B. A.

1st Semester Summer Drive

Subject Name: History of India from Earliest Times up to 600 A.D
Set 1
01 Explain the transition of man from a food gatherer to a cultivator.

02 Write a note on the settlement patterns and town planning of the Indus Valley
people.
Answer: The Indus Valley people had remarkable skills in town planning. The city was
divided into two main parts: (i) the citadel and (ii) the lower town. The citadel was the raised
part of the city and looked like a fort. The citadel was surrounded by massive and high walls.
Below the citadel was the lower town. This part of the city was divided into rectangular
blocks by wide streets and lanes cutting each other at right angles and forming a grid.
03. The people of the Indus valley civilization were art lovers. Discuss.
Answer:
The people of Indus were great lovers of the fine arts, and especially dancing, painting, and
sculpture. Various sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewelry, terracotta figures, and other
interesting works of art indicate that they had fine artistic sensibilities. Their art is highly
realistic. The anatomical detail of much of their art is unique, and terracotta art is also noted
for its extremely careful modeling of animal figures. Sir John Marshall once reacted with
surprise when he saw the famous Indus bronze statuette of the slender-limbed "dancing girl"
in Mohenjo-daro:". When I first saw them I found it difficult to believe that they were
prehistoric; they seemed to completely upset all established ideas about early art. Modeling
such as this was unknown in the ancient world up to the Hellenistic age of Greece, and I
thought, therefore, that some mistake must surely have been made; that these figures had
found their way into levels some 3000 years older than those to which they properly
belonged. . Now, in these statuettes, it is just this anatomical truth which is so startling; that
makes us wonder whether, in this all-important matter, Greek artistry could possibly have
been anticipated by the sculptors of a far-off age on the banks of the Indus."
Bronze, terracotta, and stone sculptures in dancing poses also reveal much about their art of
dancing. Similarly, a harp-like instrument depicted on an Indus seal and two shell objects
from Lothal confirm that stringed musical instruments were in use in the ancient Indus Valley
civilization. Today, much of the Indus art is considered advanced for their time period.

04 Explain the political structure of the Early Vedic age.

Answer:
Political system is a social institution which deals with the governance of a state and its
relationship with the people. Political system of a country denotes the structure of institutions that
constitute the State and its Government. India is no different and it had also developed government
and political institutions to give shape and form to the fundamental principles. The multiple faces
and diversity of the country is the most noticeable feature of the subcontinent. The identity and
unity of its government belong to the ancient Vedic age. Ancient Indian Political System goes back
to about five thousand years or more. India is a land that has been shaping civilizations through
settlement patterns. Thus, history of India becomes enriched with the description of the Indus
Valley civilisation. This civilisation had municipal cities and a centralized administration prevailed
for each city in Harrappa and Mohenjo-daro. The people formed urban societies with agriculture
as an occupation. However, the invasion by the Aryans had changed the whole scenario. Indian
civilisation was again predominated by the nomadic culture.
A different concept of society in India developed with the Aryans, in the early Vedic period. The
Early Vedic saw the upsurge of kingdom which was tribal in character. Each tribe formed a
separate kingdom. The basic unit of the political organisation was family and a number of families
formed a Village. A reflection ofthe Ancient Indian Political System can be traced in the social life
of the Aryans. These villages were headed by Gramani. Moreover this pattern gave rise to large
units or clans formed by a group of village. The circle continued with several clans forming the
tribe and their leader was Rajan or the Vedic king. He protected his people from enemies and was
accompanied with a senani or commandant, the Sabha and the Samithi inadministration . The
Aryans can be identified as the pioneers in introducing the concept of society in Indian culture.
This civilisation was subjected to various forms of kingdoms with a flow of political boundaries.
In the later Vedic age, the Gangetic Valley or Aryavartha became the centre of political activity.
Various Kingdoms like Kosala, Videha, Kuru, Magadha, Kasi, Avanti and Panchala came into
existence. The king was the highest authority and his position was considerably supreme. Kingship
became hereditary and the he was responsible for defence and maintaining law and order of their
kingdoms. Moreover, they had vast empires and tried to extend their territories. In Manu Samhita
the history of kingship is described. In Hinduism, Manu is considered to be the first king of the
earth. Accordingly, the rulers of medieval India traced their genealogy back to him.
In Ancient Indian Political System, the king as well as his subjects was bound by `Dharmas` or
rule of law which were code of duties. Though a king, yet he had limited powers. The king was
required to take oath and loyalty of the people. The king was not assigned with arbitrary powers
and he was functional according to the approval of the people. However, on the contrary ancient
Indian polity was monarchial, yet there were a few instances of elective kingship also. The power
of the Indian monarchy prior to Mughal invasion was conceded as King being the representative
of the divine power. The king was then only a constitutional monarch and the guardian, executor
and the servant of Dharma. Besides, monarchies several republics also evolved. After the Battle of
Kurukshetra, large empire began to fade away and several republican states emerged. A number of
sixteen republics such as Kashi, Koshal, Magadha, Kuru, Anga, Avanti, Gandhar and Vaishali
came into being. In the 1st century with the spread of Christianity, absolute monarchy prevailed as
the form ofpolitical system. The word of the Kings was law. Many large empires were seen
extending almost all over the sub continent. Several empires such as the Muryas, Guptas and the
Mughals flourished. The rulers were hereditary kings or sub kings who ruled with the assistance of
faithful ministers appointed by them.

During the medieval period, King-in-Ministry became the usual form of government. In addition
to that there were no republican states. Furthermore the concept of central government evolved
during the period of the Sultanate. The king became an autocrat and he was entitled to the throne
on the base might. In the Mughal kingdom, Ancient IndianPolitical System revolved round the
autocracy of the king and he was assisted by councilors or ministers to share the multifarious
activities of the state. The council of ministers was given great power and they continued to advice
the kings on their day to day handling of administration. One instance of the absolute monarchy
ruling the state on the advice of the council of ministers was Emperor Harsha, who was a generous
ruler.
Village administration was also a significant part of the Ancient Indian Political System. During
the Vedic age, the Aryans had built up small villages and the administration of the area was looked
after by the village councils. A system of giving taxes also prevailed in the ancient society. Taxes
such as Pali, Sulk and Bhaga were collected from the people. The revenue was spent for the
benefit of the subjects. Mentions of village administration are found during the fourth century B.C
when republican federation existed in the society of India. The city of Vaishali had Panchayat for
administering justice and courts. The republican character of the polity of Vaishali lasted for
thousand of years.

05 Compare the changes taken place in the traditional features of Indian caste system.
Answer:
Change is universal law of nature. This law of nature has been prevailing from the primitive
period till now. Since Caste System is a social institution, its aspects are naturally changed. In
the modern age, many changes happen in the features and functions of Caste System.
Modernisation has deeply influenced Caste System. Therefore, it is gradually losing its rigid
and conservative principles. The changing aspect of Caste System in India is discussed
below:
1) Declined superiority of Brahmins:
In the social hierarchy of Caste System, the Brahmins occupy the top-most position. They are
recongnised as superior caste till now, but their predetermined importance has been declined.
The Brahmins cannot impulse their dignity and importance on other castes, as it was in
ancient days. Today, in various industries, government offices and other occupational
institutions efficiency of the people is given more priority that birth.
Though Caste System had established the importance of Brahmins, yet the importance is on
the process of steady decline. As a result, the caste status of Brahmins is declining. They
cannot enjoy their high social status as a dominant caste unlike in ancient days.
2) Changes in the Restrictions regarding social habits:
In the past, Caste System had imposed certain restrictions on social habits such as food, drink
and intercourse. But modern education, transportation and communication have brought a
radical change in those restrictions. Though, Caste System has existed today, yet its
restrictions on social intercourse have been declined. The member of different castes sits and
eats together. The sense of purity-pollution is gradually disappearing among them.

3) Changes in the Restrictions regarding Marriage:

The introduction of inter-caste marriage is one of the major changes in Caste System. Intercaste marriage was strictly prohibited in the Hindu Society in ancient times but now-a-days,
the spread of western education, cultural changes and female education has declined all
restrictions of marriage within the caste. Inter-caste marriage destroys the backbone of Caste
System. Indian Parliament also encourages inter caste marriage by implementing many Acts.
4) Changes in the Restrictions regarding Occupation:
In the past, a particular occupation had been fixed for every caste. The members belonging a
particular caste had no specialty in selecting occupations. They followed the determined
occupation from birth of death. Now-a-days, the members of Shudra caste are established in
higher post in government offices and the Brahmins works as their sub-ordinate employees.
After independence the Government has abolished the occupational restrictions through law.
A person of any caste can follow any capacity. It is clearly noted that changes have taken
place in occupational restrictions to some extent.
5) Changes in Caste Structure:
In ancient period, the structure of caste was closed and rigid. There were different customs,
traditions, folkways and mores for different castes. These rules and principles were so closed
and rigid that the lower caste people could not even touch the shadow of the higher caste
people. But now-a-days the structure of caste has become open and flexible.
6) Change in Caste Status:
The caste status was determined in the past. Caste System gave social status to its members
on the basis of birth. For example, Caste System placed Brahmins in higher social status and
gave lower social status to Shudras. But now-a-days, a radical change has taken place in the
social status of Shudras and other lower castes as a result of speedy scientific and
technological progress. Besides birth, wealth, power and genius determine the social status of
the people.
The lower caste people gradually adopt the customs, rites and beliefs of Brahmins. They
follow the life style of Brahmins and try to develop their social status in caste hierarchy.
Prof.M.N.Srinivas called this process as Sanskritisation. The higher caste people on the
other hand, adopt the principles of Western civilisation on their food, clothing, shelter and
behavioral pattern. It is called as westernisation.
7) Change in conditions of Lower Caste:
Lastly many changes have taken place it the conditions of lower caste people. In the past, the
condition of the lower caste people was very pitiable. They had no rights in the society. The
lower castes were oppressed and neglected as Harijan Castes. But due to the direct attempt of
Gandhiji, quick development has taken place in their conditions. Gandhiji lovingly called
them as the people of God.

Now-a-days the Harijans get much more opportunities than other castes. The Government has
brought a quick change in their conditions by legislating different Acts. They are given
priority in education and services and seats are reserved for them. The lower caste people are
given equal rights and opportunities in social, economic and political spheres almost like
higher castes people. As a result of this, the condition of lower caste people has been quickly
improved.
06 Find information on the life history of Alexander the Great and his invasion. Explain
in about two pages.
Answer:
Alexander III the Great, the King of Macedonia and conqueror of the Persian Empire is
considered one of the greatest military geniuses of all times. He was inspiration for later
conquerors such as Hannibal the Carthaginian, the Romans Pompey and Caesar, and
Napoleon. Alexander was born in 356 BC in Pella, the ancient capital of Macedonia. He was
son of Philip II, King of Macedonia, and Olympias, the princess of neighbouring Epirus. He
spent his childhood watching his father transforming Macedonia into a great military power,
winning victory after victory on the battlefields throughout the Balkans. When he was 13,
Philip hired the Greek philosopher Aristotle to be Alexanders personal tutor. During the next
three years Aristotle gave Alexander training in rhetoric and literature and stimulated his
interest in science, medicine, and philosophy, all of which became of importance in
Alexanders later life. In 340, when Philip assembled a large Macedonian army and invaded
Thrace, he left his 16 years old son with the power to rule Macedonia in his absence as
regent, which shows that even at such young age Alexander was recognized as quite capable.
But as the Macedonian army advanced deep into Thrace, the Thracian tribe of Maedi
bordering north-eastern Macedonia rebelled and posed a danger to the country. Alexander
assembled an army, led it against the rebels, and with swift action defeated the Maedi,
captured their stronghold, and renamed it after himself to Alexandropolis.
Two years later in 338 BC, Philip gave his son a commanding post among the senior generals
as the Macedonian army invaded Greece. At the Battle of Chaeronea the Greeks were
defeated and Alexander displayed his bravery by destroying the elite Greek force, the Theban
Secret Band. Some ancient historians recorded that the Macedonians won the battle thanks to
his bravery.
The Family Split and the Assassination of Philip II
But not too long after the defeat of the Greeks at Chaeronea, the royal family split apart when
Philip married Cleopatra, a Macedonian girl of high nobility. At the wedding banquet,
Cleopatra's uncle, general Attalus, made a remark about Philip fathering a legitimate heir,
i.e., one that was of pure Macedonian blood. Alexander threw his cup at the man, blasting
him for calling him 'bastard child. Philip stood up, drew his sward, and charged at
Alexander, only to trip and fall on his face in his drunken stupor at which Alexander shouted:
"Here is the man who was making ready to cross from Europe to Asia, and who cannot even cross
from one table to another without losing his balance."

He then took his mother and fled the country to Epirus. Although allowed to return later,
Alexander remained isolated and insecure at the Macedonian court. In the spring of 336 BC,
with Philips Persian invasion already set in motion, the king was assassinated by a young
Macedonian noble Pausanias, during the wedding ceremony in Aegae, the old capital of
Macedonia. Why Pausanias killed the Macedonian king is a question that puzzled both
ancient and modern historians. There is a claim that Pausanias was driven into committing the
murder because he was denied justice by the king when he sought his support in punishing
the Cleopatra's uncle Attalus for earlier mistreatment. But there are also reports that that both
Olympias and Alexander were responsible for the assassination, by driving the young men
into committing the act. That might explain why Pausanias was instantly put to death by
Alexander's close friends as he attempted to flee the scene, instead of being captured alive
and tried before the Macedonian assembly. Philip, the great Macedonian conqueror was
dead, the men who liberated his own country and brought if from the edge of the abyss into a
world power. His dream of conquering the Persian Empire now lays on his successor, his son
king Alexander III.
Suppression of the Thracian, Illyrian, and Greek Rebellions
Once he ascended on the Macedonian throne, Alexander quickly disposed of all of his
domestic enemies by ordering their execution. But soon he had to act outside Macedonia.
Philips death caused series of rebellions among the conquered nations and the Illyrians,
Thracians, and Greeks saw a chance for independence. Alexander acted swiftly. He forced
his way into Greece despite the roads leading to the country being blocked by the
Thessalians. As soon as he restored Macedonian rule in northern Greece, he marched into
southern Greece. His speed surprised the Greeks and by the end of the summer 336 BC they
had no other choice but to acknowledge his authority.
Believing the Greece would remain calm, Alexander returned to Macedonian, marched east
into Thrace, and campaigned as far as the Danube river. He defeated the Thracians and
Tribalians in series of battles and drove the rebels beyond the river. Then he marched back
across Macedonia and on his return crushed in a single week the threatening Illyrians, before
they could receive additional reinforcements.
But now in Greece, upon rumors of his death, a major revolt broke out that engulfed the
whole nation. Enraged, Alexander marched south covering 240 miles in two weeks
appearing before the walls of Thebes with large Macedonian army. He let the Greeks know
that it was not too late for them to change their minds, but the Thebans confident in their
position called for all the Greeks who wished to set Greece free to join them against the
Macedonians. They were not aware that the Athenians and the Peloponnesians, stunned by
the speed of the Macedonian king, quickly reconsidered their options and were now awaiting
the outcome of the battle before they make their next move.
Alexander's general Perdiccas attacked the gates, broke into the city, and Alexander moved
with the rest of the army behind him to prevent the Thebans from cutting him off. The
Macedonians stormed the city, killing everyone in sight, women and children included. 6,000
Thebans citizens died and 30,000 more were sold as slaves. The city where Alexander's father

was kept as hostage for three years, was plundered, sacked, burned, and razed to the ground,
just like Philip acted with Methone, Olynthus, and the rest of the Greek cities in Chalcidice.
Only the temples and the house of the poet Pindar were spared from distraction. This was
example to the rest of Greece and Athens and the other Greek city-states quickly rethought
their quest for freedom. Greece remained under Macedonian rule.
The Battle of Granicus
With the conquered territories firmly in Macedonian control, Alexander completed the final
preparations for the invasion of Asia. The 22 year-old king appointed Philip's experienced
general Antipater as regent in his absence to preside over the affairs of Macedonia and
Greece, left him a significant force of 13,500 Macedonian soldiers to watch Greece, Thrace,
Illyria, and protect Macedonia, and set out for the Hellespont (modern Dardanelles) in the
spring of 334 BC.
As his ship approached the Asia Minor's coast, he threw his spear from abroad and stuck it in
the ground. He stepped onto the shore, pulled the weapon from the soil, and declared that the
whole of Asia would be won by the Macedonian spear.
In the army there were 25,000 Macedonians, 7,600 Greeks, and 7,000 Thracians and Illyrians,
but the chief officers were all Macedonians, and Macedonians also commanded the foreign
troops. Alexander's second in command was Philip's general Parmenio, the other important
commanders being Perdiccas, Craterus, Coenus, Meleager, Antigonus, and Parmenio's son
Philotas. The army soon encountered the forces of King Darius III. There were 40,000
Persians and Greeks (20,000 each) waiting for them at the crossing of the river Granicus, near
the ancient city of Troy. These Greeks had joined the Persians in the years following the
defeat of the Greek army by Philip II at Chaeronea. It is important to note the number of
Greeks on the both sides. The Greeks in the Macedonian train were mobilized by the
Macedonians, and historians Peter Green and Ulrich Wilcken speak of them as hostages that
would ensure the good behavior of their countrymen left behind in Greece under the watch of
Antipater's Macedonian garrisons. Not surprisingly, the Greeks in Alexander's army played
insignificant role in the upcoming battles, only to be discharged when convenient. But far
greater number of Greeks joined the Persians brushing away the memory of the Persian
invasion of Greece some 150 years ago. The ancient Greek historian Arrian cited the "old
racial rivalry between the Greeks and Macedonians" that led to this hatred on both sides.
The Macedonians defeated the Persians and put them to flight and although the Greeks held
their ground and fiercely fought, the battle ended in Macedonian victory. Almost the entire
Greek force was annihilated. 18,000 Greeks perished on the banks of Granicus and the 2,000
survivors were sent to forced labor in Macedonia. The Macedonians lost only 120 men
according to tradition.

The Campaigns in Asia Minor

Alexander then led the army south across Asia Minor. Ironically, it is not the Persians but the
Greek coastal cities which gave the greatest resistance to the Macedonians. The Greek
commander Memnon and his men considerably slow down the advance of Alexander and
many Macedonians died during the long and difficult sieges of the Greek cities of
Halicarnassus, Miletus, Mylasa. But at the end the Macedonian army defeated the enemy and
conquered the coast of Asia Minor. Alexander then turned northward to central Asia Minor, to
the city of Gordium.
Gordium was a home of the famous so-called Gordian Knot. Alexander knew the legend that
said that the man who could untie the ancient knot was destined to rule the entire world. To
that date nobody had succeeded in raveling the knot. But the young Macedonian king simply
slashed it with his sword and unravelling its ends.

Set 2

01 Write a note on the economic conditions of India during the reign of Chandra Gupta
Maurya?
Solution:
. For the first time in South Asia, political unity and military security allowed for a common
economic system and enhanced trade and commerce, with increased agricultural productivity.
The previous situation involving hundreds of kingdoms, many small armies, powerful
regional chieftains, and internecine warfare, gave way to a disciplined central authority.
Farmers were freed of tax and crop collection burdens from regional kings, paying instead to
a nationally administered and strict-but-fair system of taxation as advised by the principles in
the Arthashastra. Chandragupta Maurya established a single currency across India, and a
network of regional governors and administrators and a civil service provided justice and
security for merchants, farmers and traders. The Mauryan army wiped out many gangs of
bandits, regional private armies, and powerful chieftains who sought to impose their own
supremacy in small areas. Although regimental in revenue collection, Maurya also sponsored
many public works and waterways to enhance productivity, while internal trade in India
expanded greatly due to newfound political unity and internal peace.
Under the Indo-Greek friendship treaty, and during Ashoka's reign, an international network
of trade expanded. The Khyber Pass, on the modern boundary of Pakistan and Afghanistan,
became a strategically important port of trade and intercourse with the outside world. Greek
states and Hellenic kingdoms in West Asia became important trade partners of India. Trade
also extended through the Malay peninsula into Southeast Asia. India's exports included silk
goods and textiles, spices and exotic foods. The Empire was enriched further with an
exchange of scientific knowledge and technology with Europe and West Asia. Ashoka also
sponsored the construction of thousands of roads, waterways, canals, hospitals, rest-houses
and other public works. The easing of many over-rigorous administrative practices, including
those regarding taxation and crop collection, helped increase productivity and economic
activity across the Empire.
In many ways, the economic situation in the Mauryan Empire is analogous to the Roman
Empire of several centuries later. Both had extensive trade connections and both had
organizations similar to corporations. While Rome had organizational entities which were
largely used for public state-driven projects, Mauryan India had numerous private
commercial entities. These existed purely for private commerce and developed before the
Mauryan Empire itself.

02 What were the socio economic changes under the Mauryas?

Solution:
The requirements of resources for the Mauryan State were very high. The taxes realised from
the region of Magadha and adjoining areas were not enough to meet this demand. Therefore,
attempts were made to control resources in other parts of the country as well. For example,
Kalinga, the Karnataka plateau and Western India where Asokan inscriptions are found, were
such areas. To regulate certain types of economic activities in such far off regions, the
Mauryas worked out different strategies. This depended on the nature of resources the
particular region offered.
The conquest of Kalinga, for instance, offered control of an agriculturally rich area as well as
the control of important trade routes that passed through it to the mineral rich areas of South
India. Thus the main motive behind acquiring such regions as Karnataka seems to have been
that they were rich in gold and other precious materials.
What about those areas where Mauryan inscriptions are not found? It has been recently
argued by Romila Thapar that it is difficult to gauge the political or economic control of the
Mauryas in such regions. Northern Deccan, the Punjab and Sind and Rajasthan may be cited
as examples of such areas. What is the extent of their influence on the economies of the areas
where their presence is indicated? Here it may be suggested that no large scale restructuring
was done even in these areas. The main interest of the Mauryas was the exploitation of
resources of these areas and they depended on influential sections of population in these areas
for doing this. It may be pointed out that most regions outside the Ganges Valley were at
different levels of economic development in this period. Because of this uneven development,
radical change and restructuring of all these regions was very difficult.
The Arthasastra and the inscriptions of Asoka tell us about the tribes (atavikas, aranyacafas)
that inhabited the various parts of the empire. They often separated the more developed areas
from the less developed areas. Kautilya's advice to the State was to win them over to a settled
agrarian life. He devotes a full chapter to how tribes could be systematically broken up and
several methods, fair or unfair, were deployed to do this. This was necessary in order that
groups of five to ten families could settle down permanently for bringing more land under
cultivation. Asoka's attitude towards the tribes was paternalistic, but he too warns them that in
case they failed to conform or disobeyed orders of the Maharnatras, stern action would be
taken against them. Controlling of the forest tribes was important from two points of view:
i) First, it was necessary for new agrarian settlements to be secure as disturbances from tribes
would interrupt their economic development.
ii) Secondly, trade routes often bordered or passed through tribal regions and these had to be
made secure.
It is difficult to have an exact idea of how many tribal groups were thus converted to
peasants, but, that the process was encouraged by the State is significant to take note of.
Archaeological evidence for many parts of India shows habitation sites that were not fully
developed as urban centres during this period. The case of the innumerable megalith sites,

especially those dated to the third century B.C. or so, in many parts of the Deccan and South
India, indicate simple farming or pastoral communities with only a limited knowledge of craft
production.
It was impossible to totally change the cultural pattern of a vast country like India in the third
century B.C. but at the same time Mauryan rule did initiate some major changes in the
material and socio.-economic setting which bore fruits in the subsequent centuries.
Some of these changes may be briefly highlighted. In many areas .of the Mauryan empire
such as north and west Bengal, Kaliqga, the Deccan, and also in the neighbouring south, the
beginning of early historical cultural pattern dated to only Mauryan or post-Mauryan periods.
This means that, impressive human settlements like towns and cities in which different social
groups lived, use of coins, use of scripts, use of sophisticated objects on a significant scale-all
began in these regions only from the Mauryan and post-Mauryan periods. This change in
material culture implies that there were not only changes in technology and material life in
general but also in social organisations and in ideas. Society started becoming organised in a
much more complex manner, resulting in separation between social groups and ultimately in
the institution of the State. The fact that we find local states appearing in many of the regions
after the Mauryas suggests that the process of major socio-economic change associated with
the production of surplus in society began in many parts of India through contact with the
important regions of the Magadhan Empire.
03 How did the Kushans establish their empire?
04 What was the significance of the Pallava administration?
Solution:
Kingship was attributed to define origin. The kings claimed their descent from the God
Brahma. It has hereditary. Yet, on one occasion a king was elected. Most of the kings were
accomplished scholars. Mahendravarman I wrote the famous burlesque, Masttavilasa
Prahsana. Many of the vaishnava alvars and saiva nayanars flourished during their rule.
The kings adopted high-sounding titles like maharajadhiraja, dharma-maharjadhiraja (great
king of kings rulling in accordance with the dharma), agnistomavajpeya, asvamedha-yaji (he
who has performed the agnithtoma-vajapeya and asvamedha sacrifices) They were assisted
by ministers. History shows that the ministerial council played a great part in the state policy
in the later period.
A hierarchy of officials in provincial administration, the governor ofa province was assisted
by district officers, who in turn worked in collaboration with automous local bodies. In local
administration the meeting of assembles were frequent, and the administration the meeting of
assemblies were frequent, and the assemblies were of many varieties and of many levels.
Often special meetings were held. As the village levelthe assembly was the sabha which
looked after almost all the matters of the village, along with endowments, irrigation, crime,
maintaining census and other necessary records, Courts at villages level dealt with minor
criminal cases. The judicial courts of the town and districts were presided over by

government officials, climaxing with the king as the supreme arbiter of justice. The sabha
worked in close association with the urar, and informal gathering of the entire village. Above
this unit was a district administration. Finally, the head man of the villages was the link
between the village assembly and the official administration.
Theoretically the king owned the land. The status of a village depended on the prevalent land
tenure. The fist variety was the village with inter-caste population where in the people paid
taxes to the king. The second was the brahmadeya village in which the entire land was
donated to a single Brahmin or a group of brahmins. A variation of this village was the
agrahars grant which, was an entire village settlement of brahmins. Both these forms were
exempt from royal taxes. In the devadana village the revenue was donated to a temple, and
the temple authorities in turn provided employment for the villagers in the temple whenever
possible. In the Pallava period the first two categories of villages were in vogue.
Apart from these major points relating to land there was a special category of land, the
sripatti or tank land. The revenue from such a land was sent apart for the maintenance of the
village tank. The tank itself was built by the efforts of the entire village. All shared the water
stored in the tank. Very many inscriptions of the Pallavas refer to the up-keep of tanks.
There are two Points about taxes. The land revenue varied from one-sixth to one tenth of the
produce of the land. This was paid to the State. The local taxes that were collected in a village
were spent for the needs of the village. As land revenue was necessarily small, the State
revenue was supplemented by additional taxes on draught cattle, marriage-parties, potters,
makers of clarified butter, textile manufacturers, washermen and weavers. The major source
of revenue was from land, since the revenue from mercantile activity was not fully exploited.
Regarding expenditure, most to the revenue want for the maintenance of army. The king
preferred a standing army instead of feudal levie. The army primarily consisting of food
soldiers and cavalry along with a sprinkling of elephants. Indeed the Pallavas developed a
navy although the mercantile activity was not great. Two dockyards were built at
Mahablipuram and Nagabatnam. This pioneeringh effort of the Pallavas reached its climax
during the days of cholas. The navy served a double purpose. It was meant for defence and
also assisted the maritime trade with sout-east Asia, particularly with the three kingdoms of
Kambuja (Cambodia) Champa (Annam) and Shrivijaya (Malayan peninsula and Sumatra).

05 Compare and contrast the reign of Chandragupta with Samudragupta. Comment on

which the best was according to your opinion.
06 The Gupta age was a period of relative peace and prosperity. Comment.
Solution:
India witnessed Peace and prosperity under the Gupta Empire. This period was marked by
extensive achievements in science, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy,
technology, engineering, art, religion and philosophy. It came into being as a result of the
destruction of the Kushana Empire.
Origin of the Gupta Empire
The origin of the Gupta dynasty still remains unclear. Though the records of the Sunga
Dynasty and Satavahana dynasty mention many officials bearing the surname Gupta, their
relationship with the imperial Guptas cannot be determined. Also, though there is specific
proof of a primitive Gupta clan, there is no means of connecting the same to the rulers of the
Gupta Empire. The history of the Gupta dynasty began with its founding by Sri-Gupta around
240 CE. The empire enclosed most of Northern India and Eastern Pakistan, parts of Gujarat
and Rajasthan and what is now western India and Bangladesh.
Rulers of the Gupta Empire
The first three rulers of the Gupta dynasty are Maharaja Sri Gupta, his son Maharaja Sri
Ghatotkacha and his son Chandragupta. It was under the last ruler that the Gupta Empire
went on to become firmly consolidated and went on to enhance the power of the dynasty.
Following his coronation as king of Magadha in A.D. 319-320, Chandra Gupta took the title
of `Maha Rajadhiraja`, Great King of Kings. He was followed by his son Samudragupta, in
the year 335 AD. He planned to bring about the unification of India and make himself the
head and thereby adopted the principle of Digvijaya.
The main power point of the Gupta Kingdom was the Ganga heartland. This secured a
friendly southern frontier for the Guptas, which was necessary to Samudra Gupta`s successor,
Chandragupta II, when he led a movement against the Sakas in western India. It was during
the reign of Chandragupta II that Gupta pre-eminence was at its peak.
Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumara Gupta, who went on to set up a peaceful
rule of forty years. The last years of his reign however saw the commencement of a long
period of troubles due to the incursion of the Pushyamitra tribe. His son Skanda Gupta
ascended the throne after fighting a bitter battle of succession with his brothers. The last
known King of the Guptas was Vishnu Gupta, following whom the Gupta dynasty fell into
dismay and eventually collapsed.
Administration of the Gupta Empire
Gupta administration bears a resemblance to that of the Mauryas in superficial terms. Though
ultimate power in the kingdom still lay with the king, the focus was more on local
administration and lesser control from the centre. There was well-organised administration
and political unity in India under the Guptas. The vast empire was divided into provinces,
which were under the control of the governors who were from the royal family. The standing

army was laced with cavalry and horse archery. The Gupta judicial system was developed
with a differentiation between civil and criminal laws.
Economy of the Gupta Empire
The economy of the Gupta Empire had a systematised operating mechanism. Revenue from
land came at a steady rate, and this was further added to by income from commercial activity.
India had established trading relations with the islands of South-East Asia, Malaysia,
Cambodia, and Thailand. The textile guilds had a huge domestic and foreign market. Spices,
indigo, sandalwood, pearls, pepper, perfume, precious stones, herbs, and textiles were
exported in large quantities. Inland trade was promoted by the political constancy that had
been established here by the Guptas. The towns of Banaras, Sarnath, Nasik, Paithan,
Pataliputra, Mathura, Ujjain, Kanchi and Tamralipti were famous trading centres.
Art and Architecture of the Gupta Empire
In terms of art, architecture and painting, and the other arts, the Gupta period is one of the
most innovative periods of Indian history. The rock cut caves belonging to the Buddhist; Jain
and Brahmanical sects are interesting aspects of Gupta architecture. The Ajanta caves,
Sarnath Buddha, the panels of Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh and the Udayagiri Varaha
Cave are remarkable accomplishments of the age. The Gupta era also heralded a new era in
the history of temple architecture. Free standing structural temples were built in this period.
Permanent materials like stone and brick were used in the construction of these temples for
the first time. Grammar, astronomy, metaphysics, logic, mathematics, and medicine became
greatly specialised during the reigning period of the Gupta kings. Sanskrit literature reached
at its highest glory during this period which produced works like Mricchakatika by Sudraka,
Panchatantra, along with Kalidasa, Bhasa and others. In mathematics, Aryabhatta brought the
concept of `zero` or infinity.
Decline of the Gupta Empire
Following the reign of Vishnu Gupta, the Gupta Empire finally came to an end. The process
of disintegration had started before the advent of Vishnu Gupta to the throne. In fact the reign
of Skanda Gupta can be said to have marked the commencement of the decline of the Gupta
Empire. The unexpected invasion of north western India by the Huns posed a serious
challenge to the authority of the Guptas. Disagreement within the imperial family was
another major reason that shook the stability of the Gupta Empire. The constant wars of
succession weakened the hold of the central authority over the feudatories. Frail
administrative systems also led to a downfall of the Gupta Empire.
Gupta Empire went on to introduce a new epoch in the history of India. The decline of the
Gupta Empire saw the shifting of power to the South, as the north was now broken up into a
number of warring kingdoms.