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1.0
Objectives
2.0
To measure head loss in pipes for different water flow rates, pipe diameters and
pipe roughness.
To estimate the values of loss coefficient for pipes of different flow conditions,
diameters and roughness.
To study the effect of the velocity of the fluid, the size (inside diameter) of the
pipe, the roughness of the inside of the pipe on the values of loss coefficient.
To study the effect of sudden change in pipe diameter and flow direction on the
total energy or head losses in pipes
Introduction
As an incompressible fluid flows through a pipe, a friction force along the pipe wall is
created against the fluid. The frictional resistance generates a continuous loss of energy
or total head in the fluid and hence decreases the pressure of the fluid as it moves
through the pipe. There are four factors that determine friction losses in pipe
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
In addition to energy or head loss due to friction, there are always head losses in pipes
due to an enlargement or contraction of the flow section, bends, junctions, valves etc.,
which are commonly known as minor or small losses. When the direction of flow is
altered or distorted, energy losses occur which are not recovered are dissipated in eddies
and additional turbulence and finally lost in the form of heat. However, this energy must
be supplied if the fluid is to be maintained in motion, in the same way, as energy must be
provided to overcome friction. In practice, in long pipe lines of several kilometres the
2
effect of minor losses may be negligible. For short pipeline the losses may be greater than
those for friction.
3.0
Theory
In Bernoulli's equation as shown below, hf represents the head loss due to friction between
the fluid and the internal surface of the constant diameter pipe as well as the friction between
the adjacent fluid layers
p1/g + V12/2g + Z1 = p2 / g + V22/2g + Z2 + hf
(1)
This will result in a continuous change of energy from a valuable mechanical form (such as
kinetic or potential energies) to a less valuable thermal form that is heat. This change of
energy is usually referred to as friction head loss, which represents the amount of energy
converted into heat per unit weight of fluid .
The head losses (hf) in pipe due to friction can be determined using Darcy-Weisback
equation;
Turbulent flowhf = 4 fLV2
(2)
2 gD
hf = 32 fLQ2
2gD5
Laminar flow
(3)
Where:
f
L
V
g
D
=
=
=
=
=
Friction factor
Length
Mean velocity (Q/A)
Gravity
Constant diameter
The friction head loss for both laminar and turbulent flows can be expressed by similar
formulas although the original derivation of each one is different:
hf f
L V2
D 2g
(4)
VD
(5)
Based on the nature of the flow, friction factor (f ) can be estimated using the following
correlations
Laminar flow
= 64
(6)
Re
Turbulent Flow
f = 0.316 x Re -0.25
(7)
Equation (7) is Blausius Equation and only valid for smooth pipe and 3000 < Re< 105.
The value of f for turbulent flow can be obtained experimentally from the Moody Chart.
Moreover, for turbulent flow, the relationship between hf and V takes the form
hf = K. Vn
(8)
(9)
hf = (P1- P2) /g = h1 - h2
(10)
Energy losses are proportional to the velocity head of the fluid as it flows around an
elbow, through an enlargement or contraction of the flow section, or through a valve.
Experimental values for energy losses are usually reported in terms of a resistance or loss
coefficient K as follows:
hL
KV 2
2g
(11)
where hL is the minor loss, K is the resistance or loss coefficient, and V is the average
velocity of flow in the pipe in the vicinity where the minor loss occurs. The resistance or
loss coefficient is dimensionless because it represents a constant of proportionality
5
between the energy loss and the velocity head. The magnitude of the resistance
coefficient depends on the geometry of the device that causes the loss and sometimes on
the velocity of flow.
Minor losses at sudden enlargement
When a fluid flows from a smaller pipe into a larger pipe through a sudden enlargement,
its velocity abruptly decreases, causing turbulence, which generates an energy loss.
where,
V1 = velocity at small cross-section (upstream)
V2 = velocity at large cross-section (downstream)
The minor loss (hL) due to sudden enlargement of the pipe can be estimated by
integrating the momentum, continuity and Bernoulli equations between positions 1 and 2
to give
hL
V1 V2 2
(12)
2g
Substituting again for the continuity equation to get an expression involving the two
areas, (i.e. V2=V1(A1/A2) gives
KV1
hL
2g
(13)
Where , K
A
1 1
A2
D
1 1
D2
In a sudden contraction, flow contracts from point 1 to point 1', forming a vena
contraction. It is possible to assume that energy losses from 1 to 1' are negligible (no
separation occurs in contracting flow) but that major losses occur between 1' and 2 as the
flow expands again
If the vena contracta area is A1=Ac, then the minor loss (hL) can be estimated by
integrating the momentum , continuity and Bernoulli equations between positions 1 and 2
to give
A
hL 1 C
A2
V22
2g
(14)
The above equation is commonly expressed as a function of loss coefficient (K) and the
average velocity (V2) in the smaller pipe downstream from the contraction as follows;
hL
Where
KV2
2g
(15)
A
K 1 C
A2
As the difference in pipe diameters gets large (A 1/A2 0) then this value of K will tend
towards 0.5 which is equal to the value for entry loss from a reservoir into a pipe. The
value of K depends upon the ratio of the pipe diameters (D2/D1) as given below;
D2/D1
K
0
0.5
0.1
0.45
0.2
0.412
0.3
0.39
0.4
0.36
0.5
0.33
0.6
0.28
0.7
0.15
0.8
0.15
0.9
0.06
1.0
0
KV 2
2g
(16)
where,
(17)
hl + Vl 2 / 2 g + Z1 = h2 + V2 2 / 2 g + Z2 + hL
(18)
and since Z1 = Z2 ,
then
hL h1 h2
V12 V22
2g
(19)
4.0
Apparatus
10
Linear Pipe
1
2
Section
A (rough)
Diameter (mm)
25.0
Length (mm)
1030
B (smooth)
A (rough)
23.5
14.0
1030
1030
B (smooth)
13.3
1030
5.0
Temperature (oC)
(kg/m3)
(x 10-3 N.s/m3)
999.8
1.781
1000.0
1.518
10
999.7
1.307
15
999.1
1.139
20
998.2
1.002
25
997.0
0.890
30
995.7
0.798
40
992.2
0.653
50
988.0
0.547
60
983.2
0.466
70
977.8
0.404
80
971.8
0.354
90
965.3
0.315
100
953.4
0.282
Experimental Procedure
11
Open all outlet valves of pipes 1, 2 and 4 (valves are in parallel with the pipes). Make
certain that the control valve in closed position (turn clockwise). Switch on the pump and
slowly open the control valve (turn counter-clockwise) until maximum, and wait for a
while in order to remove any air bubble in the flowing pipe.
Important Note:
To identify which inlet flowing pressure (H1) and outlet flowing pressure (H2) during
installation of water manometer rubber tube, determine the direction of water inflow and
outflow through the pipe.
A)
B)
Connect rubber tube of water manometer at inlet flowing pressure (H1) and
outlet flowing pressure (H2) for rough surface of Pipe 2A.
2.
Reduce the flow rate (Q) by slowly closing the control valve (turn
clockwise) until flow rate of 26 liter/minute is achieved. Then, rise both
water manometer rubber tubes at inlet flowing pressure (H 1) and outlet
flowing pressure (H2) while at the same time close the outlet valves of
pipes 1 and 4 (turn clockwise) but let only the outlet valve of pipe 2 open .
At this moment the flowing system is for pipe 2A of rough surface. During
the process, if air bubbles present in the flowing pipe, the air will move
through the water manometer rubber tube. Air bubbles will move to the
peak of the higher tube. Remove the air bubbles up to the manometer glass
tube.
3.
Readjust the flow rate to 26 liter/minute, and determine 5 (five) flow rates
Q from value of 26 liter/minute to the lowest value 12 liter/min (let the
increment as large as possible). Record the values of H 1 and H2 in
millimeter (mm) of the inlet and the outlet of water manometer flowing
pressures as Q is changed.
Move manometer rubber tube from the outlet flowing pressure (H 2) of the
rough surface of pipe 2A to inlet flowing pressure (H1) of smooth surface
of pipe 2B. The system is now flowing through pipe 2B (smooth surface).
2.
Rise both water manometer rubber tubes at inlet flowing pressure (H 1) and
outlet flowing pressure (H2) while at the same time slowly open the control
valve (turn counter-clockwise) until flow rate Q reaches 26 liter/minute.
During the process, if air bubbles present in the flowing pipe, the air will
move through the higher end of water manometer rubber tube. Remove the
air bubbles up to the manometer glass tube.
12
3.
C)
D)
Move both manometer rubber tubes of inlet (H1) and outlet (H2) flowing
pressures of pipe 2B (smooth surface) to the section of pipe 1A (rough
surface).
2.
Open the outlet valve of pipe 1 (turn counter-clockwise), and close the
outlet valve of pipe 2 (turn clockwise). The system is now flowing through
pipe 1A (rough surface).
3.
Rise both water manometer rubber tubes at inlet flowing pressure (H 1) and
outlet flowing pressure (H2) while at the same time slowly open the control
valve (turn counter-clockwise) until flow rate Q reaches maximum value
42 liter/min. During the process, if air bubbles present in the flowing pipe,
the air will move through the higher end of water manometer rubber tube.
Remove the air bubbles up to the manometer glass tube.
4.
Move the manometer rubber tubes from outlet (H2) flowing pressures of
pipe 1A (rough surface) to inlet (H 1) flowing pressure of pipe 1B (smooth
surface). The system is now flowing through pipe 1B (smooth surface).
2.
Rise both water manometer rubber tubes at inlet flowing pressure (H 1) and
outlet flowing pressure (H2) while at the same time slowly open the control
valve (turn counter-clockwise) until flow rate Q reaches maximum value
42 litter/min. During the process, if air bubbles present in the flowing pipe,
the air will move through the higher end of water manometer rubber tube.
Remove the air bubbles up to the manometer glass tube.
3.
13
E)
F)
Move both manometer rubber tubes of inlet (H1) and outlet (H2) flowing
pressures of pipe 1B (smooth surface) to the section of pipe 4 (Sudden
Enlargement).
2.
Open the outlet valve of pipe 4 (turn counter-clockwise), and close the
outlet valve of pipe 1 (turn clockwise). The system is now flowing through
pipe 4 (Sudden Enlargement).
3.
Rise both water manometer rubber tubes at inlet flowing pressure (H 1) and
outlet flowing pressure (H2) while at the same time slowly open the control
valve (turn counter-clockwise) until flow rate Q reaches 30 liter/minute
value. During the process, if air bubbles present in the flowing pipe, the air
will move through the higher end of water manometer rubber tube.
Remove the air bubbles up to the manometer glass tube.
4.
Readjust the flow rate to 30 liter/min, and determine 5 (five) flow rates Q
from value of 30 liter/minute to the lowest value 12 liter/min (let the
increment as large as possible). Record the values of H 1 and H2 in
millimeter (mm) of the inlet and the outlet of water manometer flowing
pressures as Q is changed.
Move the manometer rubber tubes from the inlet flowing pressure (H 1) of
pipe 4 (sudden enlargement) to the outlet flowing pressure (H 2) of pipe 4
(sudden contraction). The system is now flowing through pipe 4 (sudden
contraction).
2.
Rise both water manometer rubber tubes at inlet flowing pressure (H 1) and
outlet flowing pressure (H2) while at the same time slowly open control
valve (turn counter-clockwise) until flow rate Q reaches value 30
liter/minute. During the process, if air bubbles present in the flowing pipe,
the air will move through the higher end of water manometer rubber tube.
Remove the air bubbles up to the manometer glass tube.
3.
14
G)
H)
Move the manometer rubber tube from the inlet flowing pressure (H 1) of
pipe 4 (sudden contraction) to the outlet flowing pressure (H 2) of pipe 4
(90o bend). The system is now flowing through pipe 4 (90o bend).
2.
Rise both water manometer rubber tubes at inlet flowing pressure (H 1) and
outlet flowing pressure (H2) while at the same time slowly open the control
valve (turn counter-clockwise) until flow rate Q reaches value 30
liter/minute. During the process, if air bubbles present in the flowing pipe,
the air will move through the higher end of water manometer rubber tube.
Remove the air bubbles up to the manometer glass tube.
3.
Move the manometer rubber tube from the inlet flowing pressure (H 1) of
pipe 4 (90o bend) to the outlet flowing pressure (H2) of pipe 4 (elbow). The
system is now flowing through pipe 4 (elbow).
2.
Rise both water manometer rubber tubes at inlet flowing pressure (H 1) and
outlet flowing pressure (H2) while at the same time slowly open the control
valve (turn counter-clockwise) until flow rate Q reaches value 30
liter/minute. During the process, if air bubbles present in the flowing pipe,
the air will move through the higher end of water manometer rubber tube.
Remove the air bubbles up to the manometer glass tube.
3.
15
6.0
Pipe
2A
2B
hf.theo
hf.exp
fexp
h=h1-h2)
(Eq. 10)
26
4.33
920
35
4.91
0.882
14.46
(Eq 6 or
(Eq. 4)
Eq. 7 or
Moody
diagram)
0.162
0.473
22
3.67
770
155
4.91
0.747
12.25
0.168
0.352
0.615
0.294
18
3.00
660
240
4.91
0.611
10.02
0.177
0.248
0.420
0.300
14
2.33
565
320
4.91
0.475
7.790
0.189
0.160
0.245
0.290
12
2.00
530
350
4.91
0.407
6.670
0.196
0.122
0.180
0.289
26
4.33
915
185
4.34
0.998
15.47
0.159
0.625
0.730
0.186
22
3.67
780
245
4.34
0.846
13.11
0.166
0.469
0.535
0.189
18
3.00
660
300
4.34
0.691
10.71
0.174
0.328
0.360
0.191
14
2.33
570
350
4.34
0.537
8.320
0.185
0.211
2.220
0.193
12
2.00
535
370
4.34
0.461
7.150
0.193
0.162
0.165
0.197
Q
(1/min)
Q x 10-4
(m3/s)
h1
(mm)
h2
(mm)
A
2
(m x10-4)
V
(m/s)
Re
(x 103)
(m)
2 Dgh f ,exp
0.885
0.303
LV 2
16
Pipe
1A
1B
Q x 10-4
(m3/s)
Q
(1/min)
h1
(mm)
h2
(mm)
A
(m x10-4)
2
V
(m/s)
Re
(x103)
ftheo
hf.theo
hf.exp
fexp
(Eq 6 or
Eq. 7 or
Moody
diagram)
(Eq. 4)
h=h1-h2)
(Eq. 10)
(m)
2 Dgh f ,exp
28
4.67
390.2
300
4.91
0.951
28.33
0.137
0.260
0.09
0.047
24
4.00
373
315
4.91
0.815
24.29
0.142
0.198
0.06
0.043
20
3.33
360
330
4.91
0.678
20.20
0.149
0.144
0.03
0.031
16
2.67
353
340
4.91
0.544
16.21
0.157
0.098
0.013
0.021
12
2.00
349
345
4.91
0.407
12.13
0.169
0.059
0.004
0.011
28
4.67
384
305
4.34
1.076
29.59
0.135
0.349
0.079
0.031
24
4.00
370
315
4.34
1.168
32.12
0.132
0.402
0.055
0.018
20
3.33
365
317
4.34
1.402
38.56
0.126
0.553
0.048
0.011
16
2.67
363
320
4.34
1.749
48.10
0.120
0.820
0.043
0.006
12
2.00
365
325
4.34
2.335
64.21
0.111
1.352
0.04
0.003
LV 2
Qx10-4
(m3/s)
h1
(mm)
h2
(mm)
h
(m)
A1
(m2x10-4)
A2
(m2x10-4)
V1
(m/s)
V2
(m/s)
hL,theo
(m)
Eq. 2
hL,exp
(m)
Eq. 9
K
hL,exp /(V12/2g)
17
28
4.67
5356
525
0.01
1.39
4.26
3.360
1.096
0.261
0.524
0.911
24
4.00
490
485
0.005
1.39
4.26
2.878
0.939
0.192
0.382
0.905
20
3.33
445
440
0.005
1.39
4.26
2.396
0.728
0.133
0.266
0.909
16
2.67
405
400
0.005
1.39
4.26
1.921
0.627
0.085
0.173
0.920
12
2.00
365
363
0.002
1.39
4.26
1.439
0.469
0.048
0.096
0.910
Qx10-4
(m3/s)
h1
(mm)
h2
(mm)
h
(m)
A2
2
(m x10-4)
A2
2
(m x10-4)
V1
(m/s)
V2
(m/s)
hL,theo
(m)
Eq. 5
hL,exp
(m)
Eq. 9
hL,exp /(V22/2g)
28
4.67
845
280
0.565
4.26
1.39
1.096
3.360
0.288
0.051
0.089
24
4.00
765
300
0.465
4.26
1.39
0.939
2.878
0.211
0.088
0.208
20
3.33
635
335
0.300
4.26
1.39
0.782
2.396
0.146
0.039
0.133
16
2.67
560
340
0.220
4.26
1.39
0.627
1.921
0.094
0.052
0.276
12
2.00
485
360
0.125
4.26
1.39
0.469
1.439
0.053
0.031
0.294
V
(m/s)
hL,theo
(m)
Eq. 6
hL,exp
(m)
Eq. 9
Qx10-4
(m3/s)
h1
(mm)
h2
(mm)
h
(m)
A
2
(m x10-4)
hL,exp /(V2/2g)
18
28
4.67
825
2201
0.605
1.27
3.677
0.262
1.294
1.878
24
4.00
735
250
0.485
1.27
3.150
0.192
0.991
1.960
20
3.33
640
295
0.345
1.27
2.622
0.133
0.695
1.983
16
2.67
550
330
0.220
1.27
2.102
0.086
0.445
1.976
12
2.00
475
355
0.120
1.27
1.575
0.048
0.246
1.946
hL,exp
(m)
Eq. 9
1.469
K
hL,exp /(V2/2g)
2.132
Qx10-4
(m3/s)
h1
(mm)
h2
(mm)
h
(m)
A
2
(m x10-4)
V
(m/s)
28
4.67
860
80
0.780
1.27
3.677
hL,theo
(m)
Eq. 6
0.262
24
4.00
755
155
0.600
1.27
3.150
0.192
1.106
2.187
20
3.33
640
230
0.410
1.27
2.622
0.133
0.760
2.169
16
2.67
545
295
0.250
1.27
2.102
0.086
0.475
2.109
12
2.00
475
340
0.135
1.27
1.575
0.048
0.261
2.064
19
20
7.0
Laboratory report
Plot a graph of ftheo and fexp versus Re on the same graph and
comment on the results.
Plot a graph between experimental hf and V on a log-log paper to
obtain the values of K and n in eq. (9) for turbulent flow in a pipe.
Use log-log paper and remember that n, the slope of the straight
line, is given as n = (log hf 1 - log hf 2 ) / (log V1 - log V 2 ). The yintercept gives the value of log K.
Plot (hL)th and (hL )exp versus Q on the same graph. Compare the
difference between the experimental and theoretical results and
discuss on the effect of fluid flowrate on energy loss.
Plot on the same graph paper graphs of (hL )exp versus V21/2g (sudden
enlargement), V22/2g (sudden contraction), V2/2g (90o bend) and
V2/2g (90o elbow)
a. Estimate the value of loss coefficient (K) , i.e. slope of the
graph, for each flow condition
b. Compare the K values and briefly discuss the effect of pipe geometry
on the value of loss coefficient and hence energy loss in pipe.
c. Compare the average value of K with the theoretical value for
the experiments involving sudden pipe enlargement and 90 o
bend.
v.
21
GRAPH RESULT:
22
23
24
25
26
1.value of n:
n = (log hf 1 - log hf 2 ) / (log V1 - log V 2 )
pipe 2A: (log 0.84 log 0.32)/ (log 0.84 log 0.46)
= 1.4688
pipe 2B: (log 0.54 log 0.16)/ (log 0.82 log 0.44)
= 1.0525
pipe 1A: (log 0.075 log 0.01)/ (log 0.9 log 0.5)
= 0.1612
pipe 1B: (log 0.05 log 0.04)/ (log 01.35 log 2.1)
= 0.0234
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34