_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

Report Information from ProQuest

December 03 2014 09:53
_______________________________________________________________

03 December 2014

ProQuest

Table of contents
1. The role of mixed emotions in consumer behaviour..................................................................................... 1
Bibliography...................................................................................................................................................... 21

03 December 2014

ii

ProQuest

Document 1 of 1

The role of mixed emotions in consumer behaviour

Author: Penz, Elfriede; Hogg, Margaret K
ProQuest document link
Abstract: Mixed emotions (i.e. consumer ambivalence) play a central role in approach-avoidance conflicts in
retailing. In order to assess how consumer ambivalence impacts shopping behaviour, this paper seeks to
conceptualize and investigate the multi-dimensional antecedents of approach-avoidance conflicts, experienced
by shoppers in changing retail environments, and the importance of approach-avoidance conflicts for
consumers' decision to stay and complete their purchase in that particular shopping channel. Using a crosscountry study, which compared online and offline consumers, the paper tested the influence of the situation,
product, and reference group on shoppers' intentions; and identified how consumers' mixed emotions influenced
approach-avoidance conflicts in different retail settings. Whereas some distinctions could be drawn between
online and offline contexts when examining the impact of market-related, product-related and social factors on
consumers' decision to shop (H1, H2, H3 and H4), no clear distinction could be drawn between online and
offline channels in terms of mediating effects of mixed emotions (H5, H6 and H7). Mixed emotions
(ambivalence) did mediate the impact of certain product-related, market-related and personal factors on
consumers' intention to purchase. Retailers need to reduce the impact of consumers' emotional responses to
the retail setting where mixed emotions are likely to lead to consumers leaving the stores. For online shops,
those retailers are successful who are able to induce behavioural reactions that make consumers return and
explore the web site and not use it for search only. Responding to calls for further research on mixed emotions
and their consequences, the paper captures the complex impact of consumers' mixed emotions on approachavoidance conflicts, and thereby extends earlier work on consumer ambivalence.
Full text: Introduction
Emotions are central to consumption ([3] Bagozzi et al. , 1999; [42] Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982; [48] Leone

et al. , 2005; [94] Watson and Spence, 2007) and particularly to understanding consumer behaviour in service
environments such as retailing ([35] Foxall and Greenley, 1999). Mixed emotions (i.e. consumer ambivalence)
play a key role in consumer behaviour. However, with a few exceptions (e.g. [64] Otnes et al. , 1997), current
research has largely failed to capture the complex impact of consumers' mixed emotions on approachavoidance conflicts. In response to the specific call for further research into the "ramifications of mixed
emotions" ([94] Watson and Spence, 2007, p. 506), and in order to contribute to earlier work on consumer
ambivalence ([63] Olsen et al. , 2005; [64] Otnes et al. , 1997; [77] Ruth et al. , 2002), we conceptualize and
investigate the inter-relationship between consumer ambivalence (i.e. mixed emotions) and the multidimensional antecedents of approach-avoidance conflicts in different retail settings.
Retail channels represent a rich empirical context for investigating approach-avoidance conflicts in consumer
behaviour ([35] Foxall and Greenley, 1999; [36] Foxall and Yani-de-Soriano, 2005). While there is increasing
research on e-channels as new distribution modes ([95] Wikstrm, 2005) and also on the emotional aspects of
consumer choices in online environments ([29] Eroglu et al. , 2003; [31], [32] Fiore et al. , 2000, 2005; [56]
Menon and Kahn, 2002), very little is known about the different motivational conflicts that occur in online
compared with offline shopping environments. Our aim is to investigate how online shopping and traditional
brick and mortar shopping environments differ with respect to the inter-relationship between consumer
ambivalence and approach-avoidance conflicts. Our objective is to examine the antecedents that cause
consumers to use one retail channel as a way of escaping from the other channel in response to the negative or
mixed emotional states provoked by their patronage of the original channel. This will contribute to understanding
why consumers abandon their purchases in a brick and mortar store in favour of an online channel; or,
03 December 2014

Page 1 of 21

ProQuest

alternatively, quit online transactions and turn to offline channels. The findings will contribute to the development
of managerial strategies, which could help reduce these lost sales.
We begin by reviewing current research on mixed emotions, ambivalence and approach-avoidance conflicts.
We then consider the impact of antecedents (linked to product-relevant, market-relevant, [66] Pan and Zinkhan,
2006) and social factors such as the situation, the product or service, and social influences on purchase
intentions in online and traditional brick and mortar shopping environments. From this literature review we
derive a conceptualization, which models ambivalence in relation to approach-avoidance conflicts. Hypotheses
are formulated and tested using a large-scale international survey. We present and interpret our findings; and
conclude with a more general discussion first, about how the impact of various antecedents of approachavoidance conflicts differs across retailing channels; and second about the mediating effect of ambivalence (i.e.
mixed emotions) on consumers' experiences of approach-avoidance conflicts, and their intentions to purchase.
Conceptual background
Consumer ambivalence and approach-avoidance conflicts in online and traditional brick and mortar shopping
environments
A consumer's intention to buy a product does not necessarily result in its purchase. Consumers may have a
strong desire to buy a product. However they can feel constrained by various factors from completing a
purchase, and can sometimes even entirely abandon their initial intention to purchase. Purchase decisions may
be abandoned because of a "competition between incompatible responses" within an individual ([57] Miller,
1944, p. 431). The simultaneous appearance of positive and negative tendencies leads to an inner conflict and
results in approach or avoidance behaviour. The differences between approach and avoidance motivation have
been linked to valence: "in approach motivation, behavior is instigated or directed by a positive/desirable event
or possibility, whereas in avoidance motivation, behavior is instigated or directed by a negative/undesirable
event or possibility" ([27] Elliot and Thrash, 2002, p. 804). Approach-avoidance conflict theory therefore helps
us understand how consumers think about and manage the potential negative aspects or consequences
(avoidance factors) involved in making a purchase decision (for more on approach factors, see also [35] Foxall
and Greenley, 1999; [36] Foxall and Yani-de-Soriano, 2005).
Consumers are motivated to manage the mixed emotions they experience in the marketplace that either drive
them towards or inhibit them from making purchases either online or offline. Overload is one of the key
antecedents of consumer ambivalence where consumers feel "overwhelmed or ill-prepared during the
purchasing process and the sheer volume of purchasing decisions to be made" ([64] Otnes et al. , 1997, p. 87).
The freedom to choose turns into a form of hyperchoice, i.e. consumers are confronted with (and are often
overwhelmed by) the paralyzing nature of choice represented by the increasing number of outlets to choose
from; by having to decide what to choose from an ever-expanding range of products and services; and also
deciding when to make their choice. Greater choice is thus accompanied by fears of not being able to control
one's behaviour; the risk of information overload; and cognitive dissonance evoked by feelings of regret which
are derived, in part, from the products which have not been selected ([38] Harrison et al. , 2006).
Individuals are generally motivated to minimize their experiences of arousal generated via such tensions,
inconsistencies, or mixed emotions. However a certain level of arousal has been shown to be indispensable for
evoking emotions such as pleasure, joy or happiness, and also their negative opposites (e.g. [74] Priester and
Petty, 1996; [78] Schachter and Singer, 1962). On experiencing arousal, individuals are motivated to search for
possible causes for their state of arousal in the environment ([78] Schachter and Singer, 1962). This allows
individuals to label the arousal and the positive emotions they experience, such as joy or pleasure. Unexplained
arousal, in contrast, is perceived as unpleasant and usually leads to the assignment of a negative label, e.g.
fear or apprehension ([41] Hogg and Vaughan, 2005). In early work on choice, [37] Hansen (1976) modelled an
inverted u-shaped conflict curve that resulted from the stimulation of the environment, and captured the
divergent influence of arousal on individual experience. The conflict between arousal and the environment is
03 December 2014

Page 2 of 21

ProQuest

seen to be at its highest at a moderate level of arousal. This is noteworthy since [23] Donovan and Rossiter
(1982) argue that arousal has positive effects only in pleasant environments while an unpleasant store, for
example, might even lead to negative emotions. This is true only for positive (pleasant) or negative (unpleasant)
situations. In a neutral situation (neither pleasant nor unpleasant) moderate arousal leads to greater approach,
while very high or very low arousal leads to avoidance behaviours. Figure 1 [Figure omitted. See Article Image.]
illustrates a possible link between ambivalence (mixed emotions) and approach-avoidance conflicts based on
the combination of pleasure and arousal.
Emotional reactions to any environment include pleasure-displeasure (PL), arousal-nonarousal (AR) and
dominance-submissiveness (DO) (known as PAD dimensions) and are said to fully account for emotional
responses to any environment ([23] Donovan and Rossiter, 1982; [24] Donovan et al. , 1994). PL describes
feelings of joy and happiness while AR refers to excitement, alertness and stimulation ([92] Van Kenhove and
Desrumaux, 1997, p. 353). Emotions can be viewed as the outcome of explaining arousal, and are positive,
negative or mixed (ambivalence) ([39] Harrist, 2006; [41] Hogg and Vaughan, 2005; [78] Schachter and Singer,
1962). [5] Baker et al. (1992) argued that "affective states produced by the store environment do influence
consumers' willingness to buy" (p. 457). Affective states determine whether or not consumers spend time in a
store and will return again ([23] Donovan and Rossiter, 1982). The conflicting nature of reactions, shapes the
perception of ambivalence, and consumers' consequent experiences of approach, and avoidance tendencies.
Within the framework of human-computer interaction, affect and emotion have been identified as important
influences (see [69] Peter and Beale, 2008). With regard to online shopping, the emotional states of pleasure
and arousal are important for their potential impact on consumers' future behaviours, particularly browsing ([56]
Menon and Kahn, 2002). Pleasure experienced during shopping online leads to positive attitudes towards future
approach behaviour and a preference for stimulation. Stimulation, in turn, affects future approach behaviour
because too much arousal due to over-stimulating environments can lead to lower browsing behaviour. From
here, we propose the following hypotheses regarding the emotional states and behavioral aspects of approachavoidance conflicts

H1. Emotional states (pleasure, H1a ; arousal, H1b ; dominance, H1c ), behavioural aspects of approachavoidance conflicts (enjoyment, H1d ; return and explore, H1e ) as well as ambivalence (H1f ) differ between
offline and online stores.
In investigating ambivalence, most studies of approach-avoidance behaviour have concentrated on consumers'
experiences within the retail environments, rather than examining how shoppers are influenced in their choices
by the variety of conflicts that they potentially experience in relation to other market-related, product-related
([66] Pan and Zinkhan, 2006) and social factors. These factors can include the situation (e.g. the rate of
information in the store environment); the product or service to be purchased (e.g. perceived product risk; level
of involvement); and the social influences such as reference group. These all influence intentions to patronize or
purchase from a store; and often generate approach-avoidance conflicts linked to well-recognized emotional
states such as arousal, pleasure, enjoyment and the desire to explore the store in the retail environment. The
next section discusses possible sources of approach-avoidance conflict.
Antecedents to approach-avoidance conflicts
Environmental psychology is drawn on in order to gain a thorough understanding of the consumers' internal
processes and behavioural responses to the two different retail store formats. It informs our understanding of
the:
Impact of environmental stimuli on consumers, as well as of the influences from the social environment.
The influence of the merchandise itself.
Physical environment - environmental stimuli
Retail atmospherics are important for both offline and online channels because they comprise variables that
affect shopping behaviour ([23] Donovan and Rossiter, 1982, p. 34). Within retailing management, the influence
03 December 2014

Page 3 of 21

ProQuest

of the store atmosphere on consumer responses is conceptualized in earlier studies (e.g. [23] Donovan and
Rossiter, 1982; [24] Donovan et al. , 1994), drawing heavily on the Mehrabian-Russell environmental
psychology model (see [35] Foxall and Greenley, 1999, for a detailed review of earlier studies, which have
employed this model; [55] Mehrabian and Russell, 1974). Store atmosphere is seen as a better predictor of
consumers' patronage of a store because it overcomes previous limitations of using unidimensionality and
singular variables when exploring the concept of store image ([23] Donovan and Rossiter, 1982; [24] Donovan

et al. , 1994). In addition, the behavioural perspective model ([34] Foxall, 1997; [35] Foxall and Greenley, 1999;
[36] Foxall and Yani-de-Soriano, 2005) outlines the influence of the intersection between the consumer
behaviour setting and learning history on consumer behaviour.
Among store atmosphere variables, the information rate is the main construct that accounts for the influence of
environmental stimuli on consumer responses ([55] Mehrabian and Russell, 1974). Information rate represents
the degree of information inputs in a channel during a certain time frame ([84] Spies et al. , 1997), and
comprises novelty, complexity, density and size ([24] Donovan et al. , 1994; [86] Tai and Fung, 1997). While
novelty refers to unexpected, surprising and new elements, complexity refers to the number of elements and
changes in the environment. Density describes those elements in the environment that either made a person
feel that they have sufficient privacy within which to shop; or make a person feel crowded, threatened and
restricted in terms of movement. Finally, size refers to the scale of the store, the interior decoration, or spatial
elements such as how well the merchandise is organized and displayed ([86] Tai and Fung, 1997).
The physical environment can be classified into two sets of factors: ambient (smell, temperature, music) and
design (location of items, size of store) ([4] Baker, 1986; [19] d'Astous, 2000). These factors can be the source
of shopping irritants ([19] d'Astous, 2000) inducing negative emotions and behaviour in the retail channel. (Note
that irritants can also stem from social factors, such as crowding or the behaviour of the sales personnel; and
also from characteristics of the product itself, e.g. unfavourable information; [61] Mizerski (1982)). Ambient
factors are not noticed unless they reach an unpleasant level, e.g. when the lighting is too bright or the music is
too loud. Design factors, however, are actively evaluated by shoppers and include aesthetic elements such as
architecture, colour and style, which can increase a consumer's sense of pleasure when entering a store.
Functional design elements, such as layout or comfort, can also contribute to a shopper's sense of well being.
Atmospheric effects have been shown to influence online purchase intentions, for example music ([1] Allan,
2008; [96] Wu et al. , 2008), and colours ([96] Wu et al. , 2008).
Just as consumers are influenced by the rate and amount of information in store (e.g. its novelty, complexity,
density and size, [84] Spies et al. , 1997), which can stimulate or overwhelm customers, there is similar
evidence for consumers' experiences of feeling stimulated or overwhelmed by web sites when shopping online
([31] Fiore et al. , 2005). For online stores, web site design and navigation are vital, and research has confirmed
the importance of clear interfaces during all stages of the decision making process ([65] Palmer, 2002; [82]
Sinkovics and Penz, 2005). The design of the web site is central to determining the atmosphere experienced by
consumers online ([54] McCarthy and Aronson, 2000; [93] Wang and Tang, 2003). In a model of consumers'
web navigational behaviour a series of influencing variables were identified, which included flow experience,
need for cognition or level of preferred stimulation, as well as situational factors such as site involvement ([76]
Richard and Chandra, 2005). The retail atmospherics experienced in an online store can lead to positive
emotions, and thus to favourable attitudes towards online-shopping, the presented goods, and consequently
higher satisfaction with a purchase ([28] Eroglu et al. , 2001; [29] Eroglu et al. , 2003). Online shopping usually
wins in terms of price advantage and convenience when compared to traditional retail formats, but the online
channel is less attractive with regard to enjoyment and sociability. The social aspects of shopping have been a
long-standing source of consumer pleasure in offline retail environments [see the following] (e.g. [22] Dennis et

al. , 2002; [31] Fiore et al. , 2005; [90] Tractinsky and Rao, 2001). We propose that the store's physical
attributes, i.e. the information rate, differ between offline and online shopping environments. In more detail we
03 December 2014

Page 4 of 21

ProQuest

hypothesize that:

H2. Online stores are perceived as more complex (H2a ), more novel (H2b ) and denser (H2c ) respectively
than offline stores.
Physical environment - social stimuli and reference group influence
The physical environment also includes social factors ([4] Baker, 1986), which refer to the presence of an
audience, fellow customers and/or service personnel who are responsible for generating the atmosphere (which
can be positive, e.g. a lively bar; or negative, e.g. busy checkout queues). The attractive appearance and the
pleasant behaviour of service personnel, as well as the presence of other customers, can also be reassuring
components in a retail environment. Other social factors include reference groups, which are "social groups that
are important to a consumer and against which he or she compares himself or herself" ([30] Escalas and
Bettman, 2003, p. 341). The store environment, such as crowding and stimulation, as well as sales staff
assistance, can increase impulse purchases ([52] Mattila and Wirtz, 2008). Reference group influence depends
on the type of product (e.g. luxury or necessity) and whether the products are consumed publicly or privately
([15] Childers and Rao, 1992). Reference groups exert two main types of social influence: informational and
normative (the latter can be either value-expressive or utilitarian) ([7] Bearden and Etzel, 1982; [15] Childers
and Rao, 1992; [50] Mangleburg et al. , 2004). Word of mouth in this shopping context can be linked to
mavenism, retail opinion sharing, and susceptibility to interpersonal influence. Susceptibility relates either to
shoppers' needs to receive rewards or avoid being punished (i.e. the exertion of utilitarian influence), or to
shoppers' needs for "psychological affiliation" (i.e. value-expressive influence) ([15] Childers and Rao, 1992, p.
199).
While reference groups play a very important role in traditional brick and mortar stores, very little is known about
the effects of this type of social influence on consumers when shopping online. Except for participating in virtual
communities or chat groups, online shoppers act in a "lonely crowd" ([10] Burton, 2002, p. 793). Some
consumers might want to use online shopping on purpose to avoid consumer culture, choosing to deliberately
avoid the sociability associated with traditional retail outlets. This provides evidence for what might be seen as
the anti-social nature of some of these forms of online shopping ([10] Burton, 2002). We propose that the
reference group's influence differs between online and offline shopping environments. Thus, the following is
hypothesized:

H3. Normative influence (H3a ), informational influence (H3b ), interpersonal influence (H3c ) and opinion
sharing on decision-making (H3d ) respectively are stronger in an offline than in an online store.
Product influence
Goods or services involve different levels of perceived risk and involvement. The concept of risk encompasses
both potentially positive and negative outcomes ([59] Mitchell, 1999), with a focus mainly on potentially negative
outcomes. Perceived risk comprises "subjective expectations of loss" ([85] Stone and Gronhaug, 1993, p. 42)
linked to uncertainty and consequences ([16] Conchar et al. , 2004; [17] Cox, 1967; [26] Dowling and Staelin,
1994; [37] Hansen, 1976; [43] Jacoby and Kaplan, 1972; [44] Kaplan et al. , 1974; [58] Mitchell and Hogg,
1997). Uncertainty involves confidence, reliability, dependability, trust likelihood and probability, whereas
consequences involve trust, danger, relevance and seriousness ([58] Mitchell and Hogg, 1997). Perceived risk
encompasses several dimensions such as product performance, financial, psychological, time, social, and
physical risk ([44] Kaplan et al. , 1974). Risk perception increases rather than decreases in different phases of
the consumer decision-making process ([60] Mitchell and Boustani, 1994): pre-purchase search and purchase
evaluation can be very challenging phases.
Involvement, on the other hand, is the importance which a shopper attaches to a particular product "based on
their inherent needs, values and interests" ([97] Zaichkowsky, 1985, p. 342). High involvement products are
regarded as more risky than low involvement products. With regard to product involvement, research shows that
consumers seeking excitement use the internet for surfing, downloading software or communicating ([79]
03 December 2014

Page 5 of 21

ProQuest

Schiffman et al. , 2003). Consumer purchase behaviour when shopping online is fundamentally different from
traditional or offline-shopping ([22] Dennis et al. , 2002), indicating that standardized or search goods are
usually more suitable for online-shopping (e.g. books, music) when compared with experience goods (e. g.
personal care products, clothes, [14] Chiang and Dholakia, 2003; [46] Kwak et al. , 2002; [62] Monsuwe et al. ,
2004; [81] Shim et al. , 2001); and supporting the argument that the more tangible a product, the more suitable
it is for online-shopping (see also [45] Koernig, 2003, on services).
Perceived risk, in its turn, was found to function as a motivational barrier to purchasing online ([51] Mariani and
Zappal, 2006; [68] Penz and Kirchler, 2006) and to have a negative impact on the evaluation of the experience
of online-purchasing. This helps to explain barriers to online-shopping ([33] Forsythe and Shi, 2003; [88] Teo
and Yeong, 2003). In order to reduce risk, strategies such as using reference group appeal, marketer's
reputation or brand image are proposed ([87] Tan, 1999). Therefore, we propose the following:

H4. Product risk (social, H4a ; financial, H4b ; performance, H4c ) is higher in an online than in an offline store,
but product involvement (need for product, H4d ; exciting product, H4e ) is higher in an offline than in an online
store.
Emotional states and behavioral aspects of approach-avoidance conflict that intervene to affect the predictability
of purchase intention
So far, we have emphasized the value of including emotional states in explaining consumer responses (H1 )
and have discussed the importance of three factors (situation, product, reference group) in two retail formats (

H2 , H3 and H4 ). Next, therefore, we develop a conceptual model (see Figure 2 [Figure omitted. See Article
Image.]) that deals with the mediating effect of emotional states and behavioural aspects of approachavoidance conflicts on the relationship between the conflict antecedents and purchase intentions.
Based on the conceptualization as illustrated in Figure 2 [Figure omitted. See Article Image.], the following
hypotheses were formulated:

H5. The impact of the store's physical attributes (complexity, H5a ; novelty, H5b ; density, H5c ) on future
shopping intentions is mediated by emotional states, behavioural responses and ambivalence.

H6. The reference group influence (normative influence, H6a ; informational influence, H6b ; interpersonal
influence, H6c ; decision making, H6d ) on future shopping intentions is mediated by emotional states,
behavioural responses and ambivalence.

H7. The influence of product characteristics (social risk, H7a ; financial risk, H7b ; performance risk, H7c ; need
for product, H7d ; exciting product, H7e ) on future shopping intentions is mediated by emotional states,
behavioural responses and ambivalence.
See Table I [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] for a summary of the concepts and hypotheses developed for
empirical testing.
Research design
The purpose of this research was to extend understanding of consumer ambivalence by identifying and
investigating the impact of mixed emotions on approach-avoidance conflicts in consumer behaviour using a
comparative study of online and offline settings. From an initial literature review and framework, a conceptual
model (see Figure 2 [Figure omitted. See Article Image.]) was developed of approach-avoidance behaviour in
conflicts, and operationalized via a series of related hypotheses, which were tested.
An instrument was developed that captured first, the possible sources of conflicts; second, approach-avoidance
emotional states; and third, behavioural responses in conflicts. For the questionnaire context, before answering
the questions the respondents had to think of a recent shopping situation where they had bought something
(either for themselves or someone else) that had led to an approach-avoidance conflict (this was fully explained
at the beginning of the questionnaire).
Scales were taken from existing literature and were adapted for our research purposes. To capture possible
sources of conflicts which derive from:
03 December 2014

Page 6 of 21

ProQuest

- the purchase/shopping situation, we used [86] Tai and Fung's (1997) measure of information rate. In addition
we measured the effect of store atmosphere (offline only) and web site effectiveness (online only, [82] Sinkovics
and Penz, 2005). In order to elaborate the causes related to
- products/services, we measured different levels of risk perception ([21] DelVecchio and Smith, 2005; [25]
Doolin et al. 2005), and product involvement ([98] Zaichkowsky, 1994).
Another set of items measured reference group influence on shopping related aspects. In particular, scales that
captured interpersonal influence susceptibility ([8], [9] Bearden et al. , 1989, 1990) and retail opinion sharing
([67] Paridon, 2004) were employed. The approach-avoidance conflict was operationalized using [55]
Mehrabian and Russell's (1974) measure of emotional states and the behavioural aspect of intention.
Convenience sampling was used for this international study (Austria, Greece, the UK). These countries were
chosen first, because consumers in all three countries use both traditional and online modes of shopping; and
second because Austria and Greece represent northern and southern Europe respectively, while the UK
represents "off shore Europe" with strong links to the USA and its rather different patterns of consumption and
shopping channel behaviour. Sampling in international marketing research is critical. In our case we were
primarily interested in developing a conceptual model of mixed emotions and the impact on purchase intentions
based on an international sample (contextual research) and not on a comparative study that identified
similarities and differences across countries ([75] Reynolds et al. , 2003). Following [49] Malhotra et al. (1996)
we focused on behaviour settings as units for the present study rather than the nation-state information.
According to [49] Malhotra et al. (1996), "a behaviour setting represents all the forces acting on individual
members of a setting to enter and participate in its operation in particular ways [...] The selection of cultures
(cultunits or behaviour settings) to be investigated should be based on the theoretical or applied objectives of
the study (p. 25)". Based on extensive exploratory research (which included the collection of stories from
respondents in UK and Austria, interviews, secondary data and literature review) in all three countries, we
selected shopping (online and brick and mortar) as behaviour settings. Participants were approached either in
person and invited to complete a hard copy questionnaire; or participants were approached via e-mail with an equestionnaire that was available on a web site. The condition (offline or online shopping) was randomly
assigned to both sets of respondents.
In total, there were 335 usable questionnaires (Austria n =127, Greece n =111, the UK n =117). A total of 171
answers referred to traditional shopping contexts (Austria n =61, Greece n =53, the UK n =57), 184 answers
were for online shopping (Austria n =66, Greece n =58, the UK n =60). About half of the respondents were aged
between 18 and 25 years old. The remaining half was between 26 and 30+. A total of 54.1 per cent were female
and 45.9 per cent were male. The samples can be characterized as being representative for the younger
segments in the respective countries. In the online shopping condition, tickets were the product ( f =76) most
often chosen to discuss, followed by electronics (f =46). In traditional shopping contexts, respondents mainly
reported their experiences of purchasing clothing (f =63) and electronics (f =52). See Table II [Figure omitted.
See Article Image.] for summary statistics of different patterns of online product purchase by consumers in
Austria, Greece and the UK compared with consumers overall in the EU 27.
Findings
In order to test the hypotheses, factor and reliability analyses were first conducted to derive a manageable
number of dimensions. The procedure involved running exploratory factor analyses, eliminating those items with
double-loadings and/or low loadings and calculating reliability measures (Cronbach's alpha, [18] Cronbach,
1951) for the remaining items. The explained variance was above 50 per cent for all scales and Cronbach's
alpha ranged from 0.42 to 0.92 (see Table III [Figure omitted. See Article Image.]). The extracted dimensions
were the basis for a series of correlation and t-tests and multiple mediated regression analyses.
In order to come up with a numerical value for ambivalence, an index was calculated based on subjective
ambivalence considerations ([47] Lavine, 2004; [74] Priester and Petty, 1996; [89] Thompson and Zanna, 1995).
03 December 2014

Page 7 of 21

ProQuest

Our index is based on the assumption that emotional states and behavioural responses could co-exist, either as
positive, as negative or as a mixture of positive and negative experiences. The index ranges between -2.5 and
2.5. The higher the index the more the ambivalence is felt: Equation 1 [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] First
of all, we tested H1 , H2 , H3 and H4 and found significant differences between the retail formats for the effects
of various influences (see Table IV [Figure omitted. See Article Image.]). Regarding the emotional states,
pleasure (H1a ), arousal (H1b ) and dominance/control (H1c ) were higher in the online store, as well as the
desire to return and explore the store (H1e ). The felt ambivalence, however, was higher in the traditional store (

H1f ). The situation when shopping online is perceived as more complex (confirms H2a ). Product-specific
influences were found in the performance risk (H4c ), which is perceived to be lower in the traditional store. Both
forms of product involvement were higher in the traditional store (H4d and H4e ). Finally, no differences in terms
of reference group influence, was found (rejecting H3a , H3b , H3c and H3d ).
In order to find out how the emotional states relate to each other correlation analyses were run separately for
the two conditions (online versus offline). In the online condition, arousal was significantly correlated with the
other emotional states, i.e. pleasure, dominance, enjoyment of the online store and intention to return and
explore the store. Pleasure is also positively related to enjoyment and intention to return and explore the store.
Dominance is positively correlated with pleasure and intention to return and explore the store. Thus, in the
online store, high arousal produces positive emotional and behavioural responses.
In the traditional store, arousal is not correlated to these emotional states (see Table V [Figure omitted. See
Article Image.]). However, enjoyment correlates significantly with pleasure and the willingness to return and
explore the store, which is also correlated with pleasure. Finally, pleasure and dominance is also significantly
correlated. To sum up, the emotional states are correlated. While in the online store arousal is linked to the
other emotional states, this is not the case in the traditional store.
Next, in order to test the mediating effects of emotional states, either as mixed or non-mixed states, a multiple
mediation design was used[1] . Mediation exists when a predictor affects a dependent variable indirectly
through a mediator, which is an intervening variable. A mediator accounts for a relation between predictor and
criterion. It explains how external events take on psychological significance. Mediators specify when certain
effects will hold ([6] Baron and Kenny, 1986; [71] Preacher and Hayes, 2004; [73] Preacher et al. , 2007). The
analytical procedure follows Preacher et al. ([71], [72] Preacher and Hayes, 2004, 2008; [73] Preacher et al. ,
2007) and makes use of bootstrapping as a method to test for the indirect effect of the mediators on purchase
intentions (see Figure 2 [Figure omitted. See Article Image.]). In the following the mediating effects of emotional
states (pleasure, arousal, dominance), behavioural responses (return and explore, enjoyment) and ambivalence
are discussed. Additionally, the context (online versus offline) and gender were included as control variables in
the model (see Table VI [Figure omitted. See Article Image.]).
Emotional states mediate the influence of environmental stimuli on purchase intentions
Greater complexity significantly leads to greater emotional states (return and explore, enjoyment). In turn,
pleasure, return and explore and enjoyment lead to higher purchase intentions. Testing for the mediation effect,
the analysis reveals that the total (c) and direct (c') effects of complexity on purchase intention are 0.42, p <0.00
and 0.27, p <0.00, respectively. The difference between the total and the direct effects is 0.15 and a 95 per cent
BCa (Bias corrected and accelerated) bootstrap CI (confidence interval) of 0.10 to 0.21 (0). Since the CI of the
mediators, "return and explore" and "enjoyment" are different from zero they are thus significant mediators (see
Table VII [Figure omitted. See Article Image.]).
Greater novelty significantly leads to greater emotional states (pleasure, return and explore, enjoyment). In turn,
return and explore and enjoyment lead to higher, ambivalence to lower, purchase intentions. The total and
direct effects of novelty on purchase intentions are 0.25, p <0.00 and 0.12, p <0.01, respectively. The difference
between the total and the direct effects is 0.12 and BCa CI95% is 0.06 to 0.19 (0). Again, CI of the mediators
"return and explore" and "enjoyment" are different from zero and thus represent significant mediators.
03 December 2014

Page 8 of 21

ProQuest

Greater density significantly leads to greater dominance. In turn, return and explore and enjoyment lead to
higher, ambivalence to lower, purchase intentions. The total and direct effects of density on purchase intentions
are -0.04, p <0.39 and -0.05, p <0.24, respectively, which means they are not significant. The difference
between the total and the direct effects is 0.01, and BCa CI95% contains zero (-0.06 to 0.07), thus no mediators
contribute to the indirect effect.
To sum up, we found evidence for H5a and H5b in that return and explore and enjoyment are aspects of
emotional states that significantly mediate the influence of complexity and novelty on purchase intentions. They
can reduce the effect of complexity and therefore are important variables to consider. While complexity and
novelty lead to stronger return and explore and enjoyment, density impacts the level of felt dominance; in
addition, the emotional states have impacts on purchase intentions: return and explore and enjoyment lead to
higher, ambivalence to lower, purchase intentions.
In terms of recommendations, those stores that make consumers feel they should come back and explore the
store further and that lead to feelings of enjoyment are predictors for purchase intentions. In particular, complex
and novel environments are responsible for these feelings. Dense stores (packed products, shelf size, etc.)
make consumers feel the environment to be controlling and influential. In all models, the difference between
online and offline situations was not significant.
Emotional states mediate the influence of the reference group on purchase intentions
Greater normative influence significantly leads to lower return and explore (p <0.00) and higher enjoyment and
ambivalence (p <0.05). In turn, pleasure, return and explore and enjoyment lead to higher purchase intention.
The total and direct effects of normative influence on purchase intentions are -0.07, p <0.18 and -0.06, p <0.18,
i.e. no significant effect of normative influence on purchase intention. The difference between the total and the
direct effects is 0.01 and BCa CI95% is not different from zero (-0.08 to 0.07). CI of enjoyment is 0.01 to 0.10 and
thus mediates IV and DV significantly (support for H6a ).
Greater informational influence significantly leads to lower dominance (p <0.03) and higher return and explore (

p <0.05). In turn, return and explore and enjoyment, lead to higher, ambivalence to lower, purchase intention.
The total and direct effects of informational influence on purchase intentions are 0.19, p <0.00 and 0.12, p
<0.01. The difference between the total and the direct effects is 0.06 and BCa CI95% is not different from zero (0.01 to 0.12). CI of the mediator "return and explore" is different from zero (0.01 to 0.06) and thus mediates IV
and DV significantly (support for H6b ).
Greater interpersonal influence significantly leads to higher enjoyment (p <0.05). In turn, return and explore and
enjoyment, lead to higher purchase intention. The total and direct effects of normative influence on purchase
intentions are 0.13, p <0.01 and 0.09, p <0.04. The difference between the total and the direct effects is 0.0430
and BCa CI95% is not different from zero (-0.02 to 0.11). No mediating effects can be found.
Greater influence on decision making significantly leads to higher return and explore (p <0.02) and lower
ambivalence (p <0.03). In turn, return and explore and enjoyment lead to higher purchase intention. The total
and direct effects of influence on purchase intentions are 0.28, p <0.00 and 0.25, p <0.00. The difference
between the total and the direct effects is 0.04 and BCa CI95% is not different from zero (-0.03 to 0.09). CI of the
mediator "return and explore" is different from zero (0.01 to 0.06) and thus mediates IV and DV significantly
(support for H6d ).
Summarizing the potential mediating effects of the impact of reference group on purchase intention, enjoyment
is responsible for the weaker impact of normative influence on purchase intention, although normative influence
is not significant. However, the tendency is that the more consumers enjoy the store, the less they are
influenced by others' behaviour.
The willingness to return and explore the store as an emotional reaction to the store lessens the informational
influence from others, as well as their impact on the decision-making on purchase intentions. Thus, others are
less influential if consumers themselves have the feeling that they should return to the store and explore it
03 December 2014

Page 9 of 21

ProQuest

further.
Emotional states mediate the influence of product aspects on purchase intentions
Greater social risk significantly leads to higher enjoyment (p <0.00). In turn, return and explore and enjoyment
lead to higher, ambivalence to lower, purchase intentions. The total and direct effects of social risk on purchase
intentions are 0.12, p <0.01 and 0.04, p <0.41, respectively, which means that only the simple effect is
significant. The difference between the total and the direct effects is 0.01 and BCa CI95% is different from zero
(0.02 to 0.15). CI of "enjoyment" is different from zero (0.02 to 0.11) and thus proves to be a significant mediator
(support for H7a ).
Greater financial risk significantly leads to higher pleasure and arousal (p <0.05). In turn, return and explore and
enjoyment, lead to higher purchase intentions. The total and direct effects of financial risk on purchase
intentions are -0.08, p <0.14 and -0.09, p <0.05, i.e. no significant effect of financial risk on purchase intention.
The difference between the total and the direct effects is 0.01 and BCa CI95% is not different from zero (-0.06 to
0.07). CI of the mediator "dominance" is different from zero (0.01 to 0.04) and thus proves to be a significant
mediator. Although financial risk does not significantly influence dominance, there is a difference between total
and direct effect.
Greater performance risk significantly leads to lower return and explore (p <0.00). In turn, pleasure, return and
explore, and enjoyment lead to higher, ambivalence to lower, purchase intentions. The total and direct effects of
performance risk on purchase intentions are not significant -0.08, p <0.12 and -0.06, p <0.15), as is the
difference between the total and the direct effects (-0.02, BCa CI95% -0.09 to 0.05). No CI of mediators is
different from zero.
Some mediational effects were found with regard to products' influence on purchase intentions. While
enjoyment significantly mediates the influence of social risk, dominance mediates the influence of financial risk
on purchase intentions. In other words, in cases where consumers enjoy the situation, the fact that a product
signals one's position to others is less important for the intention to purchase. The influence of financial risk, on
the other hand, is mediated by dominance: if the situation is perceived as controlling, the financial risk is less
likely to weaken purchase intention.
Greater need for product significantly leads to higher pleasure and arousal (p <0.00). In turn, return and explore,
and enjoyment lead to higher, ambivalence to lower, purchase intentions. The total and direct effects of need for
product on purchase intentions are 0.17, p <0.00 and 0.10, p <0.03, respectively. The difference between the
total and the direct effects is 0.07 and BCa CI95% is different from zero (0.01 to 0.15). No CI of mediators is
different from zero, thus no mediating effects can be found.
Greater excitement for product significantly leads to higher emotional states (p <0.00). In turn, return and
explore, and enjoyment lead to higher, ambivalence to lower, purchase intentions. The total and direct effects of
excitement for product on purchase intentions are 0.22, p <0.00 and 0.04, p <0.49, respectively. The difference
between the total and the direct effects is 0.19 and BCa CI95% is different from zero (0.11 to 0.27). CI of return
&explore, enjoyment and ambivalence are different from zero (0.03 to 0.09; 0.06 to 0.16; .01 to 0.04), and thus
prove to be significant mediators (support for H7e ).
With regard to product involvement, the excitement for the product is mediated by emotional states: return and
explore, enjoyment and ambivalence, weaken the purchase intention. In other words, if the excitement for the
product is mixed up with other emotional feelings that refer either to the store (return and explore, enjoyment) or
involve different feelings at the same time, the effect of the product's influence on purchase intentions is
weakened.
Discussion
This study provided more detailed results first, about the impact of a variety of different antecedents on
approach-avoidance conflicts, and second about the mediating effect of ambivalence (i.e. mixed emotions) on
consumers' experiences of approach-avoidance conflicts, and their intentions to purchase. Whereas some
03 December 2014

Page 10 of 21

ProQuest

distinctions could be drawn between online and offline contexts when examining the impact of market-related,
product-related ([66] Pan and Zinkhan, 2006) and social factors on consumers' approach-avoidance conflicts (

H1 , H2 , H3 and H4 ); no clear distinction could be drawn between online and offline channels in terms of
mediating effects of emotions on shoppers' intention to purchase (H6 , H7 , H8 and H9 ). However mixed
emotions (ambivalence) did mediate the impact of certain product-related, market-related and personal factors
on consumers' intention to purchase across both channels.
For approach-avoidance conflicts, these results indicate much more clearly than earlier research the moderating
role-played by different antecedents. The influences of market-related, product-related ([66] Pan and Zinkhan,
2006) and social factors were elicited on consumers' intention to purchase. Examining the characteristics of the
environment, the product, and the reference group, meant that this study extended earlier work, which had
concentrated only on the environment as an antecedent factor of approach-avoidance conflicts. [24] Donovan

et al. (1994, p. 284) only showed how the [55] Mehrabian and Russell (1974) model related "features of the
environment (S) to approach-avoidance behaviors (R) within the environment, mediated by the individual's
emotional states (O) aroused by the environment". This study, therefore, builds on [35] Foxall and Greenley's
(1999) and [36] Foxall and Yani-de-Soriano's (2005) earlier research which identified the important role of
different contexts for applying the [55] Mehrabian and Russell (1974) model; and this study provides a more
nuanced picture of a wider range of antecedents.
The emotional and behavioural aspects of consumers' approach-avoidance conflicts differed between online
and offline channels. The level of arousal is important in relation to the emotions which consumers experience
and shapes subsequent consumers behavior. Overload is one of the key antecedents of consumer ambivalence
where consumers feel "overwhelmed or ill-prepared during the purchasing process and the sheer volume of
purchasing decisions to be made" ([64] Otnes et al. , 1997, p. 87). Traditional retail stores need strategies,
which enhance customers' experiences in-store so that shoppers experience positive emotions of pleasure,
arousal and dominance. Bricks and mortar retailers have to monitor and manage customers' feelings of
pleasure, arousal and dominance very carefully. Retail atmospherics can play a very important role in ensuring
that offline environments offer just the right amount of stimulation to arouse consumers' positive emotions, while
avoiding either stimulating negative emotions or provoking no arousal at all (see Figure 1 [Figure omitted. See
Article Image.]), thus confirming earlier research ([35] Foxall and Greenley, 1999; [36] Foxall and Yani-deSoriano, 2005). Retailers need to reduce the impact of consumers' emotional responses to the retail setting
where mixed emotions are likely to lead to consumers leaving the store without making a purchase. [23]
Donovan and Rossiter (1982, p. 50) demonstrated that arousal was a "key mediator of intentions to spend time
in the store" as well as a "positive relationship between arousal and affiliation. The implication of the arousalaffiliation relationship is that more aroused shoppers will be more likely to interact with other people in the store"
and that in-store stimuli such as bright lights and rock music may increase arousal. Thus retail managers need
to ensure their physical environment facilitates affiliation (either with staff or fellow shoppers or shopping
partners (e.g. mothers, wives, sisters)). In contrast for online sites, consumers need to be enticed to return,
explore and complete the purchase. Online channels are highly regarded during the search stage of the
consumption process. The challenge is to ensure that potential customers return and make a purchase on a
subsequent occasion online, rather than defecting after the successful completion of the search stage to the
offline channel for the purchase completion stage. Online retailers need to provide positive experiences, which
reinforce shoppers' desire to return and explore the web site. This would clearly provide a potentially important
way of countering the competitive advantage of bricks and mortar retailers' strategies for stimulating shoppers'
intention to patronize traditional retail stores.
The impact of the complexity and novelty of the environmental situation on shopping behavior confirmed and
extended earlier work ([24] Donovan et al. , 1994; [35] Foxall and Greenley, 1999; [36] Foxall and Yani-deSoriano, 2005) by showing that within approach-avoidance conflicts, online stores are perceived as more
03 December 2014

Page 11 of 21

ProQuest

complex than offline stores (H2 ). This increases the challenge for web site designers and online retailers to
ensure that all aspects of the shopping experience online is not perceived as too complicated, difficult, and
overwhelming to cope with (e.g. clear signage and navigation buttons). Careful design of web sites, particularly
user interfaces, will ensure that consumers find the online shopping experience to be relaxing rather than
threatening. In online shopping channels, the sheer volume of decisions required while navigating the web site
illustrates the impact of complexity on online shopping experiences. This suggests online retailers need to
monitor carefully the complexity of their web sites so as not to deter shoppers.
We extended earlier work on perceived risk (e.g. [13] Chaudhuri, 1997) by showing that the perceived risk
attached to product performance has a greater impact on approach-avoidance conflicts in online channels;
whereas levels of product involvement (i.e. need for product; and exciting product) have a greater impact on
approach-avoidance conflicts in offline stores ( H4 ). For online retailers this means that they need to continue
to invest in building trust into the customer-supplier relationship by a variety of mechanisms, concentrating
particularly on the main sources of shopper concern, e.g. security in terms of the payment and delivery systems
in order to reduce consumers' approach-avoidance conflicts. Conversely, for offline channels it is product
(rather than channel) performance which is at the heart of consumers' approach-avoidance conflicts, and so
strategies are needed which reassure customers about product performance in order to alleviate the effect of
perceived risk on approach-avoidance conflicts in offline channels.
Our findings support the emphasis placed by earlier researchers on the importance of understanding the
emotional drivers of behaviors in approach-avoidance conflicts ([23] Donovan and Rossiter, 1982; [35] Foxall
and Greenley, 1999; [36] Foxall and Yani-de-Soriano, 2005). We also extend earlier work on consumer
ambivalence and the effect of mixed emotions on consumers' experiences which often resulted "directly from
interactions in, or structural features of, the marketplace" ([64] Otnes et al. , 1997, p. 80). We saw this with the
impact of the complex online environment on shopping intentions. Supplementing recognized models of the
consumption process with ambivalence promises to be a fruitful way of extending our understanding of
consumer behaviour in both online and offline settings. Ambivalence derives from consumers' feelings of mixed
emotions, which can be linked to approach and avoidance motivational behaviours, identified in earlier studies
(e.g. [23] Donovan and Rossiter, 1982); and can be experienced either simultaneously or sequentially. Earlier
research has established that ambivalence (i.e. mixed emotions) facilitate or frustrate consumers' motivation to
shop to varying degrees. These findings allow us to start to interpret further the role that mixed emotions play in
consumer decision-making in retail environments, particularly when trying to compare approach-avoidance
motivational conflicts across offline and online channels.
As mentioned previously, no clear distinctions could be drawn between online and offline channels in terms of
the mediating effects of consumers' emotions on intention to purchase. This meant, for instance, that the impact
of the store's physical attributes (complexity and novelty) on intention to shop is mediated by consumers'
emotional states both offline and online, but the impact of the density of the store (e.g. if consumers find the
environment is crowded or dominating) does not seem to be mediated by emotions ( H5 ). The impact of the
normative and informational influence of reference groups on consumers' intention to purchase was mediated
by consumers' emotions (H6 ), both offline and online, but the impact of interpersonal influences on intentions to
shop were not mediated by consumers' emotional states. Consumers' emotions also mediated the impact of
certain product characteristics (e.g. product's perceived social risk; and whether or not it is an exciting product)
on their intentions to shop either offline or online, but other product related characteristics (e.g. financial or
performance risk, or need for the product) did not seem to be mediated by consumers' emotions ( H7 ).
An important challenge for retailers in both channels is to manage the potential flip-flopping between online and
offline channels by consumers who clearly exploit the various strengths of each channel. Consumers have the
ability to search on line but then make the purchase offline in order to manage perceived performance risk
derived from negative feelings about the reliability and security of online channels, especially payment and
03 December 2014

Page 12 of 21

ProQuest

delivery systems. This contrasts with consumers' ability in brick and mortar stores to evaluate products, and
then move to take advantage of the pricing strategies of online channels. Brick and mortar could either try and
compete on price, which could be difficult in view of all the additional overheads carried by offline stores; or they
could try and exploit the service advantage offered by many offline retailers, e.g. interpersonal relationships with
store staff to tie customers into relationships, and thus ensure that shoppers remain loyal customers throughout
the consumption process and complete the final purchase with the bricks and mortar retailer. For online
channels, exploiting competitive advantage involves offering some form(s) of reassurance to customers so that
they can manage the security risks associated with channel performance (e.g. payment and delivery systems)
which consumers perceive as associated with purchasing online. Both bricks and mortar and online retailers are
equally effective during the early stages of the consumption process (i.e. searching for information, evaluating
alternatives). The challenge is to build up consumer loyalty in these preliminary and preparatory stages so that
consumers remain for the all important end game, i.e. making the purchase in that channel, rather than
switching at the point of purchase from one channel to the other - as both the opportunity and real costs for
retailers are, otherwise, to provide the services to support the early stages of consumer decision-making (i.e.
search, choice) without reaping the benefits of winning the final purchase.
Conclusion
This exploratory and contextual international study confirmed that examining approach-avoidance conflicts
promises to be a fruitful avenue for understanding both global and incremental aspects of ambivalence. This is
important because of the effect of mixed emotions (ambivalence) on consumer behaviour in both offline and
online shopping channels. We briefly review the theoretical and empirical conclusions from our study; the
limitations; and potential directions for future research.
Theoretically, we have followed [2] Armitage and Conner (2000) in pursuing a global view of ambivalence.
However, [12] Chaiken et al. (1995) propose "three forms of evaluative inconsistency: cognitive-affective;
affective-evaluative, and evaluative-cognitive" ([2] Armitage and Conner, 2000, p. 1430). Adopting a more
incremental view of ambivalence would allow more refined measures to be used to capture different types of
evaluative inconsistency ([12] Chaiken et al. , 1995) in consumer decision-making, in both offline and online
settings. By eliciting three separate facets, it might be possible to obtain a sharper focus on the "differential
effects of levels of ambivalence" ([2] Armitage and Conner, 2000, p. 1430) on consumer behaviour in retailing
channels.
Earlier research on ambivalence has also indicated that attitudes are based on separate positive and negative
components and has problematized the conceptualization of attitudes and emotions along a bipolar continuum
([74] Priester and Petty, 1996). [70] Petty et al. (1997, p. 613)) have argued that the assumption that "positive
and negative evaluative reactions are reciprocally activated" is not necessarily tenable but rather "positive and
negative responses should be viewed as a bivariate evaluative plane" ([11] Cacioppo and Berntson, 1994).
Similarly, [100] Babin et al. (1998, cited in [53] Maxwell and Kover, 2003, p. 554) argue "that positive and
negative affects are often but not always unipolar rather than bipolar dimensions ... one cannot, consequently
consider negative affect as simply the opposite of positive affect". [11] Cacioppo and Berntson (1994) also posit
"the inability of traditional bipolar attitude scales to fully differentiate among these possibilities [i.e. positive and
negative responses] and would suggest the value for future research to use separate measures of the positive
and negative bases of attitudes" ([70] Petty et al. , 1997, p. 613). In designing our questionnaire we adopted the
conventional assumption about bipolar scales for measuring attitudes. However, for future research we would
suggest drawing on all these viewpoints and endeavouring to separate positive and negative aspects of
attitudes into unipolar measurements for further studies of ambivalence and mixed emotions.
For other future research, it is important to assess the feeling states that are brought to the store ([20] Dawson

et al. , 1990) as well as the feeling states induced by the store, as explored by earlier studies which examined
purchase behaviors ([23] Donovan and Rossiter, 1982). This is because ambivalence (mixed emotions) is just
03 December 2014

Page 13 of 21

ProQuest

as susceptible to the influence of recall and pre-existing experiences as it is to new experiences in the retail
channel. [91] Updegraff et al. (2004) also argued that past negative emotional experiences may be "chronically
salient sources" for subsequent experiences, indicating that future studies of approach-avoidance conflicts
should elicit the all-important feelings and memories that consumers bring to their experiences of shopping in
both offline and online channels as these pre-existing feelings contribute to the priming of consumers for their
next set of shopping experiences. Ambivalence needs to be understood therefore, not just in both global and
incremental terms, but also within the longitudinal setting of consumers' histories and memories of their earlier
shopping experiences across both channels.
For this empirical study we used convenience sampling, which limits the generalizability of the results; and also
the capacity to perform cross-country analyses to bring out any potential variations among European countries.
Future research could usefully seek more representative country samples to allow cross-country comparisons,
and also generalization from the findings. In terms of cross-cultural validation, future studies should test whether
the proposed model is culturally invariant, given similar behaviour settings are selected. The main focus in the
current study was to use an international sample to test the conceptual model (see [75] Reynolds et al. , 2003),
and not to compare the respective countries regarding their purchase intentions, which imply certain limitations.
Within the context of the cultures used for this study (Austria, Greece and the UK) a larger scale study might be
able to draw out differences in shopping propensities for online and offline retailing environments between
Austrian, Greek and UK consumers; and link these differences to the role of mixed emotions (i.e. ambivalence)
in approach-avoidance conflicts in retailing. Drawing on earlier cross-cultural research (e.g. [40] Hofstede, 2001;
[80] Schwartz and Zanna, 1992) it would be interesting to examine how far the five dimensions (power distance
index (PDI); individualism (IDV); masculinity (MAS); uncertainty avoidance (UAI); and long term orientation
(LTO)) as well as values vary across national contexts between the specific retailing contexts of online or offline
shopping. In terms of masculinity for instance, do cultures which score low on masculinity (and thus high on
femininity) demonstrate similar sets of behaviours when shopping offline and online, or do the sociable aspects
of shopping mean that a distinction can be drawn so that shopping offline is identified as preferred to shopping
online, whereas cultures high on masculinity scores prefer online to offline shopping environments? In terms of
uncertainty avoidance, do consumers' perceptions of risk related to purchasing lead to greater aversion to
shopping on line and a greater preference for offline shopping environments in cultural contexts which score
high on uncertainty avoidance (e.g. Greece). Expanding beyond the immediate cultural contexts for this
empirical study (Austria, Greece and the U.K.) would allow selection of participant countries on the basis of
national scores on these dimensions for further study. Different countries might potentially provide more
nuanced insights into how cultural contexts influence shopping propensities for online and offline retailing
environments; and highlight differences in the role of mixed emotions (i.e. ambivalence) in approach-avoidance
conflicts in culturally different retailing contexts.
Another important direction for future study would be to incorporate more detailed and explicit psychological
elements into the model building. As this was an exploratory study, we concentrated on developing and testing
three selected influences on purchase intention: situation, product and reference group in this initial stage of
theory building. This allowed us to focus on three specific topic areas and measure the causal relations among
and mediating effects of approach-avoidance on these constructs. However individual determinants play an
important and complex role within retailing contexts particularly in predicting purchase intentions, and so
psychological factors will impact the operation of mixed emotions and ambivalence. Thus including
psychological factors in the next stage of model development and theory testing could potentially provide a
more nuanced understanding of the impact of consumers' mixed emotions on approach-avoidance conflicts.
The authors would like to thank Christina Wastlbauer and Christina-Isidora Kyritsi who undertook the data
collection for this study.The authors would also like to thank the Editors and the three reviewers for their helpful
and insightful comments on earlier drafts of this paper.
03 December 2014

Page 14 of 21

ProQuest

Footnote
1. In our model we explore how independent variables (situation, product, reference group) have an impact on
purchase intentions via emotional states, i.e. emotional states intervene (mediation effect). We are not
assuming that emotional states influence the relation of the independent variables (situation, product, reference
group) and the intention to purchase, which would mean they cause the intention ([6] Baron and Kenny, 1986).
References
1. Allan, D. (2008), "Sound retailing: a review of experimental evidence on the effects of music on shopping
behavior", in Lowrey, T.M. (Ed.), Brick &Mortar Shopping in the Twenty-first Century, Lawrence Erlbaum, New
York, NY, pp. 33-52.
2. Armitage, C.J. and Conner, M. (2000), "Attitudinal ambivalence: a test of three key hypotheses", Personality
and Social Psychology Bulletin, Vol. 26 No. 11, pp. 1421-32.
3. Bagozzi, R.P., Gopinath, M. and Nyer, P.U. (1999), "The role of emotions in marketing", Journal of the
Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 27 No. 2, pp. 184-206.
4. Baker, J. (1986), "The role of the environment in marketing services: the consumer perspective", in Czepeil,
J.A., Congram, C.A. and Shanahan, J. (Eds), The Services Challenge: Integrating for Competitive Advantage,
American Marketing Association, Chicago, IL, pp. 79-84.
5. Baker, J., Levy, M. and Grewal, D. (1992), "An experimental approach to making retail store environmental
decisions", Journal of Retailing, Vol. 68 No. 4, p. 445.
6. Baron, R.M. and Kenny, D.A. (1986), "The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological
research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations", Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
Vol. 51 No. 6, pp. 1173-82.
7. Bearden, W.O. and Etzel, M.J. (1982), "Reference group influence on product and brand purchase
decisions", Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 9 No. 2, pp. 183-94.
8. Bearden, W.O., Netemeyer, R.G. and Teel, J.E. (1989), "Measurement of consumer susceptibility to
interpersonal influence", Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 15, March, pp. 473-81.
9. Bearden, W.O., Netemeyer, R.G. and Teel, J.E. (1990), "Further validation of the consumer susceptibility to
interpersonal influence scale", Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 17, pp. 770-6.
10. Burton, D. (2002), "Postmodernism, social relations and remote shopping", European Journal of Marketing,
Vol. 36 Nos 7/8, pp. 792-955.
11. Cacioppo, J.T. and Berntson, G.G. (1994), "Relationship between attitudes and evaluative space: a critical
review, with emphasis on the separability of positive and negative substrates", Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 115
No. 3, pp. 401-23.
12. Chaiken, S., Pomerantz, E.M. and Giner-Sorolla, R. (1995), "Structural consistency and attitude strength", in
Petty, R.E. and Krosnick, J.A. (Eds), Attitude Strength: Antecedents and Consequences, Lawrence Erlbaum,
Mahwah, NJ.
13. Chaudhuri, A. (1997), "Consumption emotion and perceived risk: a macro-analytic approach", Journal of
Business Research, Vol. 39 No. 2, pp. 81-92.
14. Chiang, K.-P. and Dholakia, R.R. (2003), "Factors driving consumer intention to shop online: an empirical
investigation", Journal of Consumer Psychology, Vol. 13 Nos 1-2, pp. 177-83.
15. Childers, T.L. and Rao, A.R. (1992), "The influence of familial and peer-based reference groups on
consumer decisions", Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 19 No. 2, pp. 198-211.
16. Conchar, M.P., Zinkhan, C.M., Peters, C. and Olavarrieta, S. (2004), "An integrated framework for the
conceptualization of consumers' perceived-risk processing", Academy of Marketing Science Journal, Vol. 32
No. 4, pp. 418-36.
17. Cox, D.F. (1967), Risk Taking and Information Handling in Consumer Behavior, Division of Research
Graduate School of Business Administration, Harvard University, Boston, MA.
03 December 2014

Page 15 of 21

ProQuest

18. Cronbach, L.J. (1951), "Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of test", Psychometrika, Vol. 16,
September, pp. 297-334.
19. d'Astous, A. (2000), "Irritating aspects of the shopping environment", Journal of Business Research, Vol. 49
No. 2, pp. 149-56.
20. Dawson, S., Bloch, P.H. and Ridgway, N.M. (1990), "Shopping motives, emotional states, and retail
outcomes", Journal of Retailing, Vol. 66 No. 4, pp. 408-27.
21. DelVecchio, D. and Smith, D.C. (2005), "Brand-extension price premiums: the effects of perceived fit and
extension product category risk", Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 33 No. 2, pp. 184-96.
22. Dennis, C., Harris, L. and Sandhu, B. (2002), "From bricks to clicks: understanding the e-consumer",
Qualitative Market Research, Vol. 5 No. 4, pp. 281-90.
23. Donovan, R.J. and Rossiter, J.R. (1982), "Store atmosphere: an environmental psychology approach",
Journal of Retailing, Vol. 58 No. 1, pp. 34-57.
24. Donovan, R.J., Rossiter, J.R., Marcoolyn, G. and Nesdale, A. (1994), "Store atmosphere and purchasing
behavior", Journal of Retailing, Vol. 70 No. 3, pp. 283-94.
25. Doolin, B., Dillon, S., Thompson, F. and Corner, J.L. (2005), "Perceived risk, the internet shopping
experience and online purchasing behavior: a New Zealand perspective", Journal of Global Information
Management, Vol. 13 No. 2, pp. 66-88.
26. Dowling, G.R. and Staelin, R. (1994), "A model of perceived risk and intended risk-handling activity", Journal
of Consumer Research, Vol. 21 No. 1, pp. 119-54.
27. Elliot, A.J. and Thrash, T.M. (2002), "Approach-avoidance motivation in personality: approach and
avoidance temperaments and goals", Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 82 No. 5, pp. 804-18.
28. Eroglu, S.A., Machleit, K.A. and Davis, L.M. (2001), "Atmospheric qualities of online retailing: a conceptual
model and implications", Journal of Business Research, Vol. 54 No. 2, pp. 177-84.
29. Eroglu, S.A., Machleit, K.A. and Davis, L.M. (2003), "Empirical testing of a model of online store
atmospherics and shopper responses", Psychology &Marketing, Vol. 20 No. 2, pp. 139-50.
30. Escalas, J.E. and Bettman, J.R. (2003), "You are what they eat: the influence of reference groups on
consumers' connections to brands", Journal of Consumer Psychology, Vol. 13 No. 3, pp. 339-48.
31. Fiore, A.M., Jin, H.-J. and Kim, J. (2005), "For fun and profit: hedonic value from image interactivity and
responses toward an online store", Psychology &Marketing, Vol. 22 No. 8, pp. 669-94.
32. Fiore, A.M., Yah, X. and Yoh, E. (2000), "Effects of a product display and environmental fragrancing on
approach responses and pleasurable experiences", Psychology &Marketing, Vol. 17 No. 1, pp. 27-54.
33. Forsythe, S.M. and Shi, B. (2003), "Consumer patronage and risk perceptions in internet shopping", Journal
of Business Research, Vol. 56 No. 11, pp. 867-75.
34. Foxall, G.R. (1997), "The emotional texture of consumer environments: a systematic approach to
atmospherics", Journal of Economic Psychology, Vol. 18 No. 5, pp. 505-23.
35. Foxall, G.R. and Greenley, G.E. (1999), "Consumers' emotional responses to service environments",
Journal of Business Research, Vol. 46 No. 2, pp. 149-58.
36. Foxall, G.R. and Yani-de-Soriano, M.M. (2005), "Situational influences on consumers' attitudes and
behavior", Journal of Business Research, Vol. 58 No. 4, pp. 518-25.
37. Hansen, F. (1976), "Psychological theories of consumer choice", Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 3 No.
3, pp. 117-42.
38. Harrison, T., Waite, K. and Hunter, G.L. (2006), "The internet, information and empowerment", European
Journal of Marketing, Vol. 40 Nos 9/10, pp. 972-93.
39. Harrist, S. (2006), "A phenomenological investigation of the experience of ambivalence", Journal of
Phenomenological Psychology, Vol. 37 No. 1, pp. 85-114.
40. Hofstede, G. (2001), Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations
03 December 2014

Page 16 of 21

ProQuest

across Nations, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.

41. Hogg, M.A. and Vaughan, G.M. (2005), Social Psychology, Prentice-Hall, Harlow.
42. Holbrook, M.B. and Hirschman, E.C. (1982), "The experiential aspects of consumption: consumer fantasies,
feelings, and fun", Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 9 No. 2, pp. 132-40.
43. Jacoby, J. and Kaplan, L.B. (1972), "The components of perceived risk", Advances in Consumer Research,
Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 382-93.
44. Kaplan, L.B., Szybillo, G.J. and Jacoby, J. (1974), "Components of perceived risk in product purchase: a
cross-validation", Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 59 No. 3, pp. 287-91.
45. Koernig, S.K. (2003), "E-scapes: the electronic physical environment and service tangibility", Psychology
&Marketing, Vol. 20 No. 2, pp. 151-67.
46. Kwak, H., Fox, R.J. and Zinkhan, G.M. (2002), "What products can be successfully promoted and sold via
the internet", Journal of Advertising Research, January/February, pp. 23-38.
47. Lavine, H. (2004), "Attitude ambivalence in the realm of politics", in Haddock, G. and Maio, G.R. (Eds),
Contemporary Perspectives on the Psychology of Attitudes, Psychology Press, Hove, pp. 93-119.
48. Leone, L., Perugini, M. and Bagozzi, R.P. (2005), "Emotions and decision making: regulatory focus
moderates the influence of anticipated emotions on action evaluations", Cognition and Emotion, Vol. 19 No. 8,
pp. 1175-98.
49. Malhotra, N.K., Agarwal, J. and Peterson, M. (1996), "Methodological issues in cross-cultural marketing
research: a state-of-the-art review", International Marketing Review, Vol. 13 No. 5, pp. 7-43.
50. Mangleburg, T.F., Doney, P.M. and Bristol, T. (2004), "Shopping with friends and teens' susceptibility to
peer influence", Journal of Retailing, Vol. 80 No. 2, pp. 101-16.
51. Mariani, M.G. and Zappal, S. (2006), "Risk perception in online shopping", in Zappal, S. and Gray, C.
(Eds), Impact of E-Commerce on Consumers and Small Firms, Ashgate, Aldershot, pp. 207-21.
52. Mattila, A.S. and Wirtz, J. (2008), "The role of store environmental stimulation and social factors on impulse
purchasing", Journal of Services Marketing, Vol. 22 No. 7, pp. 562-7.
53. Maxwell, S. and Kover, A. (2003), "Negative affect: the dark side of retailing", Journal of Business Research,
Vol. 56, pp. 553-9.
54. McCarthy, R. and Aronson, J.E. (2000), "Activating consumer response: a model for web site design
strategy", The Journal of Computer Information Systems, Vol. 41 No. 2, pp. 2-8.
55. Mehrabian, A. and Russell, J.A. (1974), An Approach to Environmental Psychology, MIT Press, Cambridge,
MA.
56. Menon, S. and Kahn, B. (2002), "Cross-category effects of induced arousal and pleasure on the internet
shopping experience", Journal of Retailing, Vol. 78 No. 1, pp. 31-40.
57. Miller, N.E. (1944), "Experimental studies of conflict", in Hunt, J. McV. (Ed.), Personality and the Behavior
Disorders, pp. 431-65.
58. Mitchell, V.W. and Hogg, M.K. (1997), "Perceived risk - issues of identification and measurement for
consumer research", working paper, Manchester School of Management, Manchester.
59. Mitchell, V.-W. (1999), "Consumer perceived risk: conceptualisations and models", European Journal of
Marketing, Vol. 33 Nos 1/2, pp. 163-95.
60. Mitchell, V.-W. and Boustani, P. (1994), "A preliminary investigation into pre- and post-purchase risk
perception and reduction", European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 28 No. 1, pp. 56-71.
61. Mizerski, R.W. (1982), "An attribution explanation of the disproportionate influence of unfavorable
information", Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 9 No. 3, pp. 301-10.
62. Monsuwe, T.P., Dellaert, B.G.C. and Ruyter, K. (2004), "What drives consumers to shop online? A literature
review", International Journal of Service Industry Management, Vol. 15 No. 1, pp. 102-21.
63. Olsen, S.O., Wilcox, J. and Olsson, U. (2005), "Consequences of ambivalence on satisfaction and loyalty",
03 December 2014

Page 17 of 21

ProQuest

Psychology &Marketing, Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 247-69.

64. Otnes, C., Lowrey, T.M. and Shrum, L.J. (1997), "Toward an understanding of consumer ambivalence",
Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 24 No. 1, pp. 80-93.
65. Palmer, J.W. (2002), "Web site usability, design, and performance metrics", Information Systems Research,
Vol. 13 No. 2, pp. 151-67.
66. Pan, Y. and Zinkhan, G.M. (2006), "Determinants of retail patronage: a meta-analytical perspective", Journal
of Retailing, Vol. 82 No. 3, pp. 229-43.
67. Paridon, T.J. (2004), "Retail opinion sharing: conceptualization and measurement", Journal of Retailing and
Consumer Services, Vol. 11, pp. 87-93.
68. Penz, E. and Kirchler, E. (2006), "Affective states, purchase intentions and perceived risk in online
shopping", in Zappal, S. and Gray, C. (Eds), Impact of E-Commerce on Consumers and Small Firms, Ashgate,
Aldershot, pp. 191-205.
69. Peter, C. and Beale, R. (2008), Affect and Emotion in Human-Computer Interaction: From Theory to
Applications, Springer, Berlin.
70. Petty, R.E., Wegener, D.T. and Fabrigar, L.E. (1997), "Attitudes and attitude formation", Annual Review of
Psychology, Vol. 48, pp. 609-47.
71. Preacher, K.J. and Hayes, A.F. (2004), "SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple
mediation models", Behavior Research Methods, Vol. 36 No. 4, pp. 717-31.
72. Preacher, K.J. and Hayes, A.F. (2008), "Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing
indirect effects in multiple mediator models", Behavior Research Methods, Vol. 40 No. 3, pp. 879-91.
73. Preacher, K.J., Rucker, D.D. and Hayes, A.F. (2007), "Addressing moderated mediation hypotheses: theory,
methods, and prescriptions", Multivariate Behavioral Research, Vol. 42 No. 1, pp. 185-227.
74. Priester, J.R. and Petty, R.E. (1996), "The gradual threshold model of ambivalence: relating the positive and
negative bases of attitudes to subjective ambivalence", Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 71
No. 3, p. 431.
75. Reynolds, N.L., Simintiras, A.C. and Diamantopoulos, A. (2003), "Theoretical justification of sampling
choices in international marketing research: key issues and guidelines for researchers", Journal of International
Business Studies, Vol. 34 No. 1, pp. 80-9.
76. Richard, M.-O. and Chandra, R. (2005), "A model of consumer web navigational behavior: conceptual
development and application", Journal of Business Research, Vol. 58 No. 8, pp. 1019-29.
77. Ruth, J.A., Brunel, F.F. and Otnes, C.E. (2002), "Linking thoughts to feelings: investigating cognitive
appraisals and consumption emotions in a mixed-emotions context", Journal of the Academy of Marketing
Science, Vol. 30 No. 1, pp. 44-58.
78. Schachter, S. and Singer, J. (1962), "Cognitive, social, and physiological determinants of emotional state",
Psychological Review, Vol. 69, pp. 379-99.
79. Schiffman, L.G., Sherman, E. and Long, M.M. (2003), "Toward a better understanding of the interplay of
personal values and the internet", Psychology and Marketing, Vol. 20 No. 2, pp. 169-86.
80. Schwartz, S.H. and Zanna, M.P. (1992), "Universals in the content and structure of values: theoretical
advances and empirical tests in 20 countries", Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 25, pp. 1-65.
81. Shim, S., Eastlick, M.A., Lotz, S.L. and Warrington, P. (2001), "An online prepurchase intentions model: the
role of intention to search", Journal of Retailing, Vol. 77, pp. 397-416.
82. Sinkovics, R.R. and Penz, E. (2005), "Empowerment of SME web sites: development of a webempowerment scale and preliminary evidence", Journal of International Entrepreneurship, Vol. 3 No. 4, pp. 30315.
84. Spies, K., Hesse, F. and Loesch, K. (1997), "Store atmosphere, mood and purchasing behavior",
International Journal of Research in Marketing, Vol. 14 No. 1, pp. 1-17.
03 December 2014

Page 18 of 21

ProQuest

85. Stone, R.N. and Gronhaug, K. (1993), "Perceived risk: further considerations for the marketing discipline",
European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 27 No. 3, pp. 39-50.
86. Tai, S.H.C. and Fung, A.M.C. (1997), "Application of environmental psychology model to in-store buying
behaviour", The International Review of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Research, Vol. 7 No. 4, pp. 311-37.
87. Tan, S.J. (1999), "Strategies for reducing consumers' risk aversion in internet shopping", The Journal of
Consumer Marketing, Vol. 16 No. 2, pp. 163-80.
88. Teo, T.S.H. and Yeong, Y.D. (2003), "Assessing the customer decision process in the digital marketplace",
Omega, Vol. 31 No. 5, pp. 349-63.
89. Thompson, M.M. and Zanna, M.P. (1995), "The conflict individual: personality-based and domain specific
antecedents of ambivalent social attitudes", Journal of Personality, Vol. 63, pp. 259-88.
90. Tractinsky, N. and Rao, V.S. (2001), "Incorporating social dimensions in web-store design", Human
Systems Management, Vol. 20 No. 2, pp. 105-21.
91. Updegraff, J.A., Gable, S.L. and Taylor, S.E. (2004), "What makes experiences satisfying? The interaction
of approach-avoidance motivations and emotions in wellbeing", Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
Vol. 86 No. 3, pp. 496-504.
92. Van Kenhove, P. and Desrumaux, P. (1997), "The relationship between emotional states and approach or
avoidance responses in a retail environment", The International Review of Retail, Distribution and Consumer
Research, Vol. 7 No. 4, pp. 351-68.
93. Wang, Y.-S. and Tang, T.-I. (2003), "Assessing customer perceptions of web site service quality in digital
marketing environments", Journal of End User Computing, Vol. 15 No. 3, pp. 14-31.
94. Watson, L. and Spence, M.T. (2007), "Causes and consequences of emotions on consumer behaviour; a
review and integrative cognitive appraisal theory", European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 41 Nos 5/6, pp. 487-511.
95. Wikstrm, S. (2005), "From e-channel to channel mix and channel integration", Journal of Marketing
Management, Vol. 21 Nos 7/8, pp. 725-53.
96. Wu, C.-S., Cheng, F.-F. and Yen, D.C. (2008), "The atmospheric factors of online storefront environment
design: an empirical experiment in Taiwan", Information &Management, Vol. 45 No. 7, pp. 493-8.
97. Zaichkowsky, J.L. (1985), "Measuring the involvement construct", Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 12
No. 3, pp. 341-52.
98. Zaichkowsky, J.L. (1994), "The personal involvement inventory: reduction, revision, and application to
advertising", Journal of Advertising, Vol. 23 No. 4, pp. 59-70.
100. Babin, B.J., Darden, W.R. and Babin, L.A. (1998), "Negative emotions in marketing research: affect or
artifact?", Journal of Business Research, Vol. 42 No. 3, pp. 271-85.
Further Reading
1. Sparks, P. (2000), "Subjective expected utility-based attitude-behavior models: the utility of self-identity", in
Terry, D.J. and Hogg, M.A. (Eds), Attitudes, Behavior, and Social Context. The Role of Norms and Group
Membership, Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 31-46.
Appendix
Corresponding author
Elfriede Penz can be contacted at: elfriede.penz@wu.ac.at
AuthorAffiliation
Elfriede Penz, Wirtschaftsuniversitt (WU), Institute for International Marketing and Management, Vienna,
Austria
Margaret K. Hogg, Department of Marketing, Management School, Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK
Illustration
Equation 1
03 December 2014

Page 19 of 21

ProQuest

Figure 1: Possible linkage between ambivalence and approach-avoidance behaviour in conflicts

Figure 2: Conceptual model of approach-avoidance behaviour in conflicts and related hypotheses
Table I: Overview of concepts and developed hypotheses
Table II: Percentage of Austrian, Greek and UK individuals (compared to EU 27) purchasing via the internet in
the last 12 months (2008)
Table III: Factor and reliability analyses for constructs
Table IV: Differences between the two different retail formats (online shopping situations vs. traditional brick and
mortar "offline" contexts) in terms of the effects of various influences (t -tests, independent samples)
Table V: Correlation matrix for approach-avoidance variables (online context)
Table VI: Correlation matrix for approach-avoidance variables (offline context)
Table VII: Results for multiple mediated regression analyses
Subject: Studies; Consumer behavior; Electronic commerce; Retailing; Marketing;
Classification: 9130: Experimental/theoretical; 7100: Market research; 5250: Telecommunications systems &
Internet communications; 8390: Retailing industry; 7000: Marketing
Publication title: European Journal of Marketing
Volume: 45
Issue: 1/2
Pages: 104-132
Publication year: 2011
Publication date: 2011
Year: 2011
Publisher: Emerald Group Publishing, Limited
Place of publication: Bradford
Country of publication: United Kingdom
Publication subject: Business And Economics--Marketing And Purchasing
ISSN: 03090566
Source type: Scholarly Journals
Language of publication: English
Document type: Feature
Document feature: Diagrams Tables References
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/03090561111095612
ProQuest document ID: 848013930
Document URL: http://search.proquest.com/docview/848013930?accountid=61315
Copyright: Copyright Emerald Group Publishing Limited 2011
Last updated: 2011-06-23
Database: ProQuest Psychology Journals

03 December 2014

Page 20 of 21

ProQuest

Bibliography
Citation style: Harvard - British Standard
PENZ, E. and MARGARET, K.H., 2011. The role of mixed emotions in consumer behaviour. European Journal
of Marketing, 45(1), pp. 104-132.

_______________________________________________________________
Contact ProQuest

Copyright 2014 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. - Terms and Conditions

03 December 2014

Page 21 of 21

ProQuest