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TheconceptofanaffordancewascoinedbytheperceptualpsychologistJames
J. Gibson in his seminal book The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception.
The concept was introduced to the HCI community by Donald Norman in his
bookThe Psychology of Everyday Things from 1988. There has however been
ambiguity in Norman's use of the concept, and the concept thus requires a
moreelaborateexplanation.

Norman'suseoftheterm
According to Norman (1988) an affordance is the design aspect of an object
which suggest how the object should be used; a visual clue to its function and
use.Normanwrites:

Previously,I'veworkedat
TheDanishNational
TechnologicalInstitute
workingwithresearchin
industryUntilMarch
2000Iwasoneofthree
partnersinCsite.com,a
webdevelopment
companyofabout11

people.Itwentoutof
businessin2009.I've
workedintheeBusiness
ThinkTankofDaimlerin
thecorporate
headquartersinBerlin
(DaimlerChrysler
FinancialServices).I'...

"...the term affordance refers to the perceived and actual

properties of the thing, primarily those fundamental properties that
determinejusthowthethingcouldpossiblybeused.[...]Affordances
provide strong clues to the operations of things. Plates are for
pushing. Knobs are for turning. Slots are for inserting things into.
Balls are for throwing or bouncing. When affordances are taken
advantageof,theuserknowswhattodojustbylooking:nopicture,
label,orinstructionneeded."(Norman1988,p.9)
Norman thus defines an affordance as something of both actual and
perceivedproperties.Theaffordanceofaballisbothitsroundshape,physical
material, bouncability, etc. (its actual properties) as well as the perceived
suggestion as to how the ball should be used (its perceived properties). When
actual and perceived properties are combined, an affordance emerges as a
relationship that holds between the object and the individual that is acting on
the object (Norman 1999). As Norman makes clear in an endnote in Norman
(1988), this view is in conflict with Gibson's idea of an affordance (explained
next).

MadsSoegaard

MadsSoegaardisamember
ofTheInteractionDesign
Foundation

Gibson'suseoftheterm
As opposed to Norman's use of his term, Gibson intended an affordance to
mean"anactionpossibilityavailableintheenvironmentto

Viewmemberbenefits

an individual, independent of the individual's ability to

perceive this possibility" (McGrenere and Ho, 2000). Unlike
Norman's inclusion of an object's perceived properties, or rather, the
informationthatspecifieshowtheobjectcanbeused,aGibsonianaffordanceis
independentoftheactor'sabilitytoperceiveit.Adoorcanhavetheaffordance
of 'openability' (its affordance relative to the actor) but can be hidden,
camouflaged or likewise (the information specifying its affordance are not
availabletotheactor).Ontheotherhand,whenboththeaffordance(thedoor
can be opened by the actor) and the information in the environment that
specifies the affordance (the door is visible, has a handle etc.) are present, a
stateofdirectperceptionisreached."Forexample,onewillperceive

MadsSoegaard
Biography

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that one can walk forward when one sees a solid, opaque

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surface that extends under one's feet. The affordance is

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walkabilityandtheinformationthatspecifieswalkability
is a perceived invariant combination of a solid, opaque
surfaceofacertainsizerelativetooneself"(McGrenereand
Ho, 2000: p.2). Direct perception means that the information in our sensory
receptors is enough to perceive anything. We do not need any higherlevel
cognitive processes to mediate between our sensory experience and our
perception(Sternberg1997).

YourEmail

APR

Ourinstincts
08
andtrainingas
engineersencourageusto
thinklogicallyinsteadof
visually,andthisis
counterproductiveto
friendlydesign.

AnaffordanceaccordingtoGibsonexistsrelativetotheactioncapabilities
of particular actors. Therefore, to a thief an open window can have an
affordance of "climbing through" (and subsequently stealing something), but
notsotoachildwhoisnottallenoughtoreachthewindowandthereforedoes
nothavetheactionpossibility.
Affordances, according to Gibson, should furthermore not be viewed as
dependantonculture,priorknowledgeorexpectationsoftheindividual,which
Norman suggests. By disregarding knowledge and expectations of the actor,
Gibsonfocusesonlyontheactioncapabilitiesoftheactorandnot,likeNorman,
on the perceptual and mental capabilities. However, the information that
specifies the affordance is indeed dependant on the actor's experience and
culture.

-- Paul

Heckel in The
Elements of
Friendly Software
Design (1991)
Sharethisquoteon...

Gibson'sAffordances
Norman'sAffordances
Actionpossibilitiesinthe
Perceivedpropertiesthat
environmentinrelationto
maynotactuallyexist
theactioncapabilitiesofan
Suggestionsorcluesasto
actor
howtousetheproperties
Independentoftheactor's
Canbedependentonthe
experience,knowledge,
experience,knowledge,or
cultre,orabilityto
cultureoftheactor
perceieve
Canmakeanaction
Existenceisbinaryan
difficultoreasy
affordanceexistsoritdoes
notexist.

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2013

Figure 1: Comparison of affordances as defined by Gibson and

Norman(McGrenereandHo,2000).

Apr15

In other words, the misunderstanding regarding the definition of affordances

has arisen because of Norman's ambiguous use of the term and his lack in
separating affordances from the perceptual information that specifies the
affordances. Gaver (1991) has contributed with a framework for separating
affordancesfromtheperceptualinformationavailableaboutthem.Seefigure2:

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Figure 2: Seperating affordances from the perceptual information

thatspecifiesaffordances.AdaptedfromGaver(1991).
Infigure2,a'falseaffordance'existswhenthereisnoactionpossibilitybutthe
informationthatspecifiesitis(forexample,achairthatlooksturdy,butwhich
is made of cardboard). A 'correct rejection' exists when there is no affordance
andnoperceptualinformationtospecifyitwhereasa'hiddenaffordance'exists
when the affordance is there but the specifying perceptual information is not
(for example, a hidden door). To compare the above classification of
affordances to Norman's sense of the term, both 'false' affordance' and
'perceptible affordance' is comparable with Norman's 'perceived affordance'.
According to Norman, the decisive factor is the perceptual information, so
whenitisthere,regardlessofwhethertheactualaffordancealsois,wemaytalk
about a perceived affordance in Norman's sense of the term (indicated by the
blue,dashedline).

Doesestablishingaclearmeaningthedistinction
makeadifference?
The distinction between Gibson's and Norman's sense of affordances allows us
to distinguish between the utility/usefulness and the usability of an object: We
bothdesignforusefulnessbycreatingaffordances(thepossibilitiesforactionin
thedesign)thatmatchthegoalsoftheuser(therelativityoftheaffordancevis
vis the user) and we improve the usability by designing the information that
specifies the affordances (perceptual information as shadows on buttons to
affordclickabilityetc.).

Wanttolearnmoreaboutaffordances?
If you want to learn more about affordances a good place to start would be to
readGaver(1991).AfterthatyoumayreadtheoriginalworkbyGibson,which
ischapter8inGibson(1979).Ifyouwouldliketomorethoroughlyunderstand
affordances in the light of Gibsons Direct Perception theory you may read
chapters3,5,6,7,8,12,13,and14inGibson(1979)whichshouldbeenoughto
understandhistheory(youcan,ofcourse,alsoreadthewholebook).

Usercontributednotes
Giveusyouropinion!Doyouhaveanycomments/additions
thatyouwouldlikeothervisitorstosee?

AndyShaw(andrew(dot)l(dot)shaw(at)questdiagnostics(dot)com)says:

May30th,2008

#1

Informative,Ithought.

TheEnglishversionofthistexthassomegrammaticalfuzzinesswhich,if
corrected,couldmakethemeaningclearer.Onthewhole,Ifoundthe
contributionhelpful.

Uxdesign.com(mc(at)uxdesign(dot)com)says:

Oct19th,2008

Athoroughexpositionofthetermsorigin.Thankyou,Mads.However,
statingthattherehasbeen"ambiguityinNorman'suseoftheconcept" #2
isaneditorialopinionthatdoesnotservethereaderspurposes.Gilbert's
andNorman'stwoapproachesmerelyrepresentanageoldargument,in
thiscaseaverysecondaryone,betweentheoriesofdirectrealismversus
indirect,representationalrealism.Gibsonisclearlyinthedirectrealism
camp,thatis,thatthesensesprovideuswithdirectawarenessofthe
externalworld.WhileNormanisalignedwith(themoreconventional)
representationalrealism,positingthatweperceivetheworldonlythrough
ourassumptionsandinterpretations.Regardlessoftheirphilosophical
differences,bothGibsonandNormanpointtotheessentialnotionthatthe
propertiesandattributesofthingsafford(support)inussomedegreeof
comprehensionofopportunitiesforinteractionwiththem.The
backgroundarguments,whileofcoursepartofthetermshistory,arefairly
superfluoustoapprehendingausefuldefinitionofthisentry.

Viveka(interactiondesign(at)viveka(dot)id(dot)au)says:

Nov23rd,2009

It'sworthnotingthatNormanhasretractedhisredefinitionof
"affordances",writing"Partoftheblamelieswithme:Ishouldhave
usedtheterm"perceivedaffordance".

Also:thisvariationhasnotcaughtonintheotherdisciplinesthatusethe
term(e.g.cognitivepsychologyandAI).UsingthetermthatGibson
coinedinawaythat'scountertohisdefinitionleadstosomeconfusing
conversationsbothwithinthedisciplineofHCIandespeciallywhen
talkingacrossdisciplines.

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Apr8th,2013

#4

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References
Standard format
what'sthis?
Gaver,WilliamW.(1991):TechnologyAffordances.In:Robertson,ScottP.,
Olson,GaryM.andOlson,JudithS.(eds.)ProceedingsoftheACMCHI91
HumanFactorsinComputingSystemsConferenceApril28June5,1991,
NewOrleans,Louisiana.pp.7984.

Gibson,JamesJ.(1979):TheEcologicalApproachtoVisualPerception.New
Jersey,USA,LawrenceErlbaumAssociates
McGrenere,JoannaandHo,Wayne(2000):Affordances:Clarifyingand
EvolvingaConcept.In:ProceedingsofGraphicsInterface2000May1517,
2000,Montreal,Quebec,Canada.pp.179186.
Norman,DonaldA.(1999b):Affordances,Conventions,andDesign.In
Interactions,6(3)pp.3841.
Norman,DonaldA.(1988):TheDesignofEverydayThings.NewYork,
Doubleday
Norman,DonaldA.(1999a):InvisibleComputer:WhyGoodProductsCan
Fail,thePersonalComputerIsSoComplexandInformationAppliances
AretheSolution.London,MITPress
Sternberg,RobertJ.(1996):CognitivePsychology.2nd.Ed..HarcourtBrace
CollegePublishers

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Author(s):MadsSoegaard
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URL:http://www.interaction
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