitoff.TheBayspitstrashbackatoptherocksjust
asitsweepssandoffthebeach.Anendlessexchangeofemptywaterbottles,foodwrappers,
takeoutcontainers,sodacansandclothingcontinues,betweenthewaterandshoreuntilahuman
handreachesdownandthrowsitallintoablackgarbagebag.

Todaythosehumanhandsbelongto23volunteersfromCitizensBankinCranston.Theyall
wearthesameKermittheFroggreentshirt,thecolorofthebankslogo.Thegroupishushedas
directionsandsafetytipsarespelledoutbytheoperationsassistantfromSavetheBay,Stan
Dimock.

Plastic,saysDimockashestopsmidsentencetobendoverandpickupabagblowinginthe
wind.

AccordingtotheOceanConservancy,plasticbagsareoneofthemostcommontypesofdebris
foundmostoftenincoastalcleanups.Plasticbagscanberecycledatmostgrocerystoresand
largeretailers.

Still,itshocksDimockthatmorepeopledontmakethesmallefforttoplacetheirbagsina
designatedbininsteadoflettingthemblowintothebaywheretheydestroythelivesofmarine
species.OffthecoastofCalifornia,forexample,plasticbagsaremistakenforfoodbythe
leatherbackseaturtle.Theplasticblockstheturtlesdigestivetractleadingtoanexcessamount
ofgasintheirstomachs.Thegasmakestheturtlestoobuoyant,theycannolongerdivebelow
thesurfaceforfood.

DimocksportsSavetheBaygearfromheadtotoe.Fiftynineyearsoldhisgrayhairistucked
beneathatanSavetheBaybaseballhatandhislongframeiscoveredbyablackSavetheBay
quarterzipfleece.HehasbeenwithSavetheBay,inbothfullandparttimecapacities,since
1998.Hehasapassiontoprotectthebayandcleanupthepollutedshorelines,andhisjobdoes
notrunona40houraweekschedule.Hepicksupafterpeoplewhereverhegoesasifthe

cleanlinessofBristol,wherehelives,liessolelyonhisshoulders.Atleastonceaweekhesets
outfromIndependenceParkandworkshiswaydownThamesStreetallthewaytotheCoast
GuardStationonConstitutionStreet.FromthewaterfronthemovesupwardtoHopeStreetall
thewhilepickinguptrashleftbehindbycarelessvisitors.

Dimockspotstrashonthestreeteverywherehegoes.Itsalmostasifthegarbagefindshim.As
hewalksdownthestreetonanygivendayhiseyesdartfromsidewalktoflowerbedtocurbside
withtheobjectivetoremoveanylitterinhispath.HisgoaltomakeRhodeIslandcleanerhas
turnedintoahealthyobsession.

Dimocksdesiretoprotecttheplanetwassparkedbythenationalmovementofthe1970s.In
1970whenthefirstEarthDaywasheldDimockrecognizedtheimportanceoftheeventandit
inspiredanappreciationtocareforhiscommunity.

NarragansettBayhasseenasteepturnaroundinitsoverallqualityoverthepastfourdecades.
Before1972whentheCleanWaterAct(CWA)waspassedtherewerenoregulationsaboutwhat
couldbedumpedintothebay.Fordecades,thebaywasusedaspersonalsewersanddrainage
binsleavingbehindawakeoffilth.Todayillegaldumpingispunishablebylaw.

OnthisOctoberafternoon,Dimockdistributesglovesandtrashbagstoeachofthe23volunteers
aswellasadetailedtrashlog.Thelogtrackstheprogressofthecleanup,whichisapartofa
biggereffort,theInternationalCoastalCleanup(ICC).ThisglobaleventispromotedbySavethe
Bay.Volunteersremovetrashfromcoastlinesallovertheworldandcarefullydocument
everythingtheyfind.Theresultsarecompiledworldwidetoraiseawarenessaboutmarinedebris
andtheimportanceofreducingtheproblematthesource.Nearly2,000RhodeIslanderstook
partinanICCin2014at80differentsitesacrossthestate,removinganestimated20,000pounds
oftrash.

SavetheBayisanonprofitorganizationwithonegoalinmind.The31staffmembersworkto
protecttheNarragansettBayincludingthewatershedandsurroundingwaters.Theorganizations
director,JonathanStone,saysmostofhisdayisusedtogenerateideasthatwillgetdonations
andgrantsfortheprojectstheyhaveinmind.Oneoftheseinvolvesredesigningroadswithgreen
infrastructuresthatwilldirectstormrunoffintocatchbasinsinsteadofrunningbackintothebay.
Theorganizationreliesonprivatedonorstoreachtheir$3millionannualbudget.Local
corporationslikeCitizensBanksupportthenonprofitbyencouragingtheiremployeestodonate
theirtime.

LindaHickey,theexecutiveadministrativeassistantforCitizensBankinCranstonisresponsible
fortheorganizationofOctoberscleanup.ThebanksCitizensHelpingCitizensvolunteergroup

connectedHickeywithJulyLewis,avolunteerandinternmanagerforSavetheBay,lastyear
andthecollaborationwassuchasuccess,theycontinueditin2014.

WelovebeingpartoftheInternationalCoastalCleanup,saidHickey.Wehavealotof
numbersfolksinourgroupandtheylovetheideathatwecanactuallymeasureoursuccessand
logandanalyzethedata.

The23volunteersheadout.Theyreachthewatersideandareimmediatelygreetedbygarbage.
Fortwohourseachvolunteerpushesoverrocks,sweepsthroughseaweedandsiftsthroughsand.
AllthewhileDimocksgrinispaintedeartoear.Heisinhiselement.Easytospotintheseaof
greentshirts,Dimockskipsbetweenworkerswhilehisowntrashbagfills.

For20yearsDimockworkedwithKemperInsurance,oneofthenationsleadinginsurance
agencies.Kemperspecializesinpropertyandcasualtyinsuranceandlifeandhealthinsurance
productsforindividuals,familiesandsmallbusinesses.Thecompanysellsinsurancesin47
statesaswellastheDistrictofColumbiaandemploys6,000associates.Itwasafinecareer,just
notforDimock.

Myveryfirstperformanceappraisal,mybosssatmedownandsaid,Youretooniceforthis
career,Imgoingtorecommendthatyouswitchcareers,Dimocksaid.

However,Dimocksfathertoldhimitwasagoodsensiblechoice,sohestuckwithit.Itwas
likea20yearprisonsentence,Dimocksaid.Ihateditfromdayone.

ApotentialthreattohislifehelpedDimockleavetheinsuranceworld.OnedayIgotaphone
callatworkanditwasfromanattorneyrepresentingsomeonethatoneofourinsurershadhit.
Hesaid,ImcallingyoubecauseIwantyoutotellyourbossthatyourlifeisindanger,
Dimocksaid.

Theattorneyproceededtoexplainthathisclientcameintohisofficeandslappedagunonhis
deskandsaidifhedidnotgetacertainamountofmoneythathewasgoingtotrackdown
everyoneinvolvedintheclaimandblowthemaway.

Thethreathitclosetohome.DimocklivedandworkedinPawtucketatthetime.Theclaimant
livedinPawtucketaswell.Overnight,reflectivefilmwasinstalledonallthewindowsanda
safetyplanwasputintoplace.SoonafterDimockgavehisbosshisnotice.

Sincetheearly1980sDimockwasamemberofSavetheBaybutadmitshedidntknowmuch
abouttheorganization.AfterleavingKemperinsurancehecalledthemupandaskedifhecould
volunteer.

SavetheBaywastheicingonthecaketoDimocksinsurancecareerfinallyending.Hefelta
waveofreliefwhenherealizedhecouldmakeapositiveimpactonhisworldthroughhiswork
withSavetheBayandhispersonalcleanups.Hestartedworkingwiththeorganizationasa
volunteerin1998.

IknowImdoingwhatImsupposedtobedoing,Dimocksaid.

MaureenFogarty,directorofoperationsatSavetheBay,hasworkedwithDimocksincehe
joinedtheorganization.Hiscommitmentandpassiontotheorganizationwasrecognized
immediately.HewasnamedvolunteeroftheyearduringhisfirstyearwithSavetheBay.

Hebringssuchadiversityofskillsandiswillingtosharethem.Wewouldbeatadeficit
withouthim,Fogartysaid.

ThesuccessoftheOct.9cleanupandothercoastalcleanupsalike,ismeasuredinpounds.The
23volunteers,twointernsandDimockremoved453poundsoftrashoffthecoastlineatColt
StateParkinjusttwohours.Eachitemwascarefullyrecordedandweighed:

74cigarettebutts
128foodwrappers
7plastictakeoutcontainers
9Styrofoamtakeoutcontainers
100plasticbottlecaps
18plasticlids
29straws
6forks,knivesorspoons
138plasticbottles
77glassbottles
40beveragecans
20plasticgrocerybags
34otherplasticbags
13paperbags
43papercupsandplates
63plasticcupsandplates
21piecesoffishingnet

177fishinglines
9piecesofrope
83plasticandfoampackages
14strappingbands
36tobaccowrappers
2balloons
10cigartips
5cigarettelighters
42constructionmaterials
3fireworks
1tire
1condom
1diaper
6tampon/applicators
163piecesoffoam
135piecesofglass
295piecesofplastic
1deadseagull
5balls
1blanket
2piecesofclothingincludedonejockstrap
6plasticgloves
2fullbagsofpoop

Theimpactofthetwohourcleanupwasevidentimmediately.ThemileofshorelineatColt
StateParkbecame453poundslighter.Thewavesrushedtogreetapurebeach.Thewater
danced,skippedandswirledontopofthenaturallandscape.

Onthisparticularsunnydaythewavesdidntpullanydebrisbackoutintothewater.Tothe
humaneye,thebayappearedclearofmanmadewaste.However,trashisnotthemajorpollutant
wreakinghavocamongthedelicatebiosphereofNarragansettBay.Dangerouslevelsofnitrogen
andphosphatemainlyfromsewageandrainwaterrunofffloodintothebayatalarmingrates.
Highdosesofthesechemicalscausephytoplanktonpopulationstooverproduce,whichcutsoff
sunlighttothebayfloor.Withoutsunlightplantslikeeelgrasscannotgrowandwithouteelgrass
juvenilefishspecieshavenoprotectionorsourceoffood.

ADetrimentalPast,anUncertainFuture


In1636RogerWilliams,anEnglishtheologian,wishedtoescapeharshrulesofthe
MassachusettsBayColonysoheheadedsouthandjustahairwest.Whenhelandedin
ProvidencehewasgreetedbytheNarragansetttribe.Soonthereafter,RogerWilliamsboughta
portionoflandfromthetribeandfoundedthecolonyofRhodeIslandandProvidence
Plantations.

Alandofplenty,theareawastheperfectlocationtostartanewcolony.Convenientlylocatedon
theProvidenceRiver,thecolonyspopulationgrewduringandaftertheAmericanRevolution.
Followingthewar,Providencebecametheninthmostpopulatedstateandshifteditsfocusfrom
maritimeendeavorstomanufacturing.Thepopulationofmillworkersandmanufacturing
employeesdoubledinthe1800sasRhodeIslandledtheAmericanIndustrialRevolution.
Immigrantsflockedtotheareatogetjobsbetween1860and1920thatwerecreatedfromthe
machinery,tools,textile,silverwareandjewelryfactories.Therapidincreaseinpopulation
producedvariousformsofpollution.Withnoregulationandnomeanstotreatsewage,waste
wasdumpeddirectlyintoriversandstreams,mostofwhichflowedintoNarragansettBay.

Theincreaseofmanufacturersalsosentthemarineecosystemsoffkilterinanothersense.
Printing,dyeingandbleachingcompanies,inparticular,neededvastamountofcleanwaterto
carryoutoperations.ThisledtomanyfactoriesbeingbuiltontheProvidenceRiverand
connectingstreams.Morethan15riversleadintotheNarragansettBay,amongthemarethe
SeekonkRiver,BarringtonRiver,BlackstoneRiverandWarrenRiver.

th
Attheturnofthe20
century,Providenceandtheadjoiningregionboomed.Thestatebecame
theworldsleadingproducerofjewelry.Thefocuswasontheeconomicgrowthratherthan
environmentalfactorsandthedeteriorationofthebay.

Therearesomeuglyspots,likealongtheProvidenceRiver,saidDr.DaleLeavitt,Roger
Williamsprofessorofbiology.Therearealotofcontaminantsthatweredumpedthereduring
theheydayoftheindustrializationofthatarea,whichstartedbackinthelate1800s.

In2011theNationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministrationplacedtheNarragansettBayona
listofthetop20mostcontaminatedbaysinthecountry.Mostofthepollutionwascausedby
presenceofheavymetalsthatlandedinthebayssedimentduringthe1800s.

AhabitofusingandabusingthewaterwaysaroundProvidencestartedcenturiesagoduringthe
citysfoundation.Theproblempersistedthroughtheearly1970swhentheconstantpollution
startedtoberecognized.In1970asmallnonprofitcalledSavetheBaywasformedjustasa

nationalpushforpollutionpreventionbegan.Twoyearslaterin1972theCleanWaterActwas
passedandchangedthediscussionregardingwaterpollutionforever.

SavetheBayworksto
protect,restoreandimprovetheecologicalhealthoftheNarragansettBay
region.TheorganizationstartedtheNarragansettBaykeeperprogramtoserveasthebayseyes
andears.TheBaykeeperidentifiesandrespondstoenvironmentalthreatsbystayinginclose
contactwithmembersofthebaycommunityandenvironmentalagencies.Thepositionbelongs
toTomKutcherathirdgenerationRhodeIslander.Kutcher,anenvironmentalscientistbytrade,
tookthejobtobeinapositiontomakechange.Kutchersawotherswiththeabilitytomakea
differenceandwantedtodothesame.

Ihaveasenseofobligation,Kutchersaid,notonlytoprotectthebaythatmyfamilyhas
dependedonandenjoyedandmykidshavedependedonandenjoyed,buttomakethescience
matchwhatisactuallyhappening.

Kutcher,likemanyotherenvironmentalists,seesthismomentintimeasacriticalopportunityto
changeourhabitsandthewaywelive.
Thedenselypopulatedareassurroundingthe
NarragansettBayareattherootofmostpollutionissuesthataffectthebay.TinyRhodeIslandis
thesecondmostdenselypopulatedstateinthecountry,afterNewJersey.Thecloseknit
communitiespackedalongtheshorelineshavecontributedtothebayspollution.As
infrastructureslikeroads,housesandsewerspopupinneighborhoodafterneighborhood,more
syntheticmaterialscoverthelandscapeandgroundwaterhasnowheretogo.Nature,ontheother
hand,hastheperfectsystem.Inthemiddleofthewoodsthelivingorganismsthatarerooted
deepintothegroundsoakupheavyrains.Thewaterdrainsthroughthesedimentinanatural
filtrationprocessmixingwithsaltandmineralsalongtheway.Whenthefilteredwaterreaches
backtotheclosetstream,riverorbodyofwater,ithasbeennaturallyfilteredofalltoxins.

Thisprocessofnaturalpurificationdoesnotoccurindenselypopulatedareas.Rainwaterfalls
ontohouses,roadsandanyothermanmadestructures.Withfewertreesandmoreinfrastructures,
therainwaterslidesbackintothebayfulloftoxinsandnevergetstopurgeitselfinMother
Naturesperfectsystem.DirtywaterfloodsbackintotheNarragansettBayeverytimeitrains,
whichcreatesaslewofproblemsforthebay,includingoneofthebiggest,nutrientpollution.

ScientistsfromSavetheBay,theRhodeIslandDepartmentofEnvironmentalManagement
(DEM),UniversityofRhodeIsland,RogerWilliamsUniversityandseveralothersorganizations
andinstitutionscontinuetotracktheeffectsofouractions.Theyaimtodiscovertheoutcomesof
anabundanceofnitrogenandphosphateinthewatercausedbynutrientpollution.They
investigatetheconsequencesofthebayheatingupevenafewdegreesfromthermalpollution
andglobalwarming.Andtheyexploretheeffectsthatbiologicalpollutionhasonthedelicate

ecosystemsofthebay.Whenaspeciesisintroducedtoanenvironment,liketheAsianshorecrab
intheNarragansettBay,andpushesanotherspeciesout,likethegreencrab,therecanbe
repercussions.

However,notallscientistsagreeonwhatthemostthreateningpollutantisatthemomentand
thatispartoftheproblem.Becauseofthedebateaboutwhatisthemostdetrimentalpollutant
affectingthebay,scarceresourcesarespreadthin.Thereisabroadagreementamongscientists
ononequestionhowever:thefutureofNarragansettBayishardtopredict.

Itiseasytorecognizethatunnaturalthingsarehappening,suchaswhen,nitrogenfloodsthe
bay,whichallowsphytoplanktontogrowataninfiniterate.Butlongtermconsequencesofour
actionsarelessclear.Twentyor30yearsfromnow,RhodeIslanderscouldlookbackonthis
momentandrealizetheymissedtheopportunitytosavetheirreplaceableNarragansettBay.

Overthepastfourdecadestherehavebeennotablechangesinthequalityofthebay.Today
manyprojectsareunderwaythataimtoimprovetheconditionofthewaterandthelivesofthe
organismswithin.TheseprojectsincludetheconstructionofProvidencesCombinedSewage
Overflowtanks,whichareaseriesofmassivetunnelsbeneaththecityofProvidence.The
tunnelscollectandholdrainwateruntilthegroundbecomespermeableagainafterarainstorm.
Therainisthenslowlyreleasedinamanneritcanbeprocessedbythegroundandwastewater
treatmentfacilitiesinsteadoffloodingbackintothebayuntreated.RogerWilliamUniversitys
OysterGardeningforRestorationandEnhancementProgramisanotherprojectaimedat
generatinganeducationalconversationwhileincreasingthequalityofthebay.Theprojectsgoal
istogrowoystersandthendistributethemthroughoutthestateatvolunteersiteswherethe
oysterscontinuetogrowwhilefilteringwater.Thehostsitesactsasaprotectivehomeswhilethe
oystersmature.

CarelessHabitsYieldUnfavorableConditions

In1972theCleanWaterAct(CWA)wasamendedfromthe
thefederalWaterPollutionControl
Actof1948
,whentheNarragansettBaywasatthepinnacleofpollution.TheCleanWaterActis
akeylandmarktotracktheprogressthebayhasmadeovertheyears.Itsetsstandardsforall
statestomeet.Itregulatesthequalityofwaterthatcomesfrompointsourcesanddeterminesthe
acceptablelevelsofbacteriathatcanbereleased.Pointsourcesareeasilyregulatedbecausethey
producewastethroughonepointofdischarge,oronepipe.TheCWAdoesnotregulatepoint
sourcesthesamewayasnonpointsourceswhichareagriculturalfarmsforexample,thathave
nitrogenfrommanureseepingintothegroundthroughvariouspoints.

EverytwoyearsthestateDepartmentofEnvironmentalManagementandtheEnvironmental
ProtectionAgency(EPA)monitorpointsourcesacrossRhodeIslandandcompilealistof
sourcesthatdonotmeetCWAregulations.Allsourcesthatfailtocomplyareplacedonan
impairedwaterslist.ATotalMaximumDailyLoad(TMDL)Programiscalculatedforeach
sourceontheimpairedwaterlist.TheTMDLisarestorationplanthatworkswiththesourceto
gettheirwatersbacktoregulation.

HeidiTravers,seniorengineeratDEMhasworkedwithimpairedwatersfor15years.Anative
RhodeIslander,sheappreciateshowtheCleanWaterActhasaffectedtheturnaroundofthebay.

IcouldlookoutmywindowonthePawtucketRiverandknowwhatcolortheplantwasdyeing
upstream,thewaterwouldbecolorful.Iftheriverwaspurpleweknewtheywereusingpurple
dye,Traverssaid.Allwehadtodowasmakeafewphonecallsandthewaterwouldreturnto
normal.

TheCWArequiredthatactiontobetakenagainstdetrimentalpointsourcedumping.Foryears
beforetheCWAanythingandeverythingcouldbepumpedintothebay.

WhenProvidencewasabustlingcityfullofthecountrystopjewelersintheearlyandmid
1900s,environmentalprotectionwasnthighonthelistofpriorities.Infact,fewAmericans
knewabouttheimpactsuchtoxinswerehavingontheirwatersupply,soilandair.Companies
wereallowedtopolluteforyears,dumpingtheresidueofprinting,dyeingandbleachingdirectly
intothewaterways.Cleanwaterwasusedtodeveloptheirproductanddirty,greasywaterwas
pumpedbackintothebay.

In1870theCityofProvidenceconstructedasewagesystemthattunneledthesewageoutofthe
cityanddirectlyintotheProvidenceRiverthrough65seweroutfalls.In1901chemical
precipitation,whichformedsolidsofallsewage,beganatawastewatertreatmentfacilitycalled
FieldsPoint.Theprecipitatedsewagewasaquickfix.Itcreatedlargeamountsofsludgerather
thanloosesewagethatcouldfloatanywhere.However,withthequicklygrowingpopulation,that
methodofwastedisposalwassoonoutdatedaswell.Until1950thecitydumpedlargeamounts
ofprecipitatedsewagesdirectlyintoNarragansettBayjusteastofPrudenceIsland.

FieldsPointundertookthesameprocesswithmetalriddenwastewaters.Compactingthrough
chemicalreactionsthewastewasturnedintosolidsanddumpedinthebaysouthofPrudence
Islanduntil1950.By1976whenJonathanStone,thecurrentexecutivedirectorofSavetheBay,
roweddowntheSeekonkRiverasamemberoftheBrownUniversitycrewteam,thebayhad
reachedtheheightoffilth.Yellowfoamspewedfromfactoriesintothewater.Foamfloated
downtheriverpasttheirboatsandintothebay.


WiththeestablishmentofSavetheBayin1970,RhodeIslandersstartedtotakenoticeofjust
howseverethepollutionwas.Slowlychangebegan.Alawwaspassedmakingitillegalfor
companiestopumprawsewageandwastedirectlyintothebay.Duringthe1970sfactories
startedoutsourcingtheircompaniesoverseas,whichcutdownonpollution.Pollutantswereno
longerasvisibleastheyoncewere.Microscopictoxinsarenowthemainconcernasnitrogen
pumpsintothebayfromoverflowingcombinedsewagesystemsandharmfullawnchemicals.
Theexcessnutrientsleadtoanabundanceofphytoplanktonandtheresultscanbedeadlyfor
speciesoffish.

PollutionAtoZ

Pollutioncomesinvariousshapesandsizes.Biologicalpollution,thermalpollutionandnutrient
pollutionallplayamajorrolesinthedisruptionofthenaturalwaysoftheNarragansettBay.

Biologicalpollutionisthedisplacementofspeciesduetotheintroductionofanother.Thealien
speciesoftenhasadverseaffectsonthenativespeciesandforcesthenativespeciesoutoftheir
habitat.IntheNarragansettBay,theAsianshorecrabdisplacedthegreencrab.TheAsianshore
crabisbelievedtohavebeenbroughttotheEastCoastfromincomingshipsofglobaltradein
1988.TheAsianshorecrabisextremelyversatileintheireffortstosurvive.Theyliveinshallow
waterswithvaryinglevelsofsalt.TheyreproducefromMaytoSeptember,whichistwicethe
lengthofnativecrabs.

TheAsianshorecrabpopulationhasmovednorthuptheAtlanticCoastdisplacingothercrab
speciesalongtheway.Interestingly,thegreencrabwasnotnativetoNarragansettBayeither.
Introducedinthe19thcenturyfromEurope,thegreencrabestablisheditselfasthepredominant
speciesinthebayscoastalenvironment.Todaytheirpresencecannolongerbefoundinrocky
areasastheyhavebeenforcedtomoveintosaltmarshes.Dr.TimothyScott,associateprofessor
ofbiologyatRogerWilliamsUniversity,hasseentheshiftinspeciesfirsthand.

WhenIfirstcamehere15yearsago,ifIwentdowntothebeachandIturnedoverarock,there
weregreencrabseverywhere.Today,wecouldgodownthererightnowandturnoverarock
andyouwouldntfindanythingbutAsianshorecrabs,saidScott.

Dr.DaleLeavitt,aRogerWilliamsUniversityprofessorwithanexpertiseinaquacultureand
animalnutrition,agrees.

OnceinawhileyoumightseeamudcrabbutforthemostparttheAsianshorecrabistheonly
thingthere,Leavittsaid.Itsforcedeverythingout.

Thegreencrabhasbeendisplacedbutithasnotbecomeextinctinthearea.

ItdoesntappearthatthesystemdynamicofthingshavechangedsincetheAsianshorecrab
tookover,saidLeavitt.

ForthattheNarragansettBayisfortunate.However,manyspecieshavenotbeenasfortunate
whenitcomestomatterssuchasthermalpollution.

Thermalpollutionisthedegradationofwaterqualitybyachangeinwatertemperature.The
BraytonPointPowerStation,whichislocatedinSomerset,Massachusettsonthenorthernendof
theMountHopeBay,anEasternsectionoftheNarragansettBay,startedoperationsin1963.Itis
thelargestcoalfiredpowerplantinNewEnglandandcanprovidepowerto1.5millionhomesin
theregion.ButtheBraytonPointPowerStationhasbeendetrimentaltothebay.BeforeJuly22,
2002whentheEPAandtheMassachusettsDEPissuedaNationalPollutantDischarge
EliminationSystem(NPDES)Permittothepowerplant,itwasresponsibleforthedeathof
billionsoffisheveryyear.

BraytonPointwasdrawinginonebilliongallonsofwaterfromMountHopeBayeverydayto
condensestreamthatwasproducedtocreateelectricity.Inoneyeartheentirecontentsofthe
MountHopeBaywouldbecirculatedthroughBraytonPointsoncethroughcoolingsystem
seventimes.Afterpassingthroughthecoolingsystemthewaterreturnedtothebayat95
degrees
Fahrenheit.Throughnumerouscyclestheoveralltemperatureofthebaywasraised1.5
degrees
Fahrenheit,whichhadamonumentaleffectonnumerousspeciesoffish.

WhenthetowerpulledinwaterfromtheMountHopeBay,billionsoffisheggs,larvaeand
largerorganismswerealsopulledintothepowerplant.Theorganismsweretrappedinthe
facilityandkilledbyextremetemperaturesandchemicalexposure.Manyspeciesoffishsuffered
anunfortunatefateduetotheprocess.Forexample,251millionwinterflounderlarvae,3.5
billiontautogeggs,11.8billionbayanchovyand375millionwindowpanefloundereggswere
harmedeveryyear.Theplantwasresponsibleforthedeathofbillionsoffishthatareimportant
forcommercialandrecreationaluse.

WhentheEPAandMassachusettsDepartmentofEnvironmentalProtectionissuedaNational
PollutantDischargeEliminationSystempermitin2002theownerofBraytonPointwas
DominionEnergy.ForfiveyearsDominionfoughtthechargesinandoutofthecourtsystem.
Finally,in2007Dominionputanendtothelegaldisputes.Dominionagreedtochangethe

coolingsystemfromanopentoaclosedsystem.Insteadofthewaterflowingthroughthefacility
andrightbackintothebay,itwouldhavetopassthroughcoolingtowersfirst.Theinstallationof
two500feettallcoolingtowerswouldreducetheannualheatdischargeintothebayfrom42
trillionBritishThermalUnits(BTUs)to1.7BTUsperyear.Inaddition,thecoolingtowers
woulddecreasetheannualfisherieslostby94%.

Dominioninvested$620milliontoinstallthemassivetowers.Othersmalleroptionswere
consideredbutwerenoisierandmorecostlytomaintain.Thetowershavethecapacitytopump
morethananolympicsizeswimmingpoolofwatereveryminute.Butthetowerswerentenough
tosavetheplant.

In2013EnergyCapitalPartnerspurchasedBraytonPoint,alongwithtwoothercoalburning
plants,fromDominionEnergyforacombinedtotalof$650million.AtBraytonPointspeakin
2010,theplantwasthelargestsinglesourceofcarbondioxideinMassachusetts.Over6.3
milliontonsofcarbondioxidewereemittedannually.Shortlyafterthesalewasfinalized,Energy
Capitalannouncedtheplantwouldbeclosedby2017.

OvertheyearsBraytonPointhasreceivedalotofpressurefromgroupsliketheConservation
LawFoundationtoshutdowntheplant.However,thatdidnotplayintoEnergyCapitals
decision.

Itallhastodowiththeeconomicsinvolvedinrunningtheplant,saidMeredithSimasthe
environmentalsupervisoratBraytonPoint.

OnMay21,2017over200employeeswillwalkoutofthedoorsatBraytonPointStationandbe
outofwork.Twoofthemainreasonstheplantwillfinallyshutdownistheincreasingpriceof
coalandthedecreaseinpriceofnaturalgas.Coalpoweredplantsarenolongerfeasiblefor
operation.

CoalpoweredplantsarebeingshutdownacrossNewEnglandduetotheirnegativeimpacton
theenvironment.Likewaterpollution,therearemanydifferentdetrimentalformsofair
pollution.Burninglargeamountsofcoalcanproducesmog.Smogwasfirstidentifiedinthe
1950sandisaharmfulcombinationofsmokeandfog.Usuallyforminginlargercities,smogcan
makebreathingdifficultfortheyoungandelderly.

Althoughsmogisvisibleintheatmosphereitisnotasdangerousasgreenhousegasesareforthe
environment.Greenhousegasesfillthe
Earths
atmosphere.Theyallowsunlightinbutdonot
allowitbackout.AportionoflightreboundsoftheEarthssurfaceasradiation.Greenhouse

gasestraptheradiationanddonotallowittoexittheatmosphere.Asthetrappedradiationheats
uptheaveragetemperaturerisesacrosstheplanet,commonlyknownasglobalwarming.

Greenhousegasesmainlycomefromburningfossilfuels.Fossilfuelsaremillionsofyearsold
andwereformedfromthecompressionofdeadanimals.Thereisalimitedsupply.TheUnited
Statesonlyhasfivepercentoftheworldspopulationbutburnsoveraquarteroftheworlds
supplyoffossilfuels.Nearly90percentofgreenhousegasesintheUnitedStatesareformed
fromburningfossilfuelslikecoal,justasBraytonPointhasdoneforyears.

LiketheCleanWaterAct,theCleanAirActwaspassedduringthenationalpushforacleaner
planet.TheCleanAirActwasestablishedin1970.Thegoalwastoreducethepollution
pumpingintotheatmospheretoslowdownglobalwarming.TheCleanAirActregulates
emissionfromstationarysources,likepowerplantsandmobilesourceslikecarsandplanes.The
EnvironmentalProtectionAgencyestablishesairqualitystandardsforcommonpollutants.Over
thepast100yearstheaveragetemperatureontheEarthhasrisenlessthanonedegree.Scientists
areinapositiontoaddressthelongtermeffectsofgradualchange.

Climatechangeisaslowprocessthatwerejuststartingtogetahandleon,saidProfessor
Leavitt.

TheWardHuntIceShelfisthelargestsinglesheetoficeintheArcticandhasbeenaroundfor
3,000years.In2000itstartedtocrackfromtherisingtemperature.Sincethen,thesheethas
crackedallthewaythroughandlargepieceshavefallenoff.Icecapsinthe
Arctic
areshrinking
byninepercenteachdecade.Ifthistrendcontinues,summersintheArcticwillbefreeoficeby
theendofthecentury.Speciesthathaveoncelivedontheicecapslikepolarbearsareforcedto
changetheirmigrationhabitstosurvive.Nativepeoplewhohavehuntedpolarbears,walrusand
sealsonthecapsareforcedtolookelsewhereforvaluableresourcesastheanimalsrelocate.Air
pollutionaffectsecosystemsacrosstheglobe.Thequalityofairdecreasedfromtheburningof
fossilfuelslikecoal,globalwarminghasnegativelyaffectedmarinespeciesaswell.

ToseetothepollutionaffectingtheNarragansettBay,getoutyourmicroscopetoexaminethe
micronlengthphytoplanktongrowingexponentially.Nutrientpollutionisdetrimentalacrossthe
UnitedStatesandiscausedfromexcessamountsofnitrogenandphosphorusinthewater.These
nutrientsoccurnaturally.Butwhentheyareoverloaded,theresultshavebeendeadly.High
levelsofpopulationleadtohigherlevelsofnutrientsinthewater.Thereisadirectcorrelation
betweenpopulationandnutrientpollution.NearlytwomillionpeopleliveintheNarragansett
Watershed,whichfeedsintotheNarragansettBay.

Themainsourcesofnutrientpollutionaresewagetreatmentplants,stormwaterrunoff,
agriculturalfieldsandfertilizerrunoff.Whennutrientsfloodintothebayphytoplanktongrow
fasterthantheecosystemcanhandle.Shellfishfeedoffofphytoplankton.Atfirstglance,it
wouldappearthatextranutrientsinthewaterleadingtomorefeedforoneofRhodeIslandstop
industriescouldbepositive.However,thatisnotthecase.

Turnsoutitstoomuchofagoodthing.Therehasalwaysbeennitrogeninthewater,therewas
anormalbalancebeforewechangedthelandscape,saidStone,SavetheBaysexecutive
director.

Denselypopulatedareasexperiencethemostnegativerepercussionsfromstormwaterrunoff.
Theheavyconcentrationofinfrastructuremakesitimpossibleforstormwatertofilterbackinto
theground.Insteadthepollutedwatercarryingbacteria,nitrogenandotherharmfulelements
draindirectlyintothebay.

Whennitrogenexistsathighlevels,algaeovergrowsandsunlightcannotreachtheoceanfloor
whichaffectsbottomfeederslikelobster.Lobstershavetomovetowardtheshorelineinsearch
ofsunlightandoxygen,whicharebothreducedbytheovergrowthofalgae.Speciesbecome
displacedfromtheirnaturalhabitats.Marineplantslikezostera,commonlyknownaseelgrass,
arenegativelyimpactedbythelackofsunlightandoverpopulationofalgae.Eelgrassprovides
foodandshelterformanyjuvenilespecies.Italsoservesasabottomlinkinthefoodchangeasit
photosynthesizes,whichiswhenplantsusesunlighttocreateenergy.Butwithoutsunlight,the
eelgrasscantflourish,andthereis,therefore,nophotosynthesizing.

Algaebloomsarecausedfromlargeamountsofnitrogeninthewaterandcanbedangerousto
fishandhumans.Algaeproducesatinfiniteandrapidratesthattheecosystemcannotsupport.
Whenlargeamountsofalgaebloom,largeamountsofalgaedecompose.Thedecompositionof
alllivingthingsrequiresoxygen.Asoxygendepletesfromthewaterotherspeciescannot
surviveandananoxiceventtakesplace.Anoxiaisthetotaldepletionofoxygen.OnAugust20,
2003adeadlyeventoccurredinGreenwichBayasadirectresultfromanalgaebloom.

Onemillionfishdied,mostofwhichwerejuvenilemenhaden.Commonlyknownas
mossbunker,menhadenplayakeyroleinthefoodchainbetweenplanktonandupperlevel
predators.HeavyrainfallinearlyAugustcreatedtheperfectbreedinggroundformicroscopic
phytoplankton,thefastestgrowingofthespecies.Oxygenlevelsdroppedtozeroonthatdayin
August.Manyfishsuffocatedasaresult.

Theimmediateimpactfromexcessnitrogeninthewaterisadecreaseinoxygenorananoxic
eventthatleadstothedeathoffishandcanbedangeroustohumansduetothelargepresenceof
bacteria.Howeverthelongtermeffectsarestillamystery.

Wererightinthemiddleofthesethingsnowsothereareahugeamountofunknowns,said
ProfessorLeavitt.Itcouldbedecadesbeforeweunderstandwhathasbeenhappeningfroma
biologicalstandpoint.

FromaphysicalstandpointitisclearthatthepollutioninNarragansettBayhasleadtothedeath
offish.Italsoforcestheclosingsofmanybeachesforswimminginthesummermonthsand
harvestingshellfish.Afterarainstormthebacteriainthewaterrisesdramaticallyandmakes
shellfishdangerousforconsumption.Watersnearsewagetreatmentplantsareoftenpermanently
closedduetothehighlevelsofcontamination.Thestatemeasuresbacterialevelsinthewater
andratesthebeachesonathreepointscale,eitheropen,conditionalorclosed.

WatersneartheProvidenceRiverandnearBraytonPointPowerStationarepermanentlyclosed
fromthehighlevelsofpollution.Itdoesnotappearthattheseareaswilleverbeopen.Roger
WilliamsUniversitybiologistshaveworkedhardtocleanupasmallstripofbeachonthe
universityscampustohaveaconditionalrating,oneoftheonlysectionsintheMountHopeBay
notclosed.Theconditionalratingisaslikelyasgoodasitwillgetbutthatdoesntstoptheeffort
todomore.Oneofthereasonsthewaterisconsideredconditionalinthissmallareaisfromthe
workdonebytheCenterforEconomic&EnvironmentalDevelopment(CEED.)CEEDishome
toRhodeIslandsonlyshellfishhatchery.

CEEDwasestablishedin1997witha$2milliongrantfromtheEconomicDevelopment
AdministrationoftheDepartmentofCommerce.Withthegrant,theMarineandNaturalScience
BuildingwasbuiltontheRogerWilliamscampus.In2006,CEEDstartedtheOysterGardening
forRestorationandEnhancement(ORGE)Program.Ifyouhappentobewalkingthroughthe
RogerWilliamscampusonanygivendayyoucancatchaglimpseoftheprogram.

WalkbehindBaysideResidenceHalls,pasttheongoingSailingCenterconstruction,down
throughasmallwoodedareatoreachtheMountHopeBay.Connectedtothenorthsideofthe
dockare27oysterfloats.Connectedtothesouthsideofthedockareeightmorefloats.Strung
togetherbyrope,thefloatsremainsafelyconnectedtogetherandanchoredtothedock.

Onarecentautumnday,StevePatterson,theshellfishfieldmanager,isafloatasmallmotorboat
tuggingontheropesthatconnectthefloatstogether.Astormthedaybeforeblewthefloatsout
ofalignment.

Theylooklikegeometrynow,right?ThatswhatIstrivefor,Pattersonyellsfrom15feetoff
shore.

Hetugsandpullsontheropestoalignthewhiteoysterfloats,almosttopplingoverthebowof
hissmallboat.Pattersonwearswaterproofoveralls.Thesleevesofhisgrayhoodedsweatshirt
arewetuptohiselbows.Oystersareadirtybusiness,hesays.

Buttheeffortisworththereward.Since2006theOGREProgramhascollectedanywhere
betweenfiveandsixmillionoysterstoplaceatsanctuariesacrossthestate.

Oystersarefilterfeeders,meaningtheyhavetoeattobreathe.Duringthisprocessofsurvivalthe
watertakeninbytheoysterisnaturallyfiltered.Oystershavetheabilitytofiltersomethingthree
micronsinsize,whichisthreethousandthsofamillimeter,outofthewater.Anoystertakes
cloudywaterandmakesitclean,whichallowssunlighttoreachdeeperintothebaythus,more
organismscansurvive.Anadultoystercanfilter50gallonsofwaterperday.Oystersareakey
linkinthenaturalfiltrationprocess.

Inthe1990sRhodeIslandlost98percentofitsoysterpopulation.Allofasuddenoysters,
whichcanlivemorethan20years,werenotgrowingpasttheirthirdseason.Theywerebeing
killedbyaunicellularparasitecalledDermo.Dermoaffectsthemuscleintheoysterthatholds
theirshellclosed.Fewoystersurvived.Becausesomanyoystersdiedjustbeforetheirthird
growingseason,therewasasharpdeclineinthepopulationduetotheoystersreproduction
habits.Oystersaremalepriortothethirdgrowingseason.Followingthethirdgrowingseason
theycanbecomefemalestoreproduce.Thus,verylittlereproductionhappenedbecausefew
oystersmadeittofemalelifespan.Thisiswhyifyouorderoystersatyourfavoritelocaleatery
theymayonlybeafewincheslong.Oystersaretypicallyharvestedbeforethethirdgrowing
seasontoensurethattheywontbekilledthefollowingyear.Shellfishermenhadtoharvest
thembeforetheywerelosttoDermo.

Patterson,alongwithhisfellowscientistsatCEEDsawDermoasaseriousthreat.Theytookthe
survivingfemaleoystersthathadfoughtoffthediseaseandputthemtogethertoproduceDermo
resistantoysters.TheOGREProgramproducedoysterstohelpreducepollution,tocreatea
diseaseresistantoyster,andalsotopromoteeducation.Inthefirstsummeroftheprogram
Pattersonhad18volunteersites.Thispastyear,theprogramsninthseason,Pattersonhad111
volunteersitesinterestedintheproject.Whenhispreciousoystersarethroughtheirfirstseason
hetakesthemoutofspeciallydesignedbucketsthatstayonthedockandplacesthemintooyster
floatstobobinthebay.Afterthesecondseason,floatsaredeliveredtovolunteersites.Thework
requiredbythevolunteersitesisminimal.

Alltheyhavetodoisflushandfliptheoysters.Itellthemitslikebrushingyourteeth,youcan
neverdoittoomuch,Pattersonsaid.

Volunteersshaketheirbagsfullofoysterstoredistributethemthroughoutsotheyallgetflushed
andflipped.Thisprocessensuresthatalloftheoystershaveequallyopportunitytosoakupthe
sunlight.InNovemberPattersonandhisteamcollecttheoystersfromthevolunteersites.They
arethendistributedtosevendifferentsanctuariesacrossthestate.Theoretically,alloftheoysters
couldremainconnectedtotheRogerWilliamsdockthroughouttheyear.However,that
decreasesthenumberofRhodeIslanderswhocanlearnabouttheoyster.Volunteersitesare
criticaltopassalongtheknowledgeabouttheconditionofthebayandthediseasethathasso
greatlyaffectedtheoyster.

TheOGREProgramissmallincomparisontotheeffortmadebytheNarragansettBay
Commission(NBC)tobetterthequalityofthebay.Intheearly1990scombinedsewageand
stormwaterwouldoverflowintotheupperNarragansettBayanaverageof71timesayear,
forcingbeachclosures.Ahalfaninchofrainwouldcausebeachandshellfishharvesting
closuresthroughoutthebay.In2001,thatchangedforever.

Atthestartofthe20thcenturymanycitiesusedasinglepipetoremovesewageandrainwater.
Thesystemworkedfineondrydays.Thatwasntthecaseduringrainstorms.

Historically,whenwehadalotofrain,theywouldjustopenthefloodgatesandletalltheraw
sewageandstreetrunoffrundirectlyintothebaybecausethey[wastewatertreatmentfacilities]
couldnthandleit,saidProfessorLeavitt.

TheCleanWaterActmandatedtheCombinedSewerOverflowProjecttocutdownonthe
numberofoverflowseveryyear.

TheNBCdevelopedtheCombinedSewerOverflowProject,whichwouldbeconstructedin
threephases.Thefirstphasestartedin2001andcostmorethan$350million.Builtunder
Providence,phaseonewastheconstructionofathreemilelongpipethatis26feetindiameter.
Thegiantpipeopenedforusein2008andhadtheabilitytoholdmillionsofuntreatedcombined
sewageandrunoff.Insteadofbeachclosuresafterahalfinchofrain,thetunnelallowedforan
inchandahalfofrainbeforeanoverflowoccurred.Phasetwoandphasethreefurtherthe
constructionundergroundandwillincreasetheamountofrainfallthatthesystemcanprocess.
Phasetwoiscurrentlyunderconstructionandissettofinishinthespringof2015.Phasethree
willbeginconstructionin2017ifallgoesaccordingtoplan.WhenPhaseonebeganin2001it
wasthesinglelargestcivilworksprojectinRhodeIslandHistory.Thetotalcostoftheprojectis
estimatedtobe$1.3billion.Oncefinishedthenumberofannualbeachclosureswilldecreaseby

98percent.However,ifrainwatercantflowintodrainagebinstheeffortisnearlyuseless.
Leavesandotherdebrisclogdrainagebinsfrequently.ThetownofBristoldoesntemploy
anyonetoremoveleavesfromtheroadsthataremissedbythestreetsweeper.Theydonthaveto.
Onemanwilldotheworkofateam.

APassiontoBeautify

AredplasticrakescratchesalongthepavementonThamesStreet.Brown,drenchedleavesare
pulledawayfromthecurb.Barehands,coldandsoakedwithmud,reachdowntopicktheleaves
offtheroadandplacethemintoatanpaperbag.Thereisnohourlywageandnolunchbreakto
escapethepersistentfallingsnowandwind.ButforStanDimocktheredoesnthavetobe.

Ithriveonthis,Dimocksaid.Itssorewardingonsomanylevels.Idrivearoundthinkingyay
itsstillclean.

NooneasksDimocktometiculouslycleanthetownonhisdaysoff.Infactoneresidenthasbeen
lessthanpleasedwithhisefforts.

Thishomeownerdoesntlikeleafbagsontheircurb,Dimocksaid.Igotreallychewedoutby
herson.

Dimockbuysthebags,rakestheleaves,andthenhaulsofftheloadsoitdoesntupsetthe
residents.Herakesleavesoffthestreetfornearlysixhours.Alone,hepassesthetimebyplaying
gameswithhimself.Helooksfortreasureandchallengeshimselftoraketothenextparking
spaceline.

TherewasnotreasurealongthevastareaofThamesorBradfordStreetpickedcleanbyDimock.
Apennywasallhefound.Buthedoesntdoitforaprizeandhedoesntdoitforthe
recognition.Hesimplydoesittobetterthetown.

IfIdontdoit,nooneelsewill,saidDimock.

Sources
JamieWarner9/24InPerson
SavetheBayIntern
9149603559
jwarner839@g.rwu.edu

StanDimock9/30InPerson
OperationsAssistantSavetheBay
4016444268
bayguy@icloud.com

TimothyScott10/1Inperson
BiologyProfessoratRWU,Aquaculture&MarineHabitatRestoration
ext.3563
tscott@rwu.edu

LindaHickey10/9InPerson
VolunteerSavetheBayCleanup
4014771512

linda.a.hickey@citizensbank.com

TomKutcher10/22Phone
BaykeeperSaveTheBay
(o)4012723540x116(c)4015364352
tkutcher@savebay.org

DaleLeavitt
10/22InPerson
ProfessorofBiologyRWU,Aquaculture&AnimalNutrition
ext.3047
dleavitt@rwu.edu

StevePatterson10/24InPerson
ShelfishFieldManager,CEED
oysters@rwu.edu

JonathanStone10/31Phone
ExecutiveDirectorSavetheBay
4012731401
JStone@savebay.org

MicheleMcCaughey11/5Phone
PollutionPreventionDEM
4012224700ext.7269
michele.mccaughey@dem.ri.gov

HeidiTravers11/14Phone
SeniorEngineerDEMTMDLprogram
4012224700ext.7613

heidi.travers@dem.ri.gov


MaureenFogarty12/4Phone
DirectoryofOperationsSaveTheBay
4012723540
mfogarty@savebay.org

MaredithSimas12/9Phone
EnvironmentalSupervisorBraytonPoint
5086465000

Citations

"BraytonPointEnergy."
BraytonPointEnergy
.N.p.,n.d.Web.23Nov.2014.
<http://www.braytonpoint.com/>.

"EPA."
HistoryoftheCleanWaterAct
.N.p.,n.d.Web.23Nov.2014.
<http://www2.epa.gov/lawsregulations/historycleanwateract>.

Hall,JohnC."ControlStrategiesforCombinedSewerOverflow."
Journal(WaterPollution
ControlFederation)
61.8(1989):1408413.Web.
<http://www.jacobssf.com/images/uploads/09_Peterson_NBC_CSO_RETC.pdf>.

HISTORYOFPROVIDENCEINDUSTRY
(1981):n.pag.RhodeIslandHistoricalSociety.Web.
<http://www.littlerhodyslist.com/ProvInd4191.pdf>.

Kutcher,Thomas.
CHAPTER12.HumanImpactsonNarragansettBay
(n.d.):14762.Web.
<
http://www.nbnerr.org/Content/SiteProfile08/14_Chapter%2012_Human%20Impacts.pdf
>.

"RIDepartmentofEnvironmentalManagement."
RIDepartmentofEnvironmentalManagement
.
N.p.,n.d.<
http://www.dem.ri.gov/
>.

RIDEM/TheGreenwichBayFishKill,August2003Causes,ImpactsandResponses
(n.d.):n.
pag.Web.<http://www.dem.ri.gov/pubs/fishkill.pdf>.

Sunila,Inke."DERMODISEASE."
DERMODISEASE
(n.d.):n.pag.Web.
<http://www.ct.gov/doag/lib/doag/aquaculture/dermo.pdf>.

Swanson,Craig."ModelingofTemperatureDistributionsinMountHopeBayDuetoThermal
DischargesfromtheBraytonPointStation."
NortheasternNaturalist
13.SpecialIssue4:Natural
andAnthropogenicInfluencesontheMountHopeBayEcosystem(2006):14572.Web.