The Crane (Gruidae): The Status of Conservation

Management in the most three Cranes Endangered

Species.

SOPHANY PHAUK
Species Conservation
Conservation Biodiversity Center
Royal University of Phnom Penh

Submitted to
Mark Auliya, PhD.
Introduction
Cranes, an ancient family of birds, have graced our planet’s skies and stalked the grasslands
and wetlands for at least 40 million years. The fossil record includes at least 17 extinct species, many
of which were closely related to African Crowned Cranes (Brodkorb 1967). With the record of
cranes, we have found the distribution in 5 continents, there are Asia and Africa suggests an Old
World origin of Gruinae, with a more recent colonization of Australia and North of America
(Archibald, 1976a). Besides, there is no evidence that the cranes ever inhabited in South America. All
cranes are in one of two subfamilies, Balearicinae or Gruinae, in the family Gruidae (showed in the
Table 1-1). The two species of African Crowned Crane are placed in the subfamily Barlearicinae
(Peters, 1934).
Cranes are omnivorous and some species rely heavily on aquatic food (Walkinshaw, 1973)
such as Eastern Sarus Crane (Grus a. sharpie). Most Cranes probe the subsurface with their bills and
take foods from the soil surface or vegetation. In addition, the greater part of the diet consists of
crayfish, plant tubers, chufa, rodents, frogs, berries, bird’s eggs and nestlings (Herter, 1982). For the
breeding season, there are different in habitats and species or subspecies. The annual cycle of cranes
can be divided into 3 to 5 months nesting period and a longer non breeding. The Cranes breeding
season is either associated with distinct seasonality in the higher latitudes or with the wet or rainy
season in lower latitudes (Meine et al.,1996) such as wetland. Cranes generally are monogamous.
Mated birds stay together throughout the year, and typically remain paired until one bird dies. Most
studies indicate that individuals do not successfully reproduce until they are between four and eight
years old (Kuyt, 1987). With the concern of extinction, present, the fifteen species of cranes constitute
one of the most endangered families of birds in the world (Meine et al.,1996).
Cranes have also played an important role in the rise of the international conservation
movement. In particular, for example, the recovery of the Whooping Crane from near extinction has
provided strong impetus to the conservation movement (Meine et al.,1996). Concerning on the
extinction, the threat in cranes is invaded to their population throughout the human activities and
habitat loses. For example, the conversion of wetlands (habitats) for agricultural and non-agricultural
purposes (including urban, commercial, and recreational development, oil exploration, and road
construction) is the most significant factor affecting cranes and their habitats around the world
(Zhang, 1994). In addition, Agricultural not only expanded to the wetland but also into grasslands has
also appropriated crane breeding and foraging habitat, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, parts of South
Africa, the steppe regions of Eurasia, and savannas and prairies in North America (Allen, 1952).
Many Cranes are now become threatened throughout the world (Table: 1-2). In U.S.A, the Whooping
Crane is the rarest of the world’s 15 crane species. The species’ historic decline, near extinction, and
gradual recovery is among the best known and documented cases in the annals of conservation (Meine
et al.,1996). Due to the bad situation of the habitat loses and inversion of agriculture, the activities of
captive breeding and reintroduction are considered to the researchers and conservation.
Table 1-1: World species and subspecies of cranes and their geographic distribution
(Walkinshaw, 1973).

Species or Subspecies Scientific Name Distribution

Family Gruidae
Subfamily Balearicinae
Black Crowned Crane Balearica pavonina
West African Crowned Crane B. p. pavonina West Africa
Sudan Crowned Crane B. p. ceciliae Central Africa
Gray Crowned Crane Balearica regulorum
East African Crowned Crane B. r. gibbericeps East Africa
S. African Crowned Crane B. r. regulorum Southern Africa
Subfamily Gruinae
Wattled Crane Begeranus carunculatus Africa
Blue Crane Anthropoides virgo Southern Africa
Demoiselle Crane Anthropoides virgo Asia, Africa
Siberian Crane Grus leucogeranus Asia
Sandhill Crane Grus Canadensis
Lesser Sandhill Crane G. c. Canadensis East Siberia
Arctic N. America
Canadian Sandhill Crane G. c. rowani Boreal Canada
Greater Sandhill Crane G. c. tabida Northern USA
Florida Sandhill Crane G. c. pratensis Southeast USA
Mississippi Sandhill Crane G. c. pulla Mississippi
Cuban Sandhill Crane G. c. nesiotes Cuba
White-naped Crane Grus vipio East Asia
Sarus Crane Grus antigone
Indian Sarus Crane Grus. a. antigone India
Eastern Sarus Crane Grus. a. sharpie Southeast Asia
Australian Sarus Crane Grus. a. gilli Australia
Brolga Grus rubicunda Australia
Eurasian Crane Grus grus
European Crane G. g. grus Europe, west Asia
Lilford’s Crane G. g. lilfordi East Asia
Hooded Crane Grus monacha East Asia
Black-necked Crane Grus ingricollis Tibetan Blateau
Red – crowned Crane Grus japonnensis East Asia
Whooping Crane Grus americana North America
Table 1-2: the world Population of Crane and Captivities (1995)
Species or Subspecies Wild Captive Status
Black Crowned Crane 70,000 450 Threatened
Gray Crowned Crane 90,000 1,200 Non-endangered
Wattled Crane 14,000 172 Threatened
Blue Crane 21,000 1,000 Threatened
Demoiselle Crane 250,000 1,000 Non-endangered
Siberian Crane 3,000 115 Endangered
Sandhill Crane (all races) 700,000 500 Non-endangered
Cuba Sandhill Crane 150 ? Endangered
Mississippi Sandhill Crane 120 ? Endangered
White-naped Crane 5,000 400 Endangered
Sarus Crane (all races) 20,000 350 Non-endangered
Eastern Sarus Crane 1,ooo 50 Endangered
Brolga 25,000 33 Non-endangered
Eurasia (all races) 225,00 280 Non-endangered
Hooded Crane 10,000 100 Endangered
Black-necked Crane 5,800 90 Endangered
Red-Crowned Crane 1,800 750 Endangered
Whooping Crane 170 120 Endangered
(Source: George, et al. 1996)

Objectives
Concerning to the threat of cranes today, the project aims to take on the Husbandly and
Conservation of cranes. In this publication, the Captive Breeding, Reintroduction of the cranes will be
recognized and the verities technique in Cranes Management. Besides, this paper will provide a really
rare and endangered species or subspecies this include Sarus Crane (Grus anitgone), Whooping Crane
(Grus americana), and Siberian Crane (Grus leucogeranus). In order to success in this publication,
The Captive Breeding and Reintroduction of the three endangered scpcies/subspeciese will be
identified (Table: 1-2).

Whooping Crane - Grus americana

Whooping Crane is one of the most endangered species in crane population in the world. The
Whooping Crane, in particular, has been among the world’s most carefully monitored and managed
wildlife species since reaching the brink of extinction in the 1940s (USFWS 1994). Through the last
fifty years, cooperation in legal protection, habitat preservation, and continuous international
cooperation between Canada and the United States has allowed the only remaining wild population to
increase steadily from a historic low of just 15 known individuals in 1940-41 to more than 150 at
present (Meine et al.,1996).
 Whooping cranes recently face to the
treats, including habitat loss and popula-
tion decline. The concern of extinction,
the conservation action, including national
and international legal protection tried to
make a comprehensive scientific research
and monitoring program was established.
For example, there two preservation Crane
studbook and program coordinator, the
Studbook Keeper and Genetic Advisor to
Recovery Team, and Claire Mirande,
International Crane Foundation (USA)
(Meine et al.,1996).
Whooping cranes currently exist in
the three wild populations - the historic
Aransas-Wood Buffalo population (AWP)
an experimental cross-fostered Rocky
Mountains population (RMP); and an
experimental population of recently Figure1: Whooping Crane status in Canada and United
released non-migratory birds in central State (Source: Meine and George (Eds). 1996)

Florida (FP) (Meine et al.,1996) with the five captive breeding locations (U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service. 1994) - (Figure1). The Captive Breeding in whooping cranes were starting since a low of
only 15 or 16 remained in 1941 in the flock wintering in Texas, United State. Since 1967, biologists
have removed single eggs from two-egg clutch nests of the population, using these eggs in
establishing captive and experimental wild populations (Erickson 1976, Kuyt 1993, Edwards et al.
1994).

Figure2: Whooping Cranes in North America (Source: http://www.whoopers.ccbirding.com)

 The increasable populations of this crane are depending on the technique which conservators
have to preserve. In most cranes, breeding usually begins between the early age 3 and 6, however,
whooping cranes sometimes breeding as early as age 3 (Kuyt and Goossen. 1987). On the one hand,
breeding on average, occurs later in Whooping Cranes in captivity (Ellis, et al. 1992). Whooping
Crane has no subspecies mostly found in the Louisiana, North America. This species declared
endanger in more than six decades from the low population to increasingly until 170 population in the
wild and 120 population in the captive breeding (Table: 1-2) where these bird are captive in Patuxent
or ICF (International Crane Foundation), with the third captive breeding in center recently established
at the Calgary Zoo, Canada (George, et al. 1996). The variation techniques of reintroduction in
Whooping Cranes were used, for example in 1975, the release of Cross-fostered Cranes. Sandhill
Crane eggs were exchanged for Whooping Crane eggs (289) from Patuxent and Wood Buffalo
National Park in Canada ( Drewien et al. 1989 unpubl.). However, this released technique was failed
in the experiment in the Grays Lake. In addition, in 1988, the experimental non-migratory population
was established which replaced the previous once – Cross-fostered Crane (Meine et al.,1996). The
successful in survival releasing 33 Whooping juvenile’s Cranes in 1994 and 52 of Cranes appeared in
1996. With the successfully in Crane Captive Breeding and Reintroduction, the Whooping Cranes will
be survived in the future.

Siberian Crane - Grus leucogeranus

The Grus leucogeranus – Siberian Cranes are the distinguish and no subspecies which the
most third endangered species after the Whooping Crane – Grus americana and Red Crowned Crane -
Grus japonnensis (Meine and George (Eds), 1996). Siberian Cranes are the most highly specialized
member of the crane family in terms of habitat requirements, morphology, vocalizations, and
behavior. It is the most aquatic of the cranes, exclusively using wetlands for nesting, feeding, and
roosting, and has behavioral displays that are quite distinct from other crane species
(www.savingcranes.org/Siberian crane.html). In general, Siberian Cranes consume a wider variety of
food items, both aquatic and terrestrial, on their breeding grounds than on their wintering grounds
(Meine, 1996). Siberian Cranes are found in the three different habitats in the world, this including
Eastern population, Central population and Western population which exist in Afghanistan,
Azerbaijan, China, India, Iran, Japan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, North Korea, Pakistan, Russia, South
Korea, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan (Figure3).
The estimated of Siberian Crane population in the wild is about 3,000 while the population in
Captive Breeding is only about 115 (Table2). This means that there is less population in the tree
habitats as shown above due to their migration in the group seem to less population. In additional to
the concerning of the Siberian Crane population, the soviets established a breeding center for this bird
species near Moscowat – the Oka State Nature Reserve in 1979 (George, et al. 1996). Until present,
we have a new established of the Studbook Keeper in Chinese – Studbook Keeper: Zhao Qingguo,
Chinese Association of Zoological Gardens in Beijing, China (Meine et al., 1996). The remarkable of
Siberian Cranes during the captive experiment in the passed the male survival is late 70 years old
while the female once is about 61 years old. This indicated that Siberian Cranes are very resilience to
their nature. Siberian Cranes are the least heat tolerant and the most cold tolerant of all cranes.

(a) (b)
Figure3: Siberian Crane distribution – (a) the population in the Western and Central distribution. (b)
the population in the Eastern distribution. (Source: Meine et al., 1996)

Siberian Crane’s rang breeding are currently only

two. First is from about the confluence of the Ob
and Irtysh rivers north to the region of Berezovo,
and the second is from the basin of the Indigirka
(from its mouth south to the Moma River) west to
the Khroma River and the lower Yana (Paul, 1983a).
Recognizing that the Siberian Crane has the
longest migration route of all crane species, ranging
from breeding areas in the Arctic regions of Asia to
wintering grounds in southern Asia, and that the
species is highly dependent on the conservation of
shallow wetlands for its survival (UNEP/CMS. ed.
1999). In nature, Siberian Cranes breed at seven
years of age or older. However, with improved
rearing and pairing techniques, Siberian Cranes are
Figure4: Siberian Crane (Grus leucogeranus)
at Keoladeo National Park, India, 1982. now breeding as early as four to six years of age
(Source: George, et al. 1996) (Panchenko, 1993 unpubl).
One suggestion, there is a possibility that the relatively abundant Eurasian crane can be used
to help restore the Central Population of Siberian cranes. Eurasian cranes breed among Siberian
cranes on the Kunovat Basin, and it is probable that these Eurasian cranes spend the winter along the
northern border of the Islamic Republic of Iran and Afghanistan (UNEP/CMS. ed. 1999). Flocks of
other Eurasian cranes share the southern part of their migration route to India with Siberian cranes.
The winter range of the Eurasian crane overlaps with that of the Siberian crane in India. Some
Eurasian cranes in India may migrate along safer migration routes over the Himalayas (Figure3a).
However, for populations that migrate across the Hindu Kush Mountains, crane mortality must be
reduced before restoration efforts for Siberian cranes can be successful (UNEP/CMS. ed. 1999).
However, while the conservation of Captive breeding and Reintroduction became significant
for Siberian Cranes, the disturbance of human activities and inadequate protected area management
were continuing. For example, Crane hunting is a traditional sport in the areas of Afghanistan and
Pakistan where the population passes during migration (Meine et al., 1996). The less controlling in
Siberian Cranes mostly appeared in Central population and Western population. In view of the threat
to Siberian Cranes, efforts should be made to try to adjust hunting seasons to a void coincidence with
Siberian Crane migration.

Sarus Crane - Grus antigone

Sarus Crane was believed
that the only species appeared in
the Mekong River region. Sarus
Crane is one of the world tallest
species in the family of Gruidae,
about 2 meters in length (Eric,
2006). Grus antigone has three
subspecies: Indian Sarus Crane
(Grus a. antigone), Eastern
Sarus Cran (Grus a. sharpii)
and Australia Sarus Crane (Grus
a. gilli) (Figure5). The three subspecies are Figure5: The distribution of the Sarus Crane – Grus
antigone (Source: Meine at el,. 1996)
distinguished mainly by morphological
differences. G. a. antigone is taller than G. a. sharpii and G. a. gilli (Meine at el,. 1996). The dividing
point between the ranges of G. a. antigone and G. a. sharpie falls in Eastern India and Myanmar. G.
a. sharpii may exist in two separate populations: the known birds of the lower Mekong basin in
Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam; and (assuming it still exists) an isolated population in Eastern India,
Myanmar, and Yunnan. G. a. gilli occurs exclusively in Australia (Schodde et al., 1988) differentiated
it based on its smaller size, larger and darker ear patches, and more extensively feathered throat. The
Sarus Cranes that occurred in the Philippines may have belonged to a distinct subspecies Grus
(Antigone) antigone luzonica, although we have no longer seen since the early 1970s and now
presumed to be extinct (Eric, 2006).
 Indian Sarus Cranes (Figure6) are found in
the plains of northern, northwestern, and western
India and the western half of Nepal’s Tarai
lowlands. With the concern of population, the
surveyed at Bharatpur district, India, shown a bad
management between past and present (Figure7)
(SREE, 2008).
Eastern Sarus Cran (Grus a. sharpii) are
found in throughout Indochina including Cambodia,
Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand. The
designation of the Sarus Crane Reserve, in February
2000, at Ang Tropeang Thmor highlights the need
and possibility for species-specific reserves and
sanctuaries to be added into the protected areas Figure6: The Indian Sarus Crane – Grus a. antigone
system (National Biodiversity Strategy and Action
Plan, 2002). With the ancient conservation Sarus Cranes were appeared during the Angkorian society
(Figure8). Australian Sarus Crane (Grus a. gilli) is the only crane subspecies that native to the
Austalia (Figure5). This subspecies population is about 5,000 birds and it is though to be increased
due to change in agriculture practices (eric, 2006).

Figure7: A comparison of present and past population of Sarus Crane

from Bharatpur district, India
 Concerning the varying of Global Changes and Human activities, one of the seriously
subspecies in Grus antigone is Eastern Sarus Crane (Grus a. Sharpii) which appeared in a small
population in Cambodia, Vietnam, Myanmar and
some parts of Lao PDR during the breeding season
(Table2). In1984, the Royal Forest Department of
Thailand established a center near Bangphra for the
captive management of Eastern Sarus Cranes.
(George, et al. 1996). Moreover, the Eastern Sarus
Crane International Studbook Keeper was occurred
Figure8: Sarus Cranes appear on the bas-reliefs of
in Jumpon Kotchasit, Khao Kheow Open Zoo, the Bayon Temple at Angkor Wat, Cambodia,
carved more than 600 years ago by Khmer
Chonbur, Thailand (Meime et al., 1996). In craftsmen, who were recording pictures of
addition to the Sarus Crane in Thailand today, everyday life and events in Angkorian society.
(Source: www.panda.org)
there is no records of this bird exist in Thailand but
recent breeding records of Sarus occur in Myanmar and Cambodia (Battambang and Preah Vihear
Provinces) near Thailand (Figure9). If wetland areas in Thailand can be protected, Eastern Sarua
Carne could realdily re-establish themselves in Thailand as they have in Vietnam (Mekong Wetlands
Biodiversity Programme, 2006). Since the rediscovery of Eastern Sarus Cranes in the Mekong River,
several international initiatives have been undertaken to protect the population and its habitats. For
example, in Vietnam, the Mekong Delta Crane Management Zone, Tram Chim, played an important
roll in habitat ecology of Eastern Sarus Cran. In Cambodia, Siam Pang Important Bird Area is a
breeding area for the Sarus Crane (Mekong Wetlands Biodiversity Programme, 2006). Concerning to
the Captive breeding and reintroduction of Eastern Sarus Crane seem to less information and research
in the Southeast Asia. However, Many of the captive Eastern Sarus Cranes are birds from northern
Cambodia that were confiscated by the Thai government after being brought into captivity illegally by
dealers (Meine at el,. 1996). These birds are now being managed to support a possible reintroduction
program.

Figure9: Range of Southeast Asia Population of Eastern Sarus Crane

Conclusion and Commendation
As described above status of the endangered species of Whooping Crane, Siberian Crane, and
Sarus Cane, we make priority conservation measures for the species include:
(1) Full development of the Recovery Team and Recovery Plan;
(2) Creation of protected areas on the breeding grounds
(3) Upgrading habitat protection and management efforts at the wintering grounds
(4) Identification of migration routes,
(5) Studies of breeding, migration, wintering, ecology, causes of mortality, and other crucial
aspects of Cranes and
(6) Development of special educational programs involving hunters along the migration route
of the central population and communities near the wintering are as in Iran, India, China,
Thailand Captive propagation and reintroduction efforts should focus on bolstering the
western and central populations, maintaining a genetically diverse captive population, and
perfecting rearing and release techniques.
Moreover, with the success in captive rearing and propagation of cranes is dependent on the
cooperation between International Agreements and Cooperation with CITES, IUCN and Other
organizations for make a constitutional law to control and protect the Crane species. Therefore, The
tree endangered birds above are really needed for conservation management.
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