B. A.

1st Semester Summer Drive

Subject Name: Foundations of Political Science
SET 1
01 What is the significance of Political Science?
Solution:
Political science is a social science concerned with the theory and practice of politics and the
analysis of political systems and political behavior. Political scientists "see themselves
engaged in revealing the relationships underlying political events and conditions. And from
these revelations they attempt to construct general principles about the way the world of
politics work."
Political science intersects with other fields; including public policy, national politics,
economics, international relations, comparative politics, psychology, sociology, history, law,
and political theory. Political science is commonly divided into three distinct sub-disciplines
which together constitute the field: Political Philosophy, Comparative Politics and
International Relations. Political Philosophy is the reasoning for an absolute normative
government, laws and similar questions and their distinctive characteristics. Comparative
Politics is the science of comparison and teaching of different types of constitutions, political
actors, legislature and associated fields, all of them from an intrastate perspective.
International Relations deal with the interaction between nation-states as well as
intergovernmental and transnational organizations.
Political science is methodologically diverse and appropriates many methods originating in
social research. Approaches include positivism, interpretivism, rational choice theory,
behavioural, structuralism, post-structuralism, realism, institutionalism, and pluralism.
Political science, as one of the social sciences, uses methods and techniques that relate to the
kinds of inquiries sought: primary sources such as historical documents and official records,
secondary sources such as scholarly journal articles, survey research, statistical analysis, case
studies, and model building.
Generally, the importance of political science is the application of political powers and
authority in the realm of government structures. The ordinary citizens may know and learn
about their political rights and privileges from a given form of government including the
political structure and processes of the state.
1. The knowledge of human rights and privileges will educate the citizens about their
role in the political affairs of the state particularly in political rights: a) The right to
vote (suffrage); b) The constitutional rights and privileges ( due process of law); c) the
right in providing the basic services such as education, health and sanitation,
employment and other public support.

2. The study of political science motivates the citizens to participate in the political
activities of the state as to achievement the development thrust of the government in
relation to the improvement of quality of life.
3. The political science concepts on democracy, dictatorship and power structures give
the citizen full understanding as to the consequences on the individual political action
as defined by the political power and authority of the state.
4. The concept of politics may well be studied in the political science not simply in the
art of persuasion and influence that the citizens learn about also how this political
concept area applied in the society.
5. The comprehensive study on the branches, forms and systems of government provide
the individual better understanding in the concept of separation of powers,
parliamentary system, diplomatic immunity, human rights, general welfare, and social
services.
From the understandings of these basic concepts of government, state, laws and institutions
those who would study political science must know its importance and function, relationship
with other discipline and broader understanding to its specific roles of individual in a
civilized society. The students and professionals should not only know the political theories
but also deeper insights as to its application in their own field of expertise. Thus the study of
political science will also include the empirical investigation of political facts through social
research and the application of critical thinking. The key words in the comprehensive analysis
on the principles of political science are state, government, law, institution, power
relationships, legal process, constitutions and politics. These are the important dimensions to
study political science that need to be constantly in touch to mould the citizens in achieving
quality of life to our society.

02 Explain the relationship of Political Science with other social sciences.

Solution:
The concept of political science studies the systematic study of government. It is also the
ability to influence and persuade people to achieve the vested political power and authority to
conform the development thrusts and directions of the national government. It has wide range
of specialized relationships in social sciences to connect the societal activities of the state.
1. HISTORY
History relates on the past events where we can find the rise and fall of empire or kingdom.
The historical achievements of the rulers, kings and emperor have been the main focus as it
unfolded the rise of the nation and state. The historical chronicles of events have always been
related to the political struggle of power and authority. The history of the nation originated so
much the political expansion and division of the state that had shape the history of the nation

from the early civilization and the rise of empire; its division which later form feudal age; the
rise of the state and its role colonial administration; and the maturity of the individual state.
These are the significant relationship of history with that of political science such as the
concept of feudalism, socialism, mercantilism, absolutism, and other related term that
involved the political power and authority of the state.
ELEVANT RELATIONSHIPS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE WITH HISTORY
a) The Political Development of State and Empire. The Greek, Egyptian, Persian, Indian and
Chinese Civilizations that promulgated the political development along the theory of divine
rights of kings and emperors, state tax and force labour,
b) The Rise and fall of Emperors and Kings. These are the famous political rulers in the past
empires like Hammurabi, Alexander the Great, Julius Ceasar, Napoleon Bonaparte, Tsi Huan
Ti, and etc.; absolutism with the theory of divine rights of the king and emperor; and the
political dynastic cycle of the rulers;
c) The National Revolution. The political activities that led to the dissatisfaction of the people
just like French Revolution, Indian Revolution, American Revolution, Asian Revolution and
Latin American Revolution.
d) The Political Historical Transition. The political upheaval and transition of historical
period on slave society, feudal system, mercantilism, colonialism ,imperialism and the rise of
national state.
e) The Age of Reformation and Enlightenment. The political and religious awakening of the
sovereign people along the Protestant reformation, including the political ideas on human
freedom, independence, integrity and esteem in the age of enlightenment.
f) The Establishment of Sovereign State and Government . The political upheavals of the
colonies of Africa, America and Asia into sovereign government with a parliamentary and
presidential system of government.
g) The Economic System Advocacy . The political and economic transition to the communist
state for social equality and authoritative rule; government participation in economic
enterprise through the idea of socialism; and the free market economy of the democratic and
republican state.
2. PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy focuses on the study of logic, ethics, and morality. It has special interest in the
areas of personal and collective values on wisdom, equality, freedom, justice and truth. These
are the foundation of political science as completed by the study of state and government.
The ideas of people empowerment, human rights and justice, revolution and independence
were articulated by the philosophers to enforce the democratic and authoritative role in the
society. The wisdom and its role in governance transforms into what we call Political
Philosophy. The political philosophers of the age of enlightenment have shown united

thought on the ideas of social contract, democratic rights, good governance and the political
ideologies that set the new authoritative form of government in the past.

RELEVANT RELATIONSHIPS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE WITH PHILOSOPHY

a) The Ancient Political Philosophy. The systematic political analysis of Socrates, Arsitotle
and Plato about justice, wisdom and the development of city-states that finally led the
foundation of Political Science as a discipline.
b) The Political Philosophers and the Philosophical Advocacy on the Ethical Views of
Government. The political philosophy in the study of government structure, ethics, and the
sovereign state just like the work of Niccolo Machiavelli on epistemological structure of
government; Thomas Hobbes on social contract; Baruch Sinoza on the political authority and
rational egoism; Confucius on political ethics; John Locke the nature of sovereign authority
of the citizen; Baron de Montesquieu on the presidential system and check and balance.
Voltaire on the advocacy of civil liberties; Jean-Jacques Rousseau on general will and ideal
democracy; and other political philosophers that shape the existence of the stable government
and state.
3. SOCIOLOGY
Sociology studies the interaction of man in the society. The relationship in political science
reflects of the social activities of man. It also relates on how they rule the society as they have
to base it in the culture, tradition, values, norms, beliefs and mores. The political practices on
the dynastic rule, respect of the elders and authority, the formulation of laws according to the
mores and norms, religious beliefs have its relationship to the formation of the government
and state. The relevant relationships of Political Science with Sociology is the study of the
demographic profile, mobility and productivity of labour, the social setting of rural and
urban; and the concern on population. Furthermore, sociology can also be studied by the
social concerns such as addressing the problems of squatters, unemployment and mobility of
labour, age and gender structures, other emerging societal problems.
RELEVANT RELATIONSHIPS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE WITH SOCIOLOGY
a) The socio- demographic structure as to the gender, age, religion, educational attainment
profile of certain groups of society. These are the important variables to identify the political
services needed in the society.
b) The socio-cultural structure of the society along the tradition, culture, norms, and mores.
The cultural diversity and ethnicity in the promulgation of special laws and state polities
including other cultural interest of the society.
c) The demographic social issues and concerns on unemployment, prostitutions, squatters,
other and social crimes.
4. PSYCHOLOGY

The psychology studies the human behavior of the society. The human desires, motives,
needs and attitudes are the root causes of the political actions particularly in serving the
people. As we all know politics is the art of persuading and influencing other people in order
to be elected and gain power and authority in the society. The political behavior can also
study the general actions and attitudes of government in dealing with the people. The political
action responds to the peoples evaluation such as political survey about the performance of
politicians; demonstrations and other forms of political grievance mechanisms.
RELEVANT RELATIONSHIPS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE WITH PSYCHOLOGY
a) The utilization of political survey to study the political behavior of the voters; political
researches on the satisfaction levels on the government performance of politicians; the
qualitative surveys and mock elections.
b) The political behavior of voters, consumers, professionals, and other sovereign citizens as
to the political issues on graft and corruption; public service, economic and social services;
fiscal management and others.
5. ECONOMICS
Economics studies the management of scarce resources for the utilization of human needs
and wants. In political science, it also studies the economic growth and development in areas
of employment, income, budget and expenditures and the production of public goods and
services.
RELEVANT RELATIONSHIPS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE WITH ECONOMICS
a) The concept of economic growth and development to determine the employment rate,
national income (GNP & GDP); monetary and trade policies; and other economic tools for
development.
b) The social and economic services such as the infrastructure developments like construction
of farm to market roads, national roads, bridges, and public buildings.
c) The economic policies of free trade, economic investments, tariffs, economic zones and the
economic enterprises.
6. PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Public administration refers to the execution, of the national government thrust based on the
utilization of government resources to ensure the general and common welfare of the society.
While political science provides the similar field of interest as to the systematic study of
government and state. It is also formulation, execution and implementation of government
programs which also include the study of fiscal and public management.
RELEVANT RELATIONSHIPS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE WITH PSYCHOLOGY

The fiscal management of economic resources through the study of taxation and
revenue generation program; budget and public expenditures; borrowing and deficit
financing.

03 Explain the relationship between behaviouralism, post behaviouralism and neo

behaviouralism.
Solution:
04 What is the difference between state and government?
Solution:
The State refers to the present state of system. It also refers to a governed entity such as a
province. A government on the other hand is a kind of agency through which authority is
exercised by political units.
There are different types of states such as Sovereign state, Member state, Federated state and
Nation state. The term government on the contrary refers to the civil government of a
sovereign state.
There are different types of government such as Anarchism, Authoritarian, Communism,
Constitutional monarchy, and Constitutional republic, Democracy, Dictatorship, Monarchy,
Oligarchy, Plutocracy, Theocracy and Legalism.
A state is an organized political community occupying a certain territory. A government on
the contrary is an organization that has the power to make and enforce laws for a definite
territory. The word govern has the meaning of power to administrate.
It is interesting to note that a state generally occupies a certain geographic area. A state is
characterized by the presence of culture, language, people and history as well. One of the
major differences between a state and a government is that a state is like an organization
whereas a government is like a management team.
A state is an independent entity characterized by certain tasks to be carried out. It is
interesting to note that these administrative tasks are carried out by the so called government
for the proper functioning of the state. In short it can be said that a government has the
complete right to exercise power over people and the region. In other words a state is the
territory and the government has the right to exercise its power over the territory.
One of the important differences between a state and a government is that a state is a
geographic entity covering people and trade, whereas a government is a political
administration of state or a country.

05 Explain Social Contract theory. Highlight Hobbes views on social contract theory.
Solution
The term social contract describes a broad class of philosophical theories whose subject is the
implied agreements by which people form nations and maintain a social order. In laymen's
terms this means that the people give up some of their rights to a government in order to
receive protection and social order. Social contract theory provides the rationale behind the
historically important notion that legitimate state authority must be derived from the consent
of the governed. The starting point for most of these theories is an heuristic examination of
the human condition absent any social order, termed the state of nature or natural state. In
this state of being, an individuals action is bound only by his or her conscience. From this
common starting point, the various features of social contract theory attempt to explain, in
different ways, why it is in an individuals rational self-interest to voluntarily give up the
freedom of action one has under the natural state (their so called natural rights) in order to
obtain the benefits provided by the formation of social structures.
Common to all of these theories is the notion of a sovereign will which all members of a
society are bound by the social contract to respect. The various types of social contract theory
that have developed are largely differentiated by their definition of the sovereign will, be it a
King (monarchy), a Council (oligarchy) or The Majority (republic or democracy). Under a
theory first articulated by Plato, members within a society implicitly agree to the terms of the
social contract by their choice to stay within the society and receive protection. Thus implicit
in most forms of social contract is that freedom of movement is a fundamental or natural right
which society may not legitimately require an individual to surrender to the sovereign will.
The social contract theory has some basic features where it says- firstly. State is an artificial
institution signifying that it is a means to an end, secondly, it is created by human beings with
the help of a contract, thirdly, the contract must be based on the consent of one and all, and
lastly that prior to formation of state me lived in a hypothetical situation known as state of
nature.
Thomas Hobbes (1651), John Locke (1689), and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1762) are the most
famous philosophers of the social contract theory, which formed the theoretical groundwork
of democracy. Although the theory of natural rights influenced the development of classical
liberalism, its emphasis on individualism and its rejection of the necessity to subordinate
individual liberty to the sovereign will stands in opposition to the general tenets of social
contract theory.
According to Hobbes' theory, without society, we would live in a state of nature (a
hypothetical situation since it cannot be supported by historical data), where we each have
unlimited natural freedoms. The downside of this general autonomy is that it includes the
"right to all things" and thus the freedom to harm all who threaten one's own selfpreservation; there are no positive rights, only laws of nature and an endless "war of all
against all". In other words, anyone in the state of nature can do anything he likes; but this
also means that anyone can do anything he likes to anyone else.the state of nature according

to Hobbes is presocial and pre political in nature and there is no scope for development to
take place. To avoid this, we jointly agree to a social contract by which we each gain civil
rights in return for subjecting ourselves to civil law or to political authority. In Hobbes'
formulation, the sovereign power is not a party of the contract but instead the sovereign is its
creation, and so is not bound by it. The command of the sovereign is law and the contract is
irrevocable.
Alternatively, some have argued that we gain civil rights in return for accepting the obligation
to respect and defend the rights of others, giving up some freedoms to do so; this alternative
formulation of the duty arising from the social contract is often identified with militia, or
defence activity.
State of nature is a term in political philosophy used in the social contract theories to describe
the hypothetical condition of humanity before the state's foundation and its monopoly on the
legitimate use of physical force. In a broader sense, a state of nature is the condition before
the rule of positive law and order comes into being.
In some versions of social contract theory, there are no rights in the state of nature, only
freedoms, and it is the contract that creates rights and obligations. In other versions the
opposite occurs: the contract imposes restrictions upon individuals that curtail their natural
rights.
Hobbes's philosophy
The concept of a state of nature was first posited in the 17th century by English philosopher
Thomas Hobbes in his famous work Leviathan. Hobbes described the concept in the Latin
phrase bellum omnium contra omnes, meaning "the war of all against all." In this state any
person has a natural right to do anything to preserve their own liberty or safety
Hobbes believed that human beings in a state of nature would behave with cruelty towards
one another. Yet Hobbes argued that people had every right to defend themselves by whatever
means necessary in the absence of order. He believed that such a condition would lead to a
"war of every man against every man" and make life "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and
short." He believed that in the international arena, states behave as individuals do in a state of
nature.
06 According to Laski, No man can be at his best self without rights, if so highlight the
importance of Human rights in the present age.

SET - 2
01 Explain the nature of Liberty and its various forms.
Solution:
Every time an officer of the constabulary, in the execution of his just and awful powers under
American law, produces a compound fracture of the occiput of some citizen in his custody,
with hemorrhage, shock, coma and death, there comes a feeble, falsetto protest from
specialists in human liberty. Is it a fact without significance that this protest is never
supported by the great body of American freemen, setting aside the actual heirs and creditors
of the victim? I think not. Here, as usual, public opinion is very realistic. It does not rise
against the policeman for the plain and simple reason that it does not question his right to do
what he has done. Policemen are not given night-sticks for ornament. They are given them for
the purpose of cracking the skulls of the recalcitrant plain people, Democrats and
Republicans alike. When they execute that high duty they are palpably within their rights.
The specialists aforesaid are the same fanatics who shake the air with sobs every time the
Postmaster-General of the United States bars a periodical from the mails because its ideas do
not please him, and every time some poor Russian is deported for reading Karl Marx, and
every time a Prohibition enforcement officer murders a bootlegger who resists his levies, and
every time agents of the Department of Justice throw an Italian out of the window, and every
time the Ku Klux Klan or the American Legion tars and feathers a Socialist evangelist. In
brief, they are Radicals, and to scratch one with a pitchfork is to expose a Bolshevik. They
are men standing in contempt of American institutions and in enmity to American idealism.
And, their evil principles are no less offensive to right-thinking and red-blooded Americans
when they are United States Senators or editors of wealthy newspapers than when they are
degraded I. W. W.'s throwing dead cats and infernal machines into meetings of the Rotary
Club.
What ails them primarily is the ignorant and uncritical monomania that afflicts every sort of
fanatic, at all times and everywhere. Having mastered with their limited faculties the
theoretical principles set forth in the Bill of Rights, they work themselves into a passionate
conviction that those principles are identical with the rules of law and justice, and ought to be
enforced literally, and without the slightest regard for circumstance and expediency. It is
precisely as if a High Church rector, accidentally looking into the Book of Chronicles, and
especially Chapter II, should suddenly issue a mandate from his pulpit ordering his
parishioners, on penalty of excommunication and the fires of hell, to follow exactly the
example set forth, to wit: "And Jesse begat his first born Eliab, and Abinadab the second, and
Shimma the third, Netheneel the fouth, Raddai the fifth, Ozen the sixth, David the seventh,"
and so on. It might be very sound theoretical theology, but it would surely be out of harmony
with modern ideas, and the rev. gentleman would be extremely lucky if the bishop did not
give him 10 days in the diocesan hoosegow.
So with the Bill of Rights. As adopted by the Fathers of the Republic, it was gross, crude,
inelastic, a bit fanciful and transcendental. It specified the rights of citizen, but it said nothing

whatever about his duties. Since then, by the orderly processes of legislative science and by
the even more subtle and beautiful devices juridic art, it has been kneaded and mellowed into
a far greater pliability and reasonableness. On the one hand, the citizen still retains the great
privilege of membership in the most superb free nation ever witnessed on this earth. On the
other hand, as a result of countless shrewd enactments and sagacious decisions, his natural
lusts and appetites are held in laudable check, and is thus kept in order and decorum. No
artificial impediment stands in the way of his highest aspiration. He may become anything,
including even a policeman. But once a policeman, he is protected by the legislative and
judicial arms in the peculiar rights and prerogatives that go with his high office, including
especially the right to jug the laity at his will, to sweat and mug them, to subject them to the
third degree, and to subdue their resistance by beating out their brains. Those who are
unaware of this are simply ignorant of the basic principles of American jurisprudence, as they
have been exposed times without number by the courts first instance and ratified in lofty
terms by the Supreme Court of the United States. The one aim of the controlling decisions,
magnificently attained, is to safeguard public order and the public security, and to substitute a
judicial process for the inchoate and dangerous interaction of discordant egos.
Forms of Liberty:
(a) Natural Liberty:
It is the liberty which people enjoyed in the imaginary 'state of nature'. Liberty in fact cannot
exist in the absence of the state.
(b) Civil Liberty:
It is the liberty enjoyed by the people in civil society. It is the direct outcome of civil rights.
(c) Political Liberty:
It is derived from political rights. People share the authority of the state through political
liberty.
(d) Economic Liberty:
It lies in reasonable material security and freedom from want.
(e) National Liberty:
It implies the birth right of every nation to be free from external control or domination.

02 Explain the different kinds of liberty and the relationship between equality and
liberty.
Solution:
Equality is a multi-dimensional concept. Diverse opinions are put forth in locating the exact
relationship between these two concepts. Writers like De Tocqueville and Lord Acton hold
the view that liberty and equality are opposed to each other as they are antagonistic. The
desire to have equality destroys the possibility of having full liberty. Achievement of equality
demands positive state action. Equality needs a 'positive state' and liberty needs a 'Negative
State'. The Elite theory of Democracy is against the principle of equality. But on the other
hand writers like Maitland, Rousseau, Barker, Laski etc. hold the view that they are
complementary to each other. Liberty and equality have a common end, the promotion of the
value of the personality and the free development of its capacities. R. H. Tawney rightly
remarks that "a large measure of equality, so far being inimical to liberty, is essential to it".
No one of these can be enjoyed in isolation.
L. T. Hobhouse opined that liberty without equality is a high-sounding phrase with squalid
results. Liberty lies in equality. Liberty without equality degenerates into licence and equality
without liberty lapses into uniformity.
Liberty is superior to equality because equality serves under liberty. To Prof. Barker "Equality
in all its forms, must always be subject and instrumental to the free development of capacity;
but if it be pressed to the length of uniformity; if uniformity be made to thwart the free
development of capacity, the subject becomes the master, and the world is turned topsyturvy."
The development of a rich variety of personalities require a large measure of liberty and
forbids all attempts to impose a dead level of social and economic equality. Liberty unites
men but equality criticises the social hierarchy and contributes towards the stability of the
community. Therefore liberty would be hollow without some measure of equality and
equality would be meaningless without liberty. In this age of democracy where voting is a
powerful weapon in the hands of the electorate economic equality is most essential condition
because the economically powerful person will use his economic resources to gain political
power. Political equality will be a mockery in the absence of economic equality. All the
democratic constitutions of the world have incorporated liberty and equality in their
constitutions because both of them have a common aim- the development of human
personality and to make life worth-living. Therefore, it is said liberty without equality is
narrow and equality without liberty is monotonous. Both at them are the essential conditions
of human existence.

Five Different Types of Liberty:

1. Natural Liberty:
It is the liberty which men enjoyed in the imaginary 'state of nature' when civil society did not
exist. It is generally identified with unlimited and unrestricted freedom. Rousseau was the
chief exponent of the concept of natural liberty. In his opinion, man lost natural liberty with
the emergence of the state or civil society. But such a concept of liberty is illusory. It is
license, not liberty.
Liberty, in the political sense, cannot exist prior to state. Liberty, as a political concept, is
based on a system of rights. It is the state which guarantees rights. It is, therefore, impossible
to conceive of any liberty in the 'state of nature'. This is a misconception of liberty.
The concept of natural liberty is a contradiction in terms because law or authority is the
essential condition of liberty but the same was conspicuous by its absence in the 'state of
nature'. In the 'state of nature' liberty was enjoyed only by the strong. Might was right. In a
civil society, on the other hand, liberty is the common possession of all.
2. Civil Liberty:
It implies freedom enjoyed by the people in civil society. It denotes the civil rights guaranteed
by the state. Civil rights consist in the right to life, liberty, property, speech, press,
association, education etc. The more the civil rights, the greater the civil liberty.
It has both positive and negative aspects. In the negative sense, it means freedom or the
immunity of an individual from interference on the part of others. In the positive sense, it
implies the right to free action, the opportunity of self-expansion and self-expression.
According to Gettel, 'Civil liberty consists of the rights and privileges which the state creates
and protects for its subjects".
3. Political Liberty:
Political liberty implies rights to determine government and share in authority of the state. It
is essentially associated with democracy. Without political liberty, neither, state can be democratic nor can the individual enjoy full civil liberties.
Civil liberty is meaningless if people do not possess the power to compel the government to
accept their view-point. Political liberty is variously defined by different philosophers.
Leacock defines it as the right of the people to choose their government which should be
responsible to the general body of the people". Laski defines it as "the power to be active in
affairs of the state. Political liberty is identical with constitutional liberty which means
democratic rule."

The political liberty revolves around the following points :

(a) The Right to Vote:
The right to vote to all adults to elect their representatives who constitute the legislatures.
This right has now been granted by all the democratic states to its citizens irrespective of
caste, sex or economic status.
(b) Right to be Elected:
The right to be elected to all the representative offices in the state irrespective of
discrimination.
(c) Periodical Election:
The accountability of the legislature to the electorate necessitates periodical elections.
(d) The Right to Criticize the Government:
This is provided by the right of speech, public meeting, publication and association.
4. Economic Liberty:
It means reasonable material security. Civil and political liberties become meaningless in the
absence of economic liberty. Economic liberty does not imply free competition in the economic sphere.
It lies in the absence of gross inequalities of wealth that may enable some to obtain an unfair
control over the lives and happiness of others by the mere fact of their economic superiority.
It implies a socialist or socialistic system of economy. It may not mean economic equality but
it means removal of wide economic disparities.
It further means that material needs do not become a hindrance to the growth of human
personality. Therefore, not only it implies right to work, but also right to a decent wage, right
to leisure and right to social insurances like old age, sickness, disablement and
unemployment insurances.
It further implies that no person or a body of persons should be in a position to exploit other
citizens. Thus the ownership of means of production by the community is the condition
precedent of economic liberty. Private property must not become an institution of exploitation
but of social good. It must be earned and socially justifiable.
5. National Liberty:
It implies that every nation has a birth right to be free from political domination of others. It
is synonymous with national independence or Swarajya. It is based on the principle of selfdetermination. Every nation has a right to regulate its national life according to its own will.
Freedom is the necessary condition oif development of every nation. No cultural social,
economic or political development is possible so long as one nation is ruled by another. It is

only when freedom is achieved by all nations of the world that a real international community
can grow and possibilities of permanent peace can arise.
03 A citizen must be a good member of the state Comment.
Solution:
A citizen is a member of the community or a state enjoying certain privileges and performing
certain duties He looks after security and the wellbeing of the community and the community
looks after his safety and security. He works for the welfare of the community or the state of
which he is a permanent member. As a member of a civilised state he is expected to discharge
his duties well and to enjoy the privilege granted by the state. In short, his rights and his
duties are interred connected. He cannot ask for privileges or right without performing his
duties.
It is the sacred duty of a citizen to defend his country against external attack of the enemies.
If required he must be prepared to go to the battle-field as a soldier and fight for the safety of
the nation. He must pay the taxes imposed on him from time to time. He must obey all the
civil and criminal law and the orders of the Government from time to time. He should always
feel that he is part and parcel of the Government. Thus he should show interest in public
affairs and should deal with his fellowmen honestly.
A citizen generally enjoys three kinds of right: (1) Economic, (2) Political, (3) Social. He
enjoys certain fundamental rights such as rights to property, right to equality of opportunity,
right to freedom of speech and freedom of movement. He has the freedom of professing,
practicing and propagating any religion. The most important of his political right is the right
to vote.
A good citizen always acts as the guardian of law of the state. He exercises his right to vote in
a very responsible manner.
Good citizens always make a good nation. Therefore it is necessary that the children of a state
must be trained properly to be good citizens in their youth.

04 What was John Rawls theory of Justice? Highlight the Thought Game of Rawls.
Solution:
John Rawls' A Theory of Justice (1971) explains how the logical ordering of principles of
justice may answer such questions as how should society be structured, how basic rights and
duties should be assigned to individuals, and how should social and economic advantages be
distributed to all members of society. Rawls is primarily concerned with defining the
principles of justice which would regulate an ideal society, rather than with describing how
justice may be restored to an unjust society. Rawls argues that the principles of justice which
would establish the basis of an ideal society are principles which would be chosen by every
individual if every individual were in an 'original position' of equality with regard to rights
and duties and if all individuals were acting rationally in a mutually disinterested manner.
This 'original position' is a hypothetical situation in which every individual is acting behind a
'veil of ignorance' as to his or her own social position, class status, individual assets, and
personal aptitudes or abilities.
Rawls discusses the applicability of utilitarianism and of social contract theory to the theory
of justice, and he argues that social contract theory provides stronger support for equality of
basic rights for all individuals. While utilitarianism may try to justify infringements upon the
rights of some individuals if these infringements produce a greater happiness for a larger
number of other individuals, the theory of justice as fairness (which is a social contract
theory) denies that infringements upon the basic rights of individuals can ever be morally
justified. The theory of justice as fairness argues for equal rights for all individuals, and
denies that injustice toward any particular group of individuals is justifiable unless this
injustice is necessary to prevent an even greater injustice.
Rawls explains that the theory of justice as fairness is a deontological theory, but that
utilitarianism is a teleological theory. In the theory of justice as fairness, the principle of
equal rights for all citizens has priority over the goal of producing the greatest amount of
happiness for the largest number of individuals, but in utilitarian theory the goal of producing
the greatest amount of happiness for the largest number of individuals has priority over the
principle of equal rights for all citizens.
Rawls argues that the term 'justice as fairness' does not imply that justice and fairness are
identical, but that the principles of justice are agreed to under fair conditions by individuals
who are in a situation of equality. 'Justice as fairness' also implies that the principles of justice
apply equally to all individuals. 2 These principles must be decided upon in such a way as to
benefit all individuals, and must not be merely designed to favor the interests of a particular
group of individuals over another group of individuals.
According to Rawls, the two principles of justice which would be agreed to by rational and
mutually disinterested individuals in the original position of equality are that: 1) each
individual should have an equal right to as much liberty as is compatible with the rights of
others; and 2) any social or economic inequalities which occur between individuals should be
designed to benefit every individual, and should belong to positions which are equally
available to all individuals.
The first principle of justice is referred to by Rawls as 'the principle of greatest equal liberty.'
The two parts of the second principle are 'the difference principle' and 'the principle of fair

equality of opportunity. According to Rawls, the first principle of justice is logically (and
lexically) prior to the second principle, in that for justice to be attained the first principle of
justice must be satisfied before the second principle can be satisfied. The logical order of the
second principle of justice is (a) the principle of fair equality of opportunity, and (b) the
difference principle. Thus, for justice to be attained the principle of fair equality of
opportunity must be satisfied before the difference principle is satisfied.
Rawls explains that the logical priority of the first principle of justice over the second
principle implies that violations of basic rights cannot be justified by arguing that such
violations may produce economic or social advantages. Furthermore, the logical priority of
the first part of the second principle over the second part implies that infringements upon fair
equality of opportunity cannot be justified by arguing that such infringements may produce
economic or social advantages.
Rawls also explains that judgments about the principles of justice in the 'original position' of
equality among individuals are most likely to be reasonable and impartial if they are made in
conditions of 'reflective equilibrium' and are not distorted by temporary or changing
circumstances.
Rawls argues that the principle of efficiency may be applied to the method by which basic
rights and duties are assigned and to the method by which social or economic inequalities are
structured. The method by which rights and duties are assigned may be described as efficient
if there is no possible rearrangement which could be performed to make this assignment of
rights and duties more advantageous to any particular individual without simultaneously
making it less advantageous to another individual. Similarly, the method by which social or
economic inequalities are structured may be described as efficient if there is no possible
restructuring which could be performed to make this structuring more advantageous to any
particular individual without simultaneously making it less advantageous to another
individual.
Rawls also argues that the difference principle may be applied to the method by which rights
and duties are assigned and to the method by which social or economic inequalities are
structured. The method by which rights and duties are assigned may be described as fair and
impartial if it cannot be made any fairer to any particular individual without simultaneously
making it less fair to another individual. Similarly, the method by which social or economic
inequalities are structured may be described as fair and impartial if it cannot be made any
fairer to any particular individual without simultaneously making it less fair to another
individual.
According to Rawls, the principle of efficiency and the difference principle are mutually
compatible and are principles of justice for social institutions. Principles of justice for
individuals include fairness, benevolence. generosity, the duty to keep promises, the duty to
offer mutual aid, the duty to show mutual respect, the duty not to cause unnecessary
suffering, the duty not to harm or injure others, and the duty to uphold justice.
Rawls describes three types of teleological theories of justice: 1) the classical principle of
utility, 2) the average principle of utility, and 3) perfectionism. According to the classical
principle of utility, the best actions produce the greatest amount of utility for the greatest
number of individuals. According to the average principle of utility, the best actions
maximize the average utility which may be enjoyed by each individual. According to

perfectionism, the best actions maximize human achievement (e.g. in the arts and sciences) or
maximize the attainment of some desired goal.
Rawls argues that a major defect of utilitarianism is that the principle of utility may require
that individuals who are disadvantaged in relation to others in their ability to attain primary
social goods (e.g. rights, opportunities, income, and wealth) may have to suffer even greater
disadvantages if this redistribution of rights and opportunities produces greater happiness for
a larger number of individuals. Moreover, individuals who already have advantages over
others in their ability to attain primary social goods may gain even greater advantages if this
redistribution of rights and opportunities produces greater happiness for a larger number of
individuals.
Rawls also argues that perfectionism is not a fair and equitable method of distributing
primary social goods. While the values of human achievements in the arts and sciences are to
be appreciated, the theory of justice as fairness denies that individuals should receive a
greater or lesser share of basic rights and duties because of their personal achievements or
because of their personal contributions to society.
According to Rawls, the principles of justice (including the principle of greatest equal liberty,
the principle of fair equality of opportunity, and the difference principle) may be fulfilled by a
constitutional democracy. However, a frequently-seen defect of constitutional democracy is
that it may allow a greater disparity in the distribution of wealth and property than is
compatible with equality of economic, social, and political opportunity for all individuals.
Another frequently-seen defect of constitutional democracy is that it may allow political
power to accumulate in the hands of a particular group or party who may use the institutions
of government to gain greater advantage. Rawls concludes that in order to correct these
defects, it is necessary for political equality of opportunity (i.e. equal rights of participation in
the political process) to be constitutionally guaranteed.
Rawls emphasizes that the theory of justice as fairness is a deontological and not a
teleological theory. In the theory of justice as fairness, equal liberty for all individuals is not
merely a means to an end but is a principle of justice which must be satisfied before other
political interests are satisfied. Rawls argues that equal liberty for all individuals may become
insecure and vulnerable to infringement if utilitarian or perfectionist principles are applied as
principles of justice, and if it is argued that the basic rights of individuals can be adjusted to
achieve a greater net balance of satisfaction or a higher sum of intrinsic value. The theory of
justice as fairness is thus an egalitarian theory of moral conduct which applies to all the
obligations which individuals have toward each other.

05 Compare Karl Marx and Laskis view on property.

Solution:
06 Explain India as a Democratic country the advantages and disadvantages.
Solution:
Newspapers, as their name suggests, provide us with News. With the spread of education, the
popularity and importance of newspapers have increased by leaps and bounds. Everybody
today wants to read a newspaper.
Those who cannot read themselves want others to read it out to them. Even in a backward
country, like India, newspapers have become very popular. They are published in English,
Hindi, Urdu and in all other regional dialects of the country. They are read, or listened to,
with great interest by everybody. They exercise a profound influence on the minds of the
people.
The most important function of newspapers is to bring us news of the world. News is their
chief interest and charm. They tell us what is happening not only in our country by in other
countries of the world as well. Without newspapers, we would be like a frog in a well who
knows nothing of the outside world.
In a democratic country, like India, they are an important means of forming public opinion.
They comment on current events and criticize or appreciate the conduct of the government. It
is through them that the public comes to know of the problems that face the country and the
different possible ways of solving those problems. They, thus, educate the public mind and
enable the people to have their own opinion on matters of public importance. They, thus,
make democracy possible. Everyone must read newspapers. This is essential for national
integration. This is essential to keep down fissiparous tendencies.
Besides this, the newspapers are also an important means of communication between the
government and the people. It is through the newspapers that the government places its
programmes, its policies, and its achievements, before the people. The public also uses them
to express its dissatisfaction with the government. They voice the grievances of the people
and suggest measures of reform. Thus, by expressing public opinion they serve as a check on
the government. They are essential for the proper functioning of democracy. The press is all
powerful in a democracy. A free press is essential for its success.
Newspapers are also an important means of advertisement. They help trade and commerce. If
a trade or an industrialist wants to increase his business, he can do so by advertising his goods
in the newspapers. They help both the employer and the employees through their 'wants'
columns. The large number of advertisement of every kind is a clear proof of the popularity
of the newspapers as a means of advertisement.
But the newspapers have some drawbacks also. They serve as a means of propaganda for the
various political parties. Often views and comments are expressed through them that confuse
the people and misguide them. The people fail to understand the truth. Sometimes, news are
even twisted and distorted. At other times, they stir up class hatred. They sow seeds of
communal quarrels. This misuse of newspapers did much to encourage agitations in Gujrat,

Bihar and other parts of the country. Often they publish wrong advertisements which deceive
and cheat the people and corrupt the public taste by giving indecent pictures and
advertisements.
But these disadvantages are nothing in comparison with their manifold advantages. They are
really of great use for the people. So they should be encouraged in every way. On the whole,
the habit of reading newspapers is a good one.