Bel 2014

BEL Interview -2014( ECE)
CONTENTS
General guidelines
1. Technical theory
2. Important terms used in Electronics
3. Latest technology material-I
4. Latest technology material-II
5. Technical questions asked in interview
28A/11, Ground Floor- Jia Sarai New Delhi 16 Ph.: 09811382221, 011-32662945 www.panaceainstitute.org.in
General Guidelines
BEL interview contains 15/85 weightage of total marks. These marks are very crucial for final selection.
Dress must be simple and formal. Try to wear neat and clean formal clothes. Color of dress must be light.
Dont use perfumes in interview. One should look decent and formal. Generally time allotted is 10-15
minutes which can vary between 5-20 minutes. BEL interview is totally technical interview and most of the
questions will be technical in nature.
Most of the questions will be related to your core subject like Microwave,RADAR satellite, Optical fiber
Analog electronics and latest technology in field of Electronics&communication. If you are comfortable
with English then you can use this language. If you are not comfortable then you can use mixture of Hindi
and English.
Golden rules (Dos and Do nots) for any Government Job Interview:
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Just after entering in interview board room greet everyone .If lady member is there then greet her
first and then rest of members. No need of greeting one by one you can say good-morning/evening
all of you sirs (by making eye contact to everybody).
If lady member is there then say good morning/evening mam first and then say good
morning/evening to all of you sirs. (Never use madam).
When chairman offer chair then say thank you mam/sir to chairman of your board.
Distance between chairmanof board and you will be large so your voice must be audible to chairman.
Never interrupt in between first listen their question properly and with patience.
If you dont know answer of any question then say sorry sir I dont know or you can say I studied
earlier but this time I m not able to recall.
Try to avoid giving wrong answers .if you are not sure about answer of any question you simply say
sir I m not sure, but I think answer may be this.
If members tells you correct answer say him/her thank you very much sir/mam.
If they offer Tea/water to you then avoid it if possible but dont forget to say thank-you sir/mam.
Try to answer technical question in a simple language so that chairman can also understand it.
Chairman of board is decision maker of your marks and he is generally a non technical person.
Dont contradict yourself in questions related to your bio-data.
If you have written anything related to your hobby, sports, extra activities etc. then your answer must
be balanced and must not be contradictory.
In interview never get tensed if you are being then hide it. Always give answer with light smiling
face.
Never give negative answer to anything. Never say that job is bad, low profile etc.
Never blame system for anything. Never blame anybody for anything during your interview process.
You cant say our whole system is corrupt .our system is responsible for that etcs.
Never blame government policies and never make system responsible for everything.
There are 3-11gfd4 members during interview and they ask questions one by one. So maintain eye
contact to person who is asking questions and in mean time you can also see other members also.
But main focus must be on that person only who is asking questions.
Answers must be given in very simple language and upto the points. Try to avoid formulas during
answering always try to give logical explanation.
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Wear proper dress and if possible dont use perfume etc. Your cloths must be neat and clean and
shoes must be polished.
Never use words like social status, social-value, job security& cool job etcs.
Try to use words with which you are familiar. For Example if you are answering about routers and
not good in packet switching then try to avoid packet switching word, while explaining about router.
But at the same time if you are good in packet switching then use word packet switching
intentionally.
Never show your ego during interview.
Never try to show that you are superior. Your behavior must be down to earth. Your attitude must be
in such a manner that you can work in a team effectively.
Before leaving room dont forget wishing every one and saying thank you to all of you sirs.
Dont disclose your medical history. e.g. if you are color blind then dont tell them in interview
Chapter-1: Important technical theory

*****RADAR*****
Radar i.e. Radio Detection and Ranging is used for gathering information about distant objects or targets by
E.M waves. It is used for detecting static or mobile objects. It is also an effective method for guiding pilots
with regard to his location in space. Frequency generally used by radar lies in upper UHF and Microwave
range. Radar consists of a transmitter and receiver each connected to a directional antenna .Here both
transmitter and receiver antennas are of same type generally. Transmitter used for radar is klystron, TWT
& transistor amplifier while antenna used are parabolic reflector, planar arrays&phased arrays.
Note:
Radar can see through fog, rain&snow and can determine location of target very accurately.
Radar cant resolve like eye and also cant recognize color of object.
Block diagram of an elementary Pulsed Radar:
Transmitter
Duplexer
Receiver
Duplexer:
Radar which is using same antenna for transmitter and receiver is called as duplexer.
Such type of radars is called as mono-static radar. Duplexer uses quarter wavelength transmission lines.
The functions of duplexer are:
1 .To isolate transmitter and receiver
2. To protect receiver from transmitter
3. To help use a single transmitter and receiver antenna
Devices used for duplexer are solid state ferrite circulator &solid state devices.
Range of target:
Range =C.T/2 Here T is the time taken by radar signal to travel to target and back
Range (Km) =0.15 T (microsecond)
Maximum Unambiguous Range (MUR):
After the radar pulse has been transmitted a sufficient rest time must be allowed for the echo to return so as
not to interface with next transmit pulse. This PRT or Pulse Repetition Time determines the maximum
distance to the target to be measured.
Any signal arriving after transmission of the second pulse is called a second return echoes and is called
Maximum Un ambiguous Range (MUR). So the range beyond which object appears as second around
echoes is called the MUR.
C
PRT
MUR
2 PRF 12.2
C Velocity of light
PRT is in sec
If PRF is too high then ambiguity in majority range might be present. If a large reflector object is very close
the echoes may return before the complete pulse may be transmitted.
To eliminate this ambiguity the receiver is blocked or turned-off.
Factors affecting range of a radar:

Maximum range of RADAR is given by:
1/4
P A 2S
rmax t 2e
4 S min
Pt Peak Transmitted pulse power
S capture area of target
Ae Effective area of transmitting antenna
Operating wavelength
S min Minimum detectable power
Radar displays:
1. A-scope display: This is the most popular and similar to ordinary CRO .It displays system which
indicates the range of target. A-scope displays range vs amplitude of the received echo signals .It is
suited for tracking of radar rather than surveillance of radar.
2. B-scope display: It displays signal range vs angle. Here amplitude is a function of azimuth.
Normally this is used in air-borne radar.
3. Plane Position Indicator (PPI): It is a presentation that maps in polar coordinates and the location
of target in azimuth&range.This is used for surveillance radar.
Scanning of radars: Scanning refers to the way in which the antenna keeps moving in azimuth and
elevation for covering an area which has the desired target. So scanning is nothing but movement of an
antenna to cover an area in which target is present.
1. Horizontal scanning: ship to ship radar
2. Elevation/vertical/nodding scanning:
3. Helical scanning:
4. spiral scanning:
Tracking of radars: After scanning method it is necessary to locate its path very accurately to predict its
future position. This is called antenna tracking. For tracking target we need range, velocity, azimuth angle&
elevation angle of target.
Methods of tacking:
An antenna having narrow pencil shaped beam helps in antenna tracking. But just a pencil beam is not
sufficient for accurate tracking of target because accuracy of this type of antenna is insufficient in itself.
Three techniques are used for tracking.
1. Lobe switching technique: It is also called sequential lobing. Here direction of antenna beam is rapidly
switched between two positions in this system so that strength of echo from target will fluctuate at the
switching rate unless target is exactly mid way between two directions.
Target direction
Alternate
lobe positions
A single beam is switched between two squinted angular positions to obtain angular measurement.
Thus sequential lobing is used for tracking a target accurately in one plane.
2.
Conical scanning/or switching. After a target has been acquired the best scanning system for tracking is
conical. It is a logical extension of lobe switching and is achieved by mounting the parabolic antenna
slightly-off centre and then rotating it about the axis of parabola the rotation is slow compared to PRF.
Path of lobe tip
Lobe
The name conical scan is derived from the surface described in space by pencil radiation pattern of
antenna as the tip of pattern moves in a circle. The conical system is just as accurate in elevation as in
azimuth.
Disadvantages of lobe scanning &conical scanning:
1. The motion of antenna is more complex in both scanning
2. More than one returned pulse is required to locate a target(Minimum 4 pulses are required)
3. Amplitude comparisons are not particularly accurate.
Mono-pulse tracking:
An ideal system in which all information can be tracked only in 1 pulse is known as monopulse.
Generally 4 pulses are required in case of conical scanning. Most important advantage is that it is not
affected by amplitude fluctuations of target echo. It is preferred when acute angle measurement is required.
If target cross section is changing then best system for accurate tracking is mono-pulse.
The disadvantage of mono-pulse is that it requires two extra receiving channels and a more complex feeding
arrangement which makes the system bulky and expensive.
Limitation in tracking:
1. Glint: Angle noise which affects all tracking radars.
2. Amplitude fluctuations of target echo
3. Receiver noise
Beam shapes for radar:
1. Pencil-beam: Beam width of pencil beam in horizontal beam is equal to horizontal beam width in
vertical plane. Beam width of pencil beam is generally less than a few degrees. It is used in tracking
radar, 3-D radar &phased array radar.
2. Fan-beam: It has one angle small compared with others. Here azimuthal beam width might be one or
few degree while elevation beam width might be 4-10 times the azimuthal beam width.
This beam is generally modified to obtain more complete coverage example is cosecant squared shaped
beam. Surveillance radar and airborne ground surveillance radar use it.
Doppler Effect: when target is moving relative to radar then there will be a shift in carrier frequency of the
received signal and this effect is called as Doppler effect. The shift in frequency is Doppler shift and it is a
measure of velocity of target. CW Doppler Radar is the based upon concept of Doppler Effect.
2v
If fd is Doppler frequency and vR is the relative frequency then f d r Hz. Pulse to pulse change in
frequency is known as frequency agility. The same magnitude of Doppler shift is observed regardless of
whether a target is moving towards the radar or away from it with a given velocity. Radars which use
concept of Doppler effect are CW, FM-CW and MTI radar.
Note:
Doppler Effect is observed only for radial motion and not for tangential motion. Thus no Doppler effect is
noticed if a target moves across the field of view of a radar.
CW Doppler radar: It is used for calculating speed of moving objects. This radar is limited in maximum
power it transmits and this place a limit on its maximum range. This radar is not capable of indicating range
of target and shows only its velocity.
Advantages of CW Doppler Radar:

1. It is capable of giving accurate measurement of relative velocities using low transmitter powers,
simple circuitry, low power consumption and small size equipments.
2. It is unaffected by presence of stationary targets
3. It is also capable of measuring a large range of target speeds quickly and accurately.
4. CW radar can even the measure the direction of the target in addition to its target
Disadvantages of CW Doppler Radar:
1. It is limited in maximum power it transmits and this naturally places a limit on maximum range.
2. It is rather easily confused by presence of a large number of targets
3. Radar is incapable of indicating the range of the target. It can only show its velocity because the
transmitted signal is un-modulated. The receiver cant sense which particular cycle of oscillation is
being received at the moment and therefore cant tell how long ago this particular cycle was
transmitted so the range cant be measured.
Applications of CW Doppler radar:
This radar is generally is used for
1. Mobile applications,
2. Police radars and also in
3. Aircraft navigation.
4. Radar speed meter
Clutter: Echoes from natural environment such as land, sea &weather are called as clutter. Clutter echoes
can be many order of magnitude larger than aircraft echoes and aircraft might nt be detectable.
MTI-Radar or Pulse Doppler radar:
Pulse radar that employs Doppler shift for removing clutter problem in case of moving targets is called as
MTI radar or a pulse radar. The basic principle of an MTI radar is to compare a set of received echoes with
those received during the previous sweep and canceling out those whose phase has remained unchanged.
Moving targets will give change of phase and are not cancelled. Thus clutter due to stationary targets both
man-made and natural are removed from display and this allows easier detection of moving targets.
Delay line canceller is used in MTI radar and is an example of time domain filter that rejects stationary
clutter at zero frequency. It has a frequency function that can be derived from time domain representation of
signals. The function of quartz delay in MTI radar is to help in subtracting a complete scan from previous
scan.
Blind speed: If target has uniform velocity the successive sweeps will have Doppler phase shifts of exactly
360 degree and target appears stationary and gives wrong radar Indication .The speed corresponding to this
condition is called as blind speed. If any object is moving with blind speed then it will look stationary.
Methods for reducing blind speed:
1. Operate the radar at long wave length i.e. low frequency.
2. Operate with high Pulse Repetition Frequency
3. Operate with more than one PRF frequency is used.
Frequency Modulated CW radar:
This radar is used for measuring height of aero plane This FM-CW radar overcome limitation of CW radar
and can calculate height as well as speed of objects.
FM/CW radar is mostly used as altimeter in aircraft due to shorter ranges and lower power requirements as
compared to pulsed radar.
Radio navigational system:
1. LORAN(Long Range Navigational Aid):This is based on principle on time difference between receipt
of signals from a pair of radio transmitters .A given constant time difference between signals from two
stations is represented by hyperbolic line of position .It is based upon pulsed system &hyperbolic system.
LORAN-A: 2 MHZ and LORAN-C: 90-110 KHZ
2. VOR :( VHF Omini-directional Range): It is a radio navigational system used for aircraft .It broadcasts
a VHF signal. VOR is using LOS propagation and limits in range of 240 km only. All VOR beacons use a
phased antenna array such that signal is rotated electronically. Frequency range is 108-136 MHZ.
3. OMEGA: It is the 1st truly global navigational system for aircraft .OMEGA employed hyperbolic radio
navigational technique and chain is operated in VLF range of 10-14 KHZ.
4. DECCA: It is also hyperbolic system.
LORAN is pulsed system while DECCA &OMEGA are continuous system. While LORAN&DECCA are
hyperbolic system.
Radar beacons: Radar is small radar consisting of a receiver, a separate transmitter and an antenna which is
often ominidirectional. One of the functions of a beacon may be to identify itself This beacon may be
installed on target such as an aircraft and will transmits a specific code. This system is used in airport traffic
control and also for military purposes where it is called as Identification Friend or Foe. It is used for
1. Target identification 2. Navigation 3.Very significant extension of maximum range
Phased array: It is a group of antenna in which relative phases of respective signals feeding antenna are
varied in such a way that effective radiation pattern of array is reinforced in a desired direction and
suppressed in undesired direction. It is used in SONAR, optical communication&warship of several navies.
It is used for
1. Very fast scanning 2.scan&track together 3.can track many target together 4.complex circuit.
Distance measuring equipment: It is secondary radar used in aircraft.DME system consists of a pulse
transmitter and receiver in aircraft and pulse transmitter and receiver on earth station. The equipment in
aircraft is called the interrogator and equipment on ground is called as transponder. An important feature of
the transponder is that any aircraft fitted with interrogator equipment can measure its distance from
transponder.
Instrument Landing System: This instrument landing system provides the pilot information about his
position in relation to prescribed approach path continuously with the help of instrument on ground and in
the aircraft. This instrument must have 3 units
Localizer, glide-slope& marker beacons.
Ground Control Approach system: It is a high precision radar system located near the runaway of
airports. The radar system is used to bring the aircraft into approach zone and guide it along the correct path
of descent to a point very near to run away. GCA
Comprises of 2 radars one called surveillance Radar element and other called Precision Approach Radar.
Radomes: It is a sheltering structure for antennas which must be operated in severe weather conditions
Radomes must be mechanically strong and no interference with normal operation of antenna.
******Satellite communication*****
A communication satellite is basically a microwave link repeater between many transmitting stations and
many receiving stations. It receives by an earth station and returns to earth at a frequency of about 2 GHz
away .This prevents interference between the uplink and down link frequency. Communication satellites
have same angular velocity as the earth and so they appear to be stationed over one spot on globe. Frequency
of satellite is in the range of 1-10 GHz while for long distance frequency is in the range of 3-6 GHz. A
satellite in circular orbit 35800 km away from earth will complete a revolution in 24 hours as does the earth
below it and that is why it appears stationary.
Merits of satellite:
1. Satellite remains fixed in its position relative to earth
2. It requires a limited earth station antenna tracking
3. It is capable of providing continuous and uninterrupted communication over the desired area.
4. Satellite communications are unaffected by Doppler frequency shift.
Demerits of satellite:
1. A costly vehicle is required for launching
2. Regions near the north and south poles are not covered in communication range of satellite.
3. There is a time delay of about 300 m sec between a transmitted and received signal.
4. It requires increased EIRP as compared with low altitude system.
Working of satellite: Thus in geosynchronous satellite a message signal is transmitted from an earth station
via an uplink to a satellite amplified in transponder on board the satellite and then retransmitted from down
link to another earth station. For C-band
Frequency used are 6/4 GH z. For Ku band it is in the range of 14/12 GHz and for Ka band it is 31/21 GHz.
Typical signal received from geosynchronous satellite is of the order of pico-watt. Satellite use technique
concept of frequency reuse.
Round trip-delay: It is approximately 480 msec but if we calculate exact time then it is around 540 msec.
Different bands used in satellite:
Satellite uses C band and Ku-bands for satellite communication In C-band uplink frequency is from 5.925
GHz to 6.425 GHz and down link frequency is from 3.7GHz to 4.2GHz. So satellite bandwidth in C-band is
0.5GHz or 500 MHz.
In Ku-band transponder uplink frequency is form 14 to 14.5 GHz and down link frequency is from 11.7 to
12.2 GHz so band width is again 0.5 GHz or 500 MHz.
Why uplink has higher frequency than down link frequency:
High power uplink is transmitted to satellite and weak signal is received at ground station from satellite.
Noise picked up by down link frequency is lower than uplink frequency.
Down link weak signals can be easily amplified by earth station.
Advantages of 6/4 GHz:
1. Relative inexpensive microwave equipment.
2. Low attenuation due to rain fall
3. In significant sky back ground noise
6/4 GHz prefers over 14/12 GHz due to rain attenuation while by use of 14/12 GHz one can use small
component
Note: Satellite angle of elevation must be greater than 5 degree to prevent excessive signal attenuation
&noise in atmosphere.
Bandwidth of satellite: Satellite communication is a wide band RF repeater .Uplink transmission
frequencies employed range from 5.9 GHz to 6.4 GHz .In the satellite the signals are down converted to a
frequency range of 3.7 GHz to 4.2 GHz and retransmitted towards earth .So a bandwidth of 500 MHz is
required for satellite communication. The bandwidth of 500 MHz is often divide into 12 channels each of 40
MHz bandwidth .Each channel can be used for TV signal.
Frequency reuse in satellite:
The use of polarization to increase the available frequency bandwidth is to referred as frequency reuse.
It will also be observed that uplink signals in each group are polarized in the opposite sense to down
link signals. Right Hand Circular Polarization (RHCP) and LHCP may also be used in addition to vertical
and horizontal polarization which permits a further increase in frequency reuse.
Power sources for satellite: Power requirement of satellite are met by solar cells&storage batteries. .Solar
cell converts solar energy into electrical energy &these are capable of providing a power of 5 Kw while the
usual power requirement of power satellite is of the order of 1 Kw. The power from storage batteries is used
when satellite comes in the shadow zone of earth. No of days when earths shadow falls on geosynchronous
satellite is 88 days.
Telemetery&telecommand:
Telemetry is a system which gives information about satellite. When a partial parameter of a satellite
deviates from its signal value then a particular is sent and this is called telecommand.
Types of satellite:
1. Passive satellite: They dont have any type of equipments and dont use any kind of electrical
energy. They act only as reflectors in space for reflecting the signals transmitted from ground.
2. Active satellite: These satellites need power for operating these equipments which is derived from
sun in form of solar energy. The solar cells convert solar energy into electrical energy. Availability
of solar fuels decides life of a particular satellite.
Coverage of earth: Three satellites can cover the entires earth surface except small areas near south and
north poles but here condition is that minimum elevation angle required for earth station does not exceed 10
degree .For coverage of polar region Molina orbit is required which is highly eccentric.
So one satellite can cover 40% of earths satellite .Earth coverage satellite antennas from synchronous
altitude have a beam width of 17.3 degree.
Geostationary orbit (Clarke-orbit): An orbit in which a satellite appears stationary relative to any point on
the earth is called geostationary orbit. Here satellite is placed in an equatorial orbit of about 3600 km above
earth .This orbit is achieved by synchronizing the revolution of satellite around earth with the speed of
earths rotation about its own axis .
It is the orbit which remains stationary relative to earth. There is only one geostationary orbit but this is
occupied by a large number of satellite.
Requirement for geostationary orbit:
1. It must have zero inclination. Any other inclination would carry the satellite over some range of
latitudes and hence would not be geo stationary.
2. Second condition is that geostationary satellite should travel eastwards at the same rotational velocity as
the earth.
3. Orbit must be circular because velocity is constant.
4. The earth makes one complete rotation relative to fixed stars in approximately 23 h 56 min since it is
slightly less than the time required for one complete rotation about its own axis which is 24 hr.
5. Radius of geostationary orbit is 42164Km. The earths equatorial radius is approximately 6378Km and
hence the height of geostationary orbit above earth is h=42164-6378=35786 Km
Drift in position of satellite:
The gravitational field of moon and to a lesser extent that of sun causes a drift in angle of inclination which
amounts to be about 0.85 degree per year.
For satellite operating in C band (6/4 GHz) the drift must be kept must within 0.10 and for Ku band (14/12)
GHz satellites it must be within 0.050
Look angles in satellite:
To maximize transmission and reception the direction of maximum gain of the earth station antenna referred
to as antenna bore sight must point directly at the satellite.
To align the antenna in this way two angles must be known these are azimuth or angle measured from the
true north and the elevation or angle measured up from the local horizontal plane as shown in figure:
The azimuth and elevation angles are usually referred as the look angles. It is often necessary to know the
range of distance from the earth station to satellite.
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Mean radius of earth R= 6378Km

Radius of geostationary orbit: ageo 42164Km
Geosynchronous orbit: A satellite whose period of revolution equals to period of rotation of earth about its
axis. In this orbit a satellite has 24 hours non equatorial orbit.
Synchronous orbits are circular in nature. Life span of geosynchronous satellite is around 10 years. Radius
of geosynchronous orbit is 42250 km.
Note:
So geostationary orbit lies in equatorial orbit plane while orbital plane of geosynchronous is inclined to
equatorial plane. All geostationary orbits are geosynchronous but reverse is not true. Generally
communication satellites are not used in low orbit because they dont provide 24 hours time period.
Path loss in satellite:
Path loss (dB)=32.5+20logf+20logd where f is in MHz and d is distance and is in Km.
So if frequency is increased 2 times then path loss will be increased by 6 dB but if f is reduced 2 times then
path loss will be decreased by 6 dB.
Basic transmission loss for a satellite signal for uplink frequency of 6 GHz will be around 200 dB.
EIRP (Effective Isotropic Radiated Power):
EIRP=PT.GT PT is transmitted power and GT is gain of transmitted antenna.
Figure of merit:
F.O.M=G/T
where G is the gain of antenna and T is the total noise temperature.
F.O.M (dB) = G (dB)-10 logT
unit of FOM is in db/degree Kevin
Carrier to noise ratio:
C/N=EIRP+M-La+228.6 here C/N is in dB. M is figure of merit and La is path loss.
Apogee&perigee:
Maximum height of an elliptical orbit is called the apogee while minimum height of an elliptical orbit is
called perigee. Apogee is the point farthest from earth and perigee is the point of closest approach to earth.
Ascending node is the point where the orbit crosses the equatorial planes going from south to north.
Optical fiber:
Optical fibres are used for light and infrared transmission in a manner identical to waveguide at microwave
frequencies. Optical fibres are increasingly replacing wire. Optical fiber concept is extension of microwave
link. In fibre optic system a light carrier is modulated by information and the modulated light carrier is
carried through fiber. The main advantage of fibre optic is low loss and high data carrying capacity.
Basic Fibre optic system:
The optical fibre use light as the carrier of information. An optical fibre use light as the carrier of
information.It uses light as the carrier of information. In optical fibre a light carrier is modulated by the
information and the modulated light carrier is carried through a fibre.The main advantage of fibre optic
technologies are the low loss and high data carrying capacity.
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*****Optical fiber communication:******

A laser or light emitting diode generates a light beam .This light carrier is modulated by the digital
information to be carried then modulated signal is injected into a fiber optic cable.
The light rays bounce back and forth between the walls of fibre cable until they reach the receiving end of
fibre. At the receiving end a photo detector is used to translate the modulated beam back into an electrical
signal. So optical fibre is a medium in which voice, data or video is transmitted in form of light.
Propagation of optical fibre:
Total Internal Reflection forms the basis of light propagation through a optical fibre .This analysis consider
only meridional rays those that pass through the fibre axis each time they are reflected .Other rays called
skew rays travel down the fibre without passing through the axis .The path of a skew ray is typically helical
wrapping around the central axis. Fortunately skew rays are ignored in most fibre optics analysis.
Propagation of light through fibre depends upon:
1. The size of fibre
2. The composition of fibre
3. The light injected into the fibre
Sequence of transmission in optical fibre:
1. Information is encoded into electrical signal
2. Electrical signals are converted into light signals
3. Light travel down the fibre.
4. A detector changes the light signal into electrical signal
5. Electrical signals are decoded into information
Light source: It may be Light Emitting Diode (LED) or LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission).Laser is nearly perfect single optical frequency source .Radiation from Laser is due to stimulated
emission.
Photo detector: Photo detectors may be divided into photo emissive, photovoltaic or photo conductive type
they convert optical signals into electrical current. These may be Photodiode or Avalanche Photo Diode
(APD).
Responsivity:
Light wave receivers or detectors are the final device in our basic optical communication. These detectors
are usually low power, low noise PIN diodes coupled to a FET amplifier.
The main consideration in choice of detector is repsonsivity.
A Diode current
Repsonsivity=
W Incident light
Advantages of optical fibre communication:
1. Light weight
2. Larger information
3. Less space and easy installation
4. Immunity to interference
5. No capacitance &inductance information
6. Secure communication
7. Resistivity to temperature &environment changes
8. Cheaper cable
9. A single fiber can handle as many voice channels as 1500 pair cable.
Optical fibre construction: An optical fire consists of a central core and an outer cladding. The material of
core has higher index of refraction as compared to cladding. Light can propagate through an optical fibre by
total internal reflection and continuous refraction. Optical fibres that propagate light by TIR are most widely
used. Materials used for optical fibres are glass (fused silica) and plastic. Glass material has superior optical
quantities but is fragile and more expensive as compared to plastic. There are three varieties of optical fibre
available today.
1. Glass core with glass cladding
2. Glass core with plastic cladding
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3. Plastic core with plastic cladding

Glass fibres are more costly as compared to plastic fibres. Glass fibres propagate light more efficiently than
plastic. Glass fibres are used for high speed applications and also used for long transmission paths. Plastic
fibres are more flexible and rugged than flux.
Total internal reflection in optical fibre:
sin a n1
sin c
n
&
2
0
sin
1
sin 90
n1
sin cos c 1
but c 900
n2 2
n12
sin a n1 sin n12 n2 2

Numerical aperture: The Numerical Aperture is measure of light gathering ability of an optical fibre.
The fiber with a large numerical aperture accepts more light as compared to fibre with small numerical
aperture. The numerical aperture of a fibre is important because it gives an indication of how the fibre
accepts and propagates light. A fibre with a large numerical aperture accepts light well while fibre with a
low numerical aperture requires high directional light.
N . A n0 sin a n12 n2 2
Losses in fibers:
1. Rayleigh losses: These losses are induced because of this scattering effect vary inversely with the
fourth power of wavelength so that their effects are reduced to less than about 0.3dB per km at wave
length of 1.3 km.
2. Absorption losses: Ultraviolet absorption, infrared absorption and ion resonance absorption
contribute to absorption losses.
3. Ultraviolet absorption: Takes place because of pure fused silica, valance electrons can be ionized
into conduction electrons by light with a centre wavelength of about 0.14 micro meter.
4. Infrared absorption: It takes place because photons of light energy are absorbed by the atoms
within glass molecules and converted to the random mechanical vibrations typical of heating.
5. Ion resonance absorption: It takes place because photons of light energy are absorbed by the atoms
within the glass molecules and converted to the random mechanical vibrations typical of heating.
6. Bending losses: It occurs because small bends acts as scattering which cause mode coupling to
occur. Since micro-bends are randomly distributed over the length of fibre, losses resulting from
them will be randomly distributed and a total figure for a fibre can be obtained.
Types of fiber index:
The refractive index profile describes the relation between the indices of core& cladding.
It is of 2 types:
1. Step index 2.Greaded index
The step index fibre has a core with uniform index throughout the profile shows a sharp step at the junction
of core and cladding .In contrast the graded index has a non uniform core .The index is highest at centre and
gradually decreases until it matches with that of cladding. There is no sharp break in indices between core
and cladding.
13
Modes of propagation:
Modes are the various paths the light can take in travelling down the fiber. The light can travel in single
mode and multi mode. If there is only one path for light to take down the cable it is called a single mode.
If there are more than one path it is called multi mode. In single mode propagation the central core of fibre
is so small that there is only one path the light can take as it propagates down the fibre.
In multi mode propagation the central core is much larger and in this case the
Single mode
By this classification there are 3 types of fibres:

1. Multi mode step index fibre
2. Multi mode graded index fibre
3. Single mode step index fibre
Step index multi mode fibre:
This fibre is called step index because the refractive index changes abruptly from clad to core .The cladding
has a refractive index somewhat lower than the refractive index of core glass. The paths along which the
modes of this step index fibre travel differ depending on their angles relative to the axis. As a result the
different modes in a pulse will arrive at the far end of the fibre at different times resulting in pulse spreading
which limits the bit rate of a digital signal which can be transmitted.
Modal dispersion in step index fibre:
The multi mode step index has a fiber core of diameter from 100 to 970 micro meter. with this large core
diameter there are many paths through which light can travel(multi mode).Therefore the light ray travelling
the straight path through the centre reaches the end before the other rays. The difference in the length of time
it takes the various light rays to exist the fiber is called modal dispersion. This is a form of signal distortion
which limits the bandwidth of the fiber.
Graded index multi mode fibre:
This fibre is called graded index because there are many changes in the refractive index with larger values
towards the centre. As light travels faster in a lower index of refraction so the farther the light is from center
axis the greater is its speed. Graded index fibres have core diameter of 50, 62.5 or 85 micro meter and a
cladding diameter of 125 micro meter.
Modal dispersion in graded index fibre:
Since light travel faster through the lower index of refraction the light at the fiber core travels more slowly
than the light nearer the surface. Therefore both light rays arrive at the exits point at almost the same time.
Thus reducing modal dispersion. The graded index reduces model dispersion to 1ns/km or less.
The graded index fibre is used in application requiring a wide bandwidth and a low model dispersion. The
no of modes in fibre is about half that of step index fibre having the same diameter &Numerical aperture.
Step index single mode fibre:
Another way to reduce model dispersion is to reduce the cores diameter until the fibre only propogates one
mode efficiently. The single mode fibre has a small core diameter of only 5-10 micro meter. Standard
cladding diameter is 125 micro meter. Since the fibre carries only 1 mode so model dispersion does not
exist. So single mode fibre easily have a potential bandwidth of 50-100 GHz km .The core diameter is so
small that the splicing technique and measuring techniques are very difficult .One advantage of single mode
14
is that once they are installed the systems capacity can be increased. Single step index has a high critical
angle of 770 .
Single mode step index fibers are the most widely used in todays wide band communication. In this fiber a
light ray can travel on only one path therefore modal dispersion is zero.
Specification of single mode fiber:
1. The bandwidth is from 50 to 10 GHz/km
2. The digital communication rate is in excess of 2000Mbytes/sec
3. More than 100,000 voice channels are available
4. Light wavelength approach core diameter therefore high frequency capabilities are achieved
5. The Mode Field Diameter (MFD, spot size) is larger than core diameter.
Calculation of number of mode in a multi mode fiber:
The normalized frequency of cut-off (Also called cut-off parameter or V number) is useful for determining
how many modes a given fiber will support. It can be proved that
d
d
n12 n2 2
N .A
0
0
N . A Numerical aperture
d diameter of core
n1 R.I of core & n2 R.I of cladding
If the waveguide parameter V found is considerably larger than unity then the approximate number of modes
V2
which the fiber will support is given by: Number of modes
2
Numerical aperture& number of modes:
In general fibres with a high bandwidth have a lower numerical aperture. They thus allow
fewer modes means less dispersion and hence greater bandwidth. A larger numerical aperture promotes
more modal dispersion since more paths for the rays are provided numerical aperture although it can be
defined for a single mode fibre is essentially meaningless as a practical. NA ranges from 0.50 for plastic
to 0.21 for graded index fibers.
Window frequency in fibre:
Attenuation of fibre for optical power varies with wavelengths of light. Windows are low loss regions where
fibres carry light with little attenuation.
A narrow window is defined as the range of wavelengths at which a fibre best operates.
1. First window: 800-900 nm Wavelength=850nm
2. Second window: 1250-1350 nm Wavelength=1300 nm
3. Third window: 1500-1600 nm Wavelength=1550nm
Attenuation:
It is defined as the loss of optical power over a set distance a fibre with lower attenuation will allow more
power to reach a receiver than fibre with high attenuation.
Attenuation is of 2 types:
1. Extrinsic attenuation
2. Intrinsic attenuation
Intrinsic attenuation: It is loss due to inherent or within the fibre .It may occur as
1. Absorption: natural impurities in the glass absorb light energy
2. Scattering: light rays traveling in the core reflect from small imperfections into a new pathway that may
be lost through the cladding.
Extrinsic attenuation: It is lost due to external sources. It may occur as
1. Micro bending: The fibre is sharply bent so that the light traveling down the fibre cant make the turn
&is lost in cladding. It is due to small surface irregularities in the cladding causes light to be reflected at
angles where there is no further reflection.
15
2. Macro bending: Macro bending or small bends in fibre caused by crushing contraction etc. These bends
may not be visible with the naked eyes. It causes certain modes not to be reflected and therefore causes
losses to cladding.
Attenuation losses in optical fiber:
Attenuation is the loss of optical energy as it travels through the fiber. This loss is measured in decibels per
Km. These losses may vary from 300dB/Km for expensive fiber to as low 0.21 dB/Km for high quality
single mode fibers.
Dispersion:
It is the spreading of light pulse as it travels down the length of an optical fiber.
Dispersion limits the bandwidth or information capacity of a fibre. Dispersion is of 3 types.
1. Modal dispersion: It occurs only in modal dispersion
2. Material dispersion:
3. waveguide dispersion: It is most significant in single mode fibre.
OFC splicing:
Splices are permanent connection between two fibres .The splicing involves cutting of the edges of two
fibres to be spliced .The following 3 methods are used for splicing.
1. Adhesive bonding or glue splicing
2. Mechanical splicing
3. Fusion splicing
This technique is the most popular technique used for achieving very low splice losses.
Splice loss measurement is to be taken by an OTDR (Optical Time Domain Reflectometer)
16
*****wave propagation*****
Different modes of propagation for EM wave are:
1. Ground wave propagation (< 2MHZ)
2. Ionospheric wave propagation (2 30 MHZ)
3. Line of sight wave propogation (>30MHZ)
4. Tropospheric / Beyond the horizon (>300MHZ)
Ground wave propagation:
It is also known as medium wave propogation. It is generally used for broadcasting medium wave & long
wave. Ground wave propagation is a wave which is guided along earth as in case of a waveguide.
Ground wave propogation is produced by vertical antenna only (which is vertically polarized) because
horizontal component of EM wave will be short circuited and i.e. why horizontal antenna is not used.
Ground wave propagation cannot be used at a frequency which is greater than 2MHZ due to high
attenuation.
Sky wave propagation:
Ionosphere is made up of 4 layers D, E, F1 & F2. In night both D&E layers will disappear & F1 & F2 will
merge together. So at night only 1 layer F layer is present.
Concept of sky wave propagation:
Ionosphere has free electrons and ions. Due to EM wave dielectric constant will be reduced and it will cause
reflection of EM wave from ionosphere. If any wave which has a frequency greater than 30 MHZ will
penetrate ionosphere and transmit the ionosphere.
R.I= 1
Q.
81N
f2
Calculate the value of frequency at which an EM wave must be propagated through the D region
with an index of refraction of 0.5 and an electron density of 3.24 104 electrons / m3
Sol:
81N
81 3.24 104
0.5
f2
f2
f 1870.61Hz
Maximum Usable Frequency and Critical frequency:

Critical frequency is the highest frequency reflected by ionosphere at vertical incidence but it is not the
highest frequency for general angle of incidence.
Critical frequency f c 9 N max
Here Nmax is the maximum ionic density.
17
MUF f c sec i f c
D
1
2h
D Skip distance
h Virtual height
Skip distance is the minimum value of distance for a particular value of incident angle.
Fading: Fluctuation of signal strength at receiver end is called as fading. Fading occurs at high frequency
and can be overcome by:
1. Automatic volume control
2. Frequency density
3. Space density
Space wave propagation:
Radio- horizon = 4.12 ht km
where ht is in meter.
4
Radio horizon= Optical horizon
3
Distance between TX and RX antenna is
4.12 ht 4.12 hr Km
where ht & hr arein meter
Electric field at receiver antenna is

88 P ht hr
d 2
ER ht hr
ER
1
d2
Transpospheric scattering wave propagation:
It is used at VHF & UHF frequency range.
Super refraction or ducting:
ER
It is used in frequency range from (300 MHZ 30 GHZ)
18
*****Microwave*****
Microwave is the range of frequencies which lies between 1-300GHz. Microwaves are the wavelengths
which are measured in centimeter. Microwave is a signal which has wavelength less than 1Foot. Microwave
signal Contains UHF, SHF&EHF.
Important frequency range:
1. Medium wave: 300 KHz-3MHz.
2. Short wave:3MHz-30MHz
3. Very High Frequency:30MHz-300MHz
4. Ultra High Frequency:300MHz-3GHz
5. Super High Frequency:3GHz-30GHz
6. Extra High Frequency:30GHz-300GHz
Microwave frequency band:
1. L-band: (1-2 GHz)
2. S-band:(2-4 GHz)
3. C-band:(4-8GHz)
4. X-band:(8-12GHz)
5. Ku-band:(12-18GHz)
6. K-band:(18-27GHz)
7. Ka-band:(27-40GHz)
Advantages of microwave:
1. Ability to use high gain antenna
2. Ability to use high directive antenna
3. Greater privacy or secure communication
4. Increased value of bandwidth
Applications of microwave:
1. Used in telecommunication
2. Used in Radar
3. Used in Electronic Count Measure(ECM)
4. They are also used in industrial, scientific and medical field.
Microwave systems:
A microwave system normally consists of a transmitter subsystem, including a microwave oscillator,
waveguides, and a transmitting antenna, and a receiver subsystem that includes a receiving antenna,
transmission line or waveguide, a microwave amplifier, and a receiver.
Figure shows a typical microwave system.
In order to design a microwave system and conduct a proper test of it, an adequate knowledge of the
components involved is essential. Besides microwave devices, the text therefore describes microwave
components, such as resonators, cavities, microstrip lines, hybrids, and microwave integrated circuits.
19
Microwave measurement:
The quantities required to be measured in microwave circuits are frequency, power and impedance.
Microwave frequency measurement is done by slotted line, resonant cavities
And transfer oscillator. Microwave measurement uses bolometer and microwave power
meters. Microwave impedance measurement is done by measurement of reflection coefficient and
VSWR.slotted line and probe is a basic tool for these measurements.
Measurement of power:
1. Low power (0.01 mw-10mw): For low power measurement Bolometer or thermocouple method is used.
Concept of bolometer is based upon change of resistance with respect to power. If positive temperature
coefficient of resistance then Barretrs and for negative temperature coefficient of resistance thermistor is
used.
2. Medium power(10 mw-1w)&high power(>10w): For this power measurement
Calorimetric wattmeter method is used.
Measurement of VSWR:
1. Low value of VSWR(S<10): Instrument used for low value of VSWR is VSWR meter.
2. High value of VSWR(S>10): For high value of VSWR method used is double minima method.
Measurement of Impedance:
1. High value of Magic-T
2. By slotted line method
3. By reflectometer
Calculation of VSWR by reflectometer:
If Pi is the incident power and Pr is the reflected power in case of reflectometer then value of reflection
coefficient will be
1/2
K= (Pr/Pi)
Once value of reflection coefficient is known then one can calculate VSWR.
Wave meter:
It is a single cylindrical cavity .It uses a short circuit plunger which can change the resonance frequency of
cavity by changing its length. Most suitable mode for cylindrical
Cavity is TE011due to its higher value of quality factor.
Scattering parameter(S-Matrix):
At microwave frequency elements behave like distributed elements so measurement of voltage and current is
not possible and i.e. why impedance parameters are not possible
but at microwave frequency direct measurement of power is possible and i.e. why scattering matrix is
possible. These parameters are called scattering parameters because of multiple reflections at microwave
junction.
Properties of S-matrix:
1. It is a square matrix
2. It is a symmetric matrix
3. It is unitary matrix
20
Waveguide Corners, Bends, and Twists:

The waveguide corner, bend, and twist are shown in Figure. These waveguide components are normally
used to change the direction of the guide through an arbitrary angle.
Tee junctions:
In microwave circuits a waveguide or coaxial-line junction with three independent ports is commonly
referred to as a tee junction. From the S-parameter theory of a microwave junction it is evident that a tee
junction should be characterized by a matrix of third order containing nine elements, six of which should be
independent. The characteristics of a three-port junction can be explained by three theorems of the tee
junction. These theorems are derived from the equivalent-circuit representation of the tee junction. Their
statements follow:
1. A short circuit may always be placed in one of the arms of a three-pot junction in such a way that no
power can be transferred through the other two arms.
2. If the junction is symmetric about one of its arms, a short circuit can always be placed in that arm so that
no reflections occur in power transmission between the other two arms.
(That is the arms present matched impedances.)
It is impossible for a general three-port junction of arbitrary symmetry to present matched impedances at all
three arms
Waveguide junctions:
Waveguide junctions are used whenever it is desired to combine two or more signals into one or split a
signal into two or more components in a waveguide system. The commonly used waveguide junctions
include T junction and hybrid junctions .E-plane Tee junction and H-plane Tee junctions are the two popular
Tee junction. In E-plane Tee all the arms lie in plane of electric field while all the three arms of H-plane Tee
lie in plane of magnetic field.
H plane Tee:
1
H-PLAN TEE
It is formed by cutting a rectangular slot along the width of main waveguide. Here port 1 &2 are called
collinear ports while port-3 is called as H-arm or side arm. All three arms of H-plane T lie in plane of
magnetic field .It is also called as shunt-T or current junction.
A signal in H arm splits equally into coplanar arms. If lengths of coplanar arm are equal then output electric
fields are in phase. It is clear that power coming out of port 1 and port 2 is 3dB down or reduced to half with
respect to port-3.It is also called as 3dB splitter.
E plane Tee:
3
E-PLANE TEE
21
It is formed by cutting a rectangular slot along the broader dimension of main waveguide. Here port 1 &2
are called collinear ports while port-3 is called as E-arm .All three arms of E-plane T lie in plane of electric
field .It is also called as series -T or voltage junction.A signal in E arm splits equally into coplanar arms. If
the Tee is fed at port 3 and lengths of port 1 and port 2 are equal then electric fields at two outputs are 1800
out of phase. The power delivered at port 1 and ports 2 are equal. It is clear that power coming out of port 1
and port 2 is 3dB down or reduced to half with respect to port-3.It is also called as 3dB splitter.
The S-matrix for E-plane Tee is as follows.
Magic Tee: It is a four port device and is a combination of E-plane Tee and H-plane Tee. Ports 1 and port 2
are called coplanar arms .Port 3 is called as E-arm and port 4 is called as H-arm. The features of magic Tee
are
Ar
-3
m
Arm-1
Arm-2
1. All ports are perfectly matchedMAGIC-TEE

2. If a signal is fed at coplanar arms 1 or (2) it splits equally between E&H arms. At each output port
Pout=0.5Pin and Vout=0.707Vin.There will be no output at other coplanar arms 2or(1)
3. If a signal is fed in H-arm it splits equally between coplanar arms the outputs in coplanar arms being in
phase equidistant from junction. There will be no output at E port.
4. If a signal is fed in E-arm it splits equally between coplanar arms the output being 1800 out of phase
equidistant from junction.
The Magic Tee has a property that the arms 3 &4 are both individually connected to arms 1 and 2 i.e. arms 3
is connected to arm 1 and arm 2 and arm 4 is also connected to arms 1 and arm2 but they are not connected
to each other. One of the common applications of Magic tee is in the front end of a microwave receiver. In
this application the antenna and local oscillator may respectively feed arms 3 and arms 4 with mixer
connected to arm 2 and a matched termination to arm 1.
Applications of magic Tee:
1. Used as a mixer
2. Used as a duplexer
3. Used for impedance measurement
Directional coupler:
Wave guides directional couplers like transmission lines directional couplers are mainly used for
unidirectional power flow measurement and SWR measurement.
It is a 4 port device in which portions of forward and reverse traveling waves are separately coupled to two
of the ports. In simple terms it consists of two transmission lines and a mechanism for coupling signals
between them. Their features are
22
PORT-1
PORT-2
PORT-3
PORT-4
1. A portion of wave traveling from port 1 to port 2 is coupled to port 4 but not to port 3.
2. A portion of wave travelling from port 2 to port 1 is coupled to port 3but not to port 4 .
3. A portion of wave travelling from port 3 to port 4 is coupled to port 2 but not port 1.
4. A portion of wave travelling form port 4 to port 3 is coupled to port 1and not port 2.
Coupling factor:
It is the ratio of incident power to forwarded power
C=10log(P1/P4) Coupling factor measures of how much incident power is being sampled.
Directivity:
It is the ratio of forwarded power to backward power
D=10log (P4/P3) Directivity measures distinction between forward and reverse travelling wave power.
Isolation factor: It is the sum of both coupling factor and directivity.
Two-Hole Directional Couplers:
A two-hole directional coupler with traveling waves propagating in it is illustrated in Fig. 4-5-3. The spacing
between the centers of two holes must be
L (2n 1)
g
4
where n is any positive integer.

L = (2n + 1)
Primary
waveguide
Port 1
Port 2
Port 3 Canceled
Secondary
Added Port 4
waveguide
A fraction of wave energy entered into port 1 passes through the holes and is radiated into the secondary
guide as the holes act as slot antennas. The forward waves in the secondary guide are in the same phase,
regardless of the hole space, and are added at port 4. The backward waves in the secondary guide (waves are
progressing from right to left) are out of phase by (2L/g)2 rad and are canceled at port 3.
23
Microwave Circulators:
A microwave circulator is a multiport waveguide junction in which the wave can flow only from the nth port
to the (n + 1)th port in one direction .Although there is no restriction on the number of ports, the four-port
microwave circulator is the most common. One type of four-port microwave circulator is a combination of
two 3-dB side-hole directional couplers and a rectangular waveguide with two nonreciprocal phase shifters
as shown in Figure. Port 4
Coupler 1
Coupler 2
Primary guide
Phase shifter
Port 1
Port 3
Port 2
180
Port 1
90
90
270
Port 3
Phase shifter
Port 2
180
Port 4
90
Secondary guide
The operating principle of a typical microwave circulator can be analyzed with the aid of given Figure.
Each of the two 3-dB couplers in the circulator introduces a phase shift of 90, and each of the two phase
shifters produces a certain amount of phase change in a certain direction as indicated. When a wave is
incident to port 1, the wave is split into two components by coupler 1. The wave in the primary guide arrives
at port 2 with a relative phase change of 180. The second wave propagates through the two couplers and the
secondary guide and arrives at port 2 with a relative phase shift of 180. Since the two waves reaching port 2
are in phase, the power transmission is obtained from port 1 to port 2. However, the wave propagates
through the primary guide, phase shifter, and coupler 2 and arrives at port 4 with a phase change of 270.
The wave travels through coupler 1 and the secondary guide, and it arrives at port 4 with a phase shift of 90.
Since the two waves reaching port 4 are out of phase by 180, the power transmission from port 1 to pot 4 is
zero.
Circulators:
It is a 3port device and in this case signal is transmitted from port 1 to port 2(but not to port 3) from port 2
to port 3(but not port 1 ) and then from port 3 to port 1(but not port 2). S-matrix of a circulator is as follows
0
S
21
0
S13
S32
PORT-1
PORT-3
PORT-2
It is impossible to construct a perfectly matched lossless reciprocal 3 port junction. Circulators are used in
duplexer, parametric amplifier and tunnel diode.
Ferrite devices: A ferrite is a ceramic like material with relative permeability of several thousands and
specific resistance of about 1014 times that of metals. The chemical composition is manganese, oxygen and
ferrous etc. Ferrites are used in fabrication of microwave isolators, circulators and resonators etc.
24
Yitrium Iron Garnet (YIG) is a rare earth material having ferromagnetic properties but very low losses. It is
used in fabrication of microwave resonators and its resonance frequency can be changed by changing
magnetic field strength.
Gyrators: It is a device in which a relative phase difference f 1800 from port 1 to port 2 but no phase
difference from port 2 to port 1.
PORT-1
PORT-2
GYRATOR
Isolators: It is a 2 port non reciprocal device which provides a minimum attenuation to EM wave in one
direction and very high attenuation in opposite direction. Ferrite based isolators are of two types namely
Faraday rotation isolators used for powers up to a few hundred watts and resonant absorption isolators used
for higher powers.
SOURCE
ISOLATOR
LOAD
Microwave Isolators:
An isolator is a nonreciprocal transmission device that is used to isolate one component from reflections of
other components in the transmission line. An ideal isolator completely absorbs the power for propagation in
one direction and provides lossless transmission in the opposite direction. Thus the isolator is usually called
uniline. Isolators are generally used to improve the frequency stability of microwave generators, such as
klystrons and magnetrons, in which the reflection from the load affects the generating frequency. In such
cases, the isolator placed between the generator and load prevents the reflected power from the unmatched
load from returning to the generator. As a result, the isolator maintains the frequency stability of the
generator.
Isolators can be constructed in many ways. They can be made by terminating ports 3 and 4 of a four-port
circulator with matched loads. On the other hand, isolators can be made by inserting a ferrite rod along the
axis of a rectangular waveguide as shown in given Figure. The isolator here is a Faraday-rotation isolator. Its
operating principle can be explained as follows .The input resistive card is in the y-z plane, and the output
resistive card is displaced 45 with respect to the input card. The dc magnetic field, which is applied
longitudinally to the ferrite rod, rotates the wave plane of polarization by 45. The degrees of rotation
depend on the length and diameter of the rod and on the applied dc magnetic field. An input TE10 dominant
mode is incident to the left end of the isolator. Since the TE10 mode wave is perpendicular to the input
resistive card, the wave passes through the ferrite rod without attenuation. The wave in the ferrite rod section
is rotated clockwise by 45 and is normal to the output resistive card. As a result of rotation, the wave arrives
at the output
25
Microwave amplifiers and oscillators:

Microwave devices:
These devices are used for high power and high frequency. These devices can be categorized as follows.
1. Cross field devices: Example is magnetron which is a high power oscillator.
2. Velocity modulated devices: examples are 2-cavity klystron, multi cavity klystron and reflex klystron. In
which 2 cavity and multi cavity are amplifiers while reflex klystron is Oscillator.
3. Traveling wave tubes: It is a broad band amplifier. It can be categorized into helix and coupled cavity
type of TWTs
O-type tubes (linear beam tubes): These are linear beam tubes. Examples are TWT and klystron type of
tubes.O-type tubes can be categorized into 3 types
1. Cavity type: Klystron is an example of it.
2. Slow-wave structure: TWT is an example of it. It is of 2 types forward wave and backward wave. In
forward it behaves like an amplifier while in backward it behaves like an oscillator.
3. Hybrid tubes: It is combination of TWT and klystron
M-type tubes (cross field device): Here magnetic field is perpendicular. It is again of 2 types
1. Resonant structure: Magnetron is the best example of resonant structure
2. Non resonant structure:
1. FW-CFA:
2. FW-CFO: Dematron
3 .BW-CFA: Amplitron
4 .BW-CFO: Carcinotron
Comparision of O-type and M-tube:
1. In O-type energy conversion is from kinetic energy to radio frequency energy but in case of M-type it is
from potential energy to radiofrequency energy.
2. In O-type E&H fields are parallel to direction of electron flow and H is used for focusing while in case
of M-type E&H are perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular to direction of propagation.
3. In O type analyses is easy while in M type it is difficult
4. O type has low value of gain but M-type has moderate gain
5. O type has moderate efficiency and moderate output while M type has high efficiency and high output.
6. In O type noise is low but in M type it is high.
Microwave triodes:
Oscillator circuits using vacuum tubes have the following limitations at very high frequencies or microwave
frequencies.
1. The stray capacitances and inductances become important and affect the operation of the circuit.
2. At low frequencies the transit time between cathode and anode is a small fraction of period of
oscillation. However at microwave frequencies this transit time becomes comparable to time period of
oscillations.
If a vacuum tube a triode for instance is to be used at microwave frequencies the internal capacitances and
inductances must be reduced and transit time must be minimized.
Problems due to transit time effect:
1. There is problem in design
26
2. More power is absorbed or grid loss is increased

3. Effect of noise will be increased
Solution to overcome transit time effect:
1. Both electrodes are brought close together
2. Voltage is increased at anode
3. Higher anode current is used.
Two-cavity klystron:
Two cavity klystron tubes make use of transit time effect for this operation. A high velocity electron beam is
produced by oxide coated indirectly heated cathode and is focused and accelerated by focusing electrode.
This beam is transmitted through a glass tube. The beam passes a gap in the buncher cavity. The RF signal
to be amplified is applied to buncher cavity. As electrons move ahead they see an accelerating field for half
cycles and retarding field for the other half cycle. Therefore some electrons are accelerated and some are
retarded. This process is called velocity modulation. The velocity modulation causes bunching of electrons.
This bunching effect converts velocity modulation into density modulation of beam.
Buncher
cavity
Catcher
cavity
Input
Cathode
Output
.. . . ...... . .... .... ............ .... .... ...... ...................... .. . . ...... . .... .... ............ .... .... .............. ............. ........
........................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................................ ...................................
.. . . .. .. . . . ... ... . . .
........... .. . . .. .. . . . ... ... . . . ......... ..... . . ..
Collector
Drift space
Note:
The beam is allowed to drift freely till it reaches another gap in the catcher cavity. Oscillations are excited in
the catcher cavity the power of these oscillations is much higher than that in buncher cavity. The drift space
is pretty long and transit time in this space is made use of to form electron bunches as shown. The gaps must
be so small that the voltage across them does not change significantly during the passage of a bunch of
electrons.
Different modulations in 2-cavity klystron:
1. Velocity modulation in buncher cavity
2. Density modulation in drift space
3. Current modulation in catcher cavity
Bunching is not complete in 2 cavity klystron so gain value will be very low.
Efficiency of 2 cavity klystron:
Maximum efficiency of 2 cavity klystron is 58% but in general case this value is 15-30%.
Oscillations in 2 cavity klystron:
If a portion of signal in a catcher cavity is coupled back to buncher cavity then oscillations will take place
but condition is that feedback of output to input cavity must be in proper phase and it must have correct
polarity and sufficient amplitude.
Multi-cavity klystron:
27
To improve efficiency and power gain of 2 cavity klystron extra cavities are used and up to 7 cavities can be
used. In case of multi cavity klystron each intermediate cavity is placed at a distance of 1.841 away from
previous cavity and this will increase velocity modulation. Here each intermediate cavity is buncher cavity.
If intermediate cavities are tuned to same frequency (Synchronous tunning) then gain and efficiency will
increase but not the bandwidth. If cavities are tuned to different frequency (Stagger tunning) then other than
gain and efficiency bandwidth is also increased.
Important features of multi cavity:
1. Frequency range: 0.25GHz to 100GHz
2. Power output: 10kw to several hundred KW
3. Power gain: 60dB
4. Efficiency: about 40%
Reflex klystron:
It is a klystron like microwave tube with only one cavity (which can be used as both buncher and catcher
cavity) and a repeller electrode. Its parts are electron gun, resonator, repeller and output coupling. This
operates on the principle of positive feedback. The repeller electrode with a very high negative potential
provides the feedback and converts tube into oscillator. Reflex klystron is a low efficiency low power
microwave oscillator.
It has small electron gun compared to multi cavity because device is short and does not require focusing.
Focussing
electrode
Output
Electron beam
Repeller
.. . .. ...... . .... .... .............. .... ............. . .. ...... . .... .... ..............
...............................................................................................................................................................
. . . .. . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . ...
Cavity (Anode)
Operation of reflex klystron:

Here electrons never reach the repeller because it has a high negative voltage and after covering some
distance electrons will be turned back. If voltages are properly chosen
then returning electrons will give more energy to gap than it took from gap in onward journey and
continuous oscillation will take place. Here the positive voltage on the anode and negative voltage on the
repeller electrode are critical to operation and need to be carefully adjusted and also need to be highly
regulated.
Transit time in reflex klystron:
If energy delivered by bunching electrons to cavity in returning energy is greater than energy loss in cavity
then cavity can sustain oscillations at resonance frequency of cavity
So optimum transit time for bunches to arrive at cavity is n+3/4 cycles after beam initially left the cavity.
Different values of n will give different modes. These modes in a reflex klystron give same frequency but
different transit times.
28
Specification of reflex klystron:

1. Operating frequency is 4-200 GHz
2. Output power is 100mw.
3. Maximum efficiency is 22.7% but for low power oscillations it is in range of 10%
4. Reflex klystron is preferred to 2 cavity klystron because reflex klystron is easier to tune than 2-cavity
klystron.
Applications of reflex klystron:
1. Signal source in microwave generator
2. Local oscillator in microwave receiver
3. Pump oscillator for parametric amplifier.
4. Included in radar receiver
Travelling wave tube:
A travelling wave is basically a microwave amplifier like a klystron. This is a linear beam amplifier, has
high value of bandwidth &gain and also has low noise figure. However it is different from klystron in sense
that interaction between electron beam and RF field is continuous. In klystron the resonant structure limits
the bandwidth but TWT provides large value of bandwidth and can be used as a medium or high power
pulsed or CW microwave amplifier.
Input
guide
Output
guide
Attenuator
Magnetic
field
.. . . ...... . .... .... .. ....... .. ... ..... . ... . .... .
.................................................. ........ ....................... .......... ........
.. . . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .
.
.
.
.
......
........................................................... ...... ................. ...................
... . ..... ... . ............ ... . ........
................................................. ....
Helix
Glass
tube
Electron
beam
........................
.
.......... .................
..... ..........
.........
. ..
Collector
Types of slow wave structure:

1. Helix: It has non resonant structure and can provide large value of bandwidth. But at high frequency and
high power performance of helix is reduced.
2. Coupled cavity: It is used for high power and high frequency but it is limited up to 100GHz Only.
3. Ring bar: This is used for frequency more than 100GHz.
Focusing in TWT: Focusing of electron beam is done with the help of
1. Permanent magnet
2. Electro magnet
3. Solenoid
4. Periodic permanent magnet
In general case periodic permanent magnet is used to reduce the bulk of permanent magnet.
29
Attenuators in TWT:
In case of TWT gain is increased continuously and due to continuous bunching there may be chance of
oscillations and thats why there is need of attenuator to reduce gain and prevent oscillations. The attenuator
may be lossy metallic coating and kanthal&aquadag.
Operation of Travelling Wave Tube amplifier:
A narrow electron beam is sent through the centre of a long axial helix which is made positive with respect
to cathode. The collector is made more positive with respect to helix. The beam acquires a high velocity.
The RF signal is applied to input end of helix this field propagates around the helix with a speed equal to
velocity of light in free space. The axial velocity of this electric field is however equal to velocity of light
multiplied by ratio of helix pitch to circumference. The axial velocity can be made equal to electron beam
velocity. The axial RF field and the electron beam interact continuously
The electron beam bunching gives energy to the field. The interaction between the beam and RF field is
similar to that of magnetron.TWT is preferred to magnetron for use in Radar transmitter because it is
capable of longer duty cycle.
Why high value of gain in TWT:
Here RF field and electron beam interact continuously and gives almost complete bunching and which will
give high value of gain.
Backward wave amplifier: It is similar to TWT but only difference is that position of output and inputs are
interchanged. But bandwidth of backward amplifier is less than TWT.
Backward oscillator: This oscillator is obtained by BWA by some modification.
BWO is based upon TWT.
Twystron: It is combination of both TWT and Klystron and generally at input side
multi-cavity klystron is used and output side TWT is used.
Magnetron:
1. It is a cross field amplifier.
2. It is a high power amplifier
3. It has high efficiency
Concept of magnetron:
If a magnetic field is zero then all electrons will move from cathode to anode but if certain value of magnetic
field is applied then electrons will not reach at the anode.
But if a magnetic field greater than cut-off magnetic field is applied then all electrons will come back at
cathode forming a cloud known as Brillioun cloud. In case of magnetron permanent magnets are used to
Anode
ensure that electrons will orbit around the cathode.
cavities
Cathode
Output
Interaction
space
Gaps
30
Mode jumping: Magnetron acts as a transmission line filter in which various modes differ very little in
frequency from each other so due to nearness of frequency one mode will jump to another mode. Strapping
is used to avoid mode jumping and by use of strapping separation between frequency of two modes become
25-30%.It means wires are connected in magnetron.
Rising sun magnetron: No of modes in this magnetron are same as strapped magnetron but here half no of
modes are resonant at a frequency above mode and other half are resonant at a frequency above mode.
But in case of strapped magnetron all modes are resonant below mode. In case of rising sun magnetron
frequency separation is increased.
Tunnel Diode:
Tunnel diode is a voltage controllable negative resistance device having V-I characteristics expressed by
single valued function of voltage negative resistance differential resistance. It can behaves like an oscillator
or amplifier in microwave band. In this output power is very low and is of the order of mill watt .In this case
doping value is very high and generally 1000 times higher than normal diode. Tunnel diode has high speed,
low power operation, low weight and low value of noise. Materials used for tunnel diode is Ge,Si,GaAs and
GaSb. But generally used materials are Ge not Si because Si has higher value of noise, high forbidden gap
and low mobility.
Applications of tunnel diode:
1. Used for microwave amplifications
2. Used for high speed switching
3. Used as low noise amplifier and mixer
4. Due to high speed device and high speed switching logic it is used for binary memory.
5. They are used as moderate to low noise preamplifiers in all kinds of microwave receivers up to a
frequency range of 50GHz.
Backward diode: If tunnel diode works in Reverse bias with large value of reverse current then these types
of diode are called as backward diodes. But for higher values of reverse bias there will be zener break down.
Varactor diode: This diodes work in reverse bias and value of capacitance decreases with increase in
reverse bias voltage. This is also known as voltage variable capacitor.
Varactor diode is used for frequency multiplication due to variation of its capacitor.
Application of varactor diodes are in electronic tuning and parametric amplifier.
Most important application of varactor diode is in frequency multiplication and can never be used for
frequency oscillation within the useful operating region the varactor diode is equivalent to capacitance in
series with a resistance at high frequency. The high frequency cut-off is used as the figure of merit for
varactors.
Step recovery diode: It is similar in construction to varactor diode. It stores charge however when it is
conducting with a forward bias and it generates a current pulse rich in harmonics when it is made to
discharge by applying a reverse bias. It works like varactor diode and is used for frequency multiplication
but with higher value of factor than varactor diode. Varactor diodes are used at very high frequency while
step recovery at lower than varactor diode. It is also known as snap-off varactor.
31
Gunn-diode:
Transferred Electron Effect (TED) (Gunn Effect):
If sufficient voltage is applied across material like GaAs, InP,CdTl&InAs then electrons will acquire higher
value of energy and will transfer to higher energy band form lower energy band .This will result decrease in
mobility i.e. value of current is decreased by increasing voltage and shows negative resistance phenomenon.
This effect occurs in N-type material only.
RIDLEYWATKINSHILSUM (RWH) THEORY
Differential Negative Resistance
The fundamental concept of the RidleyWatkinsHilsum (RWH) theory is the differential negative
resistance developed in a bulk solid-state III-V compound when either a voltage (or electric field) or a
J
current is applied to the terminals of the sample. There are two modes of negative-resistance devices:
voltage-controlled and current-controlled modes as shown in given figures.
In the voltage-controlled mode the current density can be multivalued, whereas in the current-controlled
mode the voltage can be multivalued. The major effect of the appearance of a differential negative-resistance
region in the current-density-field curve is to render the sample electrically unstable. As a result, the initially
homogeneous sample becomes electrically heterogeneous in an attempt to reach stability. In the voltagecontrolled negative-resistance mode high-field domains are formed, separating two low-field regions. The
interfaces separating low and high-field domains lie along equipotentials thus they are in planes
perpendicular to the current direction as shown in Fig-1 below In the current-controlled negative-resistance
mode splitting the sample results in high-current filaments running along the field direction as shown in
Fig-2 below.
High field
High field
Low field
Low field
Expressed mathematically, the negative resistance of the sample at a particular region is

dI dJ
= negative resistance
dV dE
If an electric field E0 (or voltage V0) is applied to the sample, for example, the current density J0 is
generated. As the applied field (or voltage) is increased to E2 (or V2), the current density is decreased to J2.
When the field (or voltage) is decreased to E1 (or V1), the current density is increased to J1. These
phenomena of the voltage-controlled negative resistance are shown in Fig-1 Similarly for the currentcontrolled mode the negative-resistance profile is as shown in Fig-2.
32
J1
J1
J0
J2
J0
J2
E1 E0 E2
E1
E0
E2
Two-Valley Model Theory

According to the energy band theory of the n-type GaAs, a high-mobility lower valley is separated by an
energy of 0.36 eV from a low-mobility upper valley as shown in Figure below.
Upper valley
Lower valley
Conduction
band
Forbidden
band
Eg = 1.43 eV
Valley
Valence
band
Data for two valleys in GaAs:
Effective Mass
Me
Lower
Upper
< 100 >
Mobility
Separation
M e = 0.068
8000 cm 2 /V-sec
E = 0.36 eV
M eu 1.2
u 180 cm2 /V-sec
E = 0.36 eV
The data for the two valleys in the n-type GaAs and Table shows the data for two-valley semiconductors.
Electron densities in the lower and upper valleys remain the same under an equilibrium condition. When the
applied electric field is lower than the electric field of the lower valley (E < E ), no electrons will transfer to
the upper valley as shown in Fig-a when the applied electric field is higher than that of the lower valley and
lower than that of the upper valley ( E E Eu ), electrons will begin to transfer to the upper valley as
shown in Fig-(b). And when the applied electric field is higher than that of the upper valley (Eu < E), all
electrons will transfer to the upper valley as shown in Fig-(c)
E
0
K
0
K
(a) E < EQ
(b) EQ < E < Eu
Data for two-valley semiconductors:
(c) Eu < E
33
Gap energy
(at 300K)
Eg(eV)
Separation energy
between two valleys
Ge
GaAs
InP
0.80
1.43
1.33
CdTe
InAs
InSb
1.44
0.33
0.16
0.18
0.36
0.60
0.80
0.51
1.28
0.41
Semiconductor
E(eV)
Threshold
field
Eth(KV/cm)
Peak velocity
2.3
3.2
10.5
1.4
2.2
2/5
13.0
1.60
0.6
1.5
3.6
5.0
p(107 cm/s)
If electron densities in the lower and upper valleys are n and nu, the conductivity of the n-type GaAs is
e( n u u )
where e = the electron charge
= the electron mobility
n = n + nu is the electron density
Gunn diode: A Gunn diode uses GaAs which has a negative differential mobility i.e. a decrease in carrier
mobility with increase in electric field. The impedance of Gunn diode is tens of ohms. The Gunn effect is
instrumental in generation of microwave oscillations.
This diode differs from the other semiconductor diodes in the sense that they depend for their operation on
bulk properties of the semiconductor rather than their junction properties. It is also a negative resistance
device. Here negative resistance is due to electron transfer to a less mobile energy band. The Two-valley
method is used for analysis of Gunn diode.
Modes of operation in Gunn diode:
Since Gunn first announced his observation of microwave oscillation in the n-type GaAs and n-type InP
diodes, various modes of operation have been developed, depending on the material parameters and
operating conditions. As noted, the formation of strong space-charge instability depends on the conditions
that enough charge is available in the crystal and that the specimen is long enough so that the necessary
amount of space charge can be built up within the transit time of the electrons.
This requirement sets up a criterion for the various modes of operation of bulk negative-differentialresistance devices. Copeland proposed four basic modes of operation of uniformly doped bulk diodes with
low-resistance contacts.
Gunn oscillation mode: This mode is defined in the region where the product of frequency multiplied by
length is about 107 cm/s and the product of doping multiplied by length is greater than 1012/cm2. In this
region the device is unstable because of the cyclic formation of either the accumulation layer or the highfield domain. In a circuit with relatively low impedance the device operates in the high-field domain mode
and the frequency of oscillation is near the intrinsic frequency. When the device is operated in a relatively
high-Q cavity and coupled properly to the load, the domain is quenched or delayed (or both) before
nucleating. In this case, the oscillation frequency is almost entirely determined by the resonant frequency of
the cavity and has a value of several times the intrinsic frequency.
34
1. Stable amplification mode: This mode is defined in the region where the product of frequency times
length is about 107 cm/s and the product of doping times length is between 1011 and 1012/cm2.
2. LSA oscillation mode: This mode is defined in the region where the product of frequency times length is
above 107 cm/s and the quotient of doping divided by frequency is between 2 104 and 2 105.It has
advantage that operating frequency is not limited by transit time effect .So sample length can be made
longer and device can sustain higher voltage and higher power dissipation.LSA mode is preferred when
high output power is necessary at high frequency but this mode is generally not used for frequency
greater than 20GHz.
3. Bias-circuit oscillation mode: This mode occurs only when there is either Gunn or LSA oscillation, and
it is usually at the region where the product of frequency times length is too small to appear in the figure.
When a bulk diode is biased to threshold, the average current suddenly drops as Gunn oscillation begins.
The drop in current at the threshold can lead to oscillations in the bias circuit that are typically 1 kHz to
100 MHz.
Applications of Gunn diode:
1. It is used in continuous wave radar
2. It is used in pulsed radar
3. It is used in microwave receivers
4. It is used as pump oscillator and can be used as broad band amplifier
5. It can be used as medium power oscillator
Frequency of oscillation in Gunn diode:
Frequency of oscillation of Gunn diode is
f=vd/L
Here Vd is drift velocity and L is effective length of diode.
IMPATT diode :( Impact Ionization Avalanche Transit Time)
IMPATT diodes dont depend for their operation on the junction properties. It exhibits negative resistance
which may be defined as the voltage across diode being 1800out of phase with the current flowing through
it. First delay is involved in generating avalanche multiplication which gives 900 phase shift and second
delay is due to transit time through drift space which gives another 900 phase shift.
Materials for IMPATT:
IMPATT diodes are made from Silicon or GaAs or even Indium Phosphide .Silicon IMPATT diodes can be
used in excess of 200GHz.IMPATT diodes are used as microwave amplifiers and oscillators.
Important features of IMPATT:
1. The impedance of IMPATT diode is a few ohms
2. Frequency of IMPATT is from 1GHz-300GHz
3. Power output is in the range of 0.5W to 5W for single diode circuit.
4. Efficiency is around 20%.
5. Frequency of oscillation for IMPATT is f=vd/2L
Where f is the frequency of oscillation and vd is drift velocity and L is the length of active region.
35
Limitation of IMPATT:
The noise is the biggest problem with these diodes. The noisy performance arises from the avalanche
process where the high operating current generates shot noise. When used as amplifiers they produce noise
figures of the order of 30dB.IMPATT oscillators are not as good as klystrons or Gunn diodes. IMPATT
diodes are more efficient and more powerful than Gunn diode but due to noise problem they are not able to
replace Gunn diodes.
So IMPATT diodes are known as narrow band device while Gunn diodes are broadband devices.
Applications of IMPATT diodes:
1. Police radar system
2. Low power microwave transmitter
TRAPATT Diode :( Trapped Plasma Avalanche Triggered Transit)
TRAPATT diode is very similar to an Impatt diode and is only a different method of operating the Impatt
diode. It is also a negative resistance device capable of producing high pulse microwave powers at relatively
low frequencies.
Specifications of TRAPATT:
1. Frequency 3-50GHz
2. Power output 1-3 watt
3. Efficiency of about 25%
Applications of TRAPATT:
1. Low power Doppler radar
2. Microwave beacon landing system
3. TRAPATT behaves like class-C and i.e. why used for pulsed operation.
BARITT diode:
It is Barrier Injected Transit time diode and is less noisy than IMPATT.
PIN Diode:
A PIN diode has an intrinsic layer (i) between P and N layers. The effective width of depletion layer
increases by the width of intrinsic layer .It can be used as a voltage controlled attenuator. This PIN diode is
used for high frequency switching circuits, limiters and modulators etc.
MESFET:
It is a field effect transistor for microwave frequencies It is fabricated in GaAs and uses a metal
semiconductor schottky junction for the gate contact .It is a low noise amplifier
and is used in high frequency logic circuits.
Parametric amplifier:
Parametric amplifiers are used for low noise amplification at microwave frequency.
It is a low noise amplifier as it does not involve any resistance in amplifying process.
It makes use of a device whose reactance is varied in such a manner so to yield amplification. Varactors are
commonly used as the active devices.
Difference b/w parametric&normal amplifier:
A conventional amplifier depends for its amplification process on a variable resistance (which is the
collector resistance in transistor amplifier) and DC power supply.
36
The parametric amplifier uses a variable reactance and an AC power supply. The reactance is varied at a
frequency called the pump frequency.
Concepts of parametric amplifier:
Amplification is obtained by electronically variation of reactance in some predetermined fashion at some
frequency higher than frequency of signal being amplified. Here energy
is taken from pump source and is added to signal at signal frequency and will result in amplification.
Power gain in parametric amplifier:
If fp and fs are pump frequency and signal frequency then
Power gain of up-convertor= ( fp+ fs)/ (fs): If the pump frequency is much higher than
Signal frequency then configuration is called an Up-convertor.
Power gain of down-convertor= ( fs)/ (fs+ fp): If the pump frequency is only slightly higher so that the idler
frequency is less than signal frequency a down convertor results.
Degenerate modes:
If fp= 2fs then modes will be degenerate modes. But if pump frequency is other than twice the signal
frequency the two signals beat and a difference signal called the idler frequency appears. It may be noted
that there is no requirement of pump frequency to be a multiple of signal frequency in a non degenerate
parametric amplifier.
Applications of parametric amplifier:
1. Radar tracking
2. Communication
3. Earth satellite station
MASER:
Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
This provides extremely low noise microwave amplification. The basic principle of operation of a MASER
is as following:
Certain materials have atomic systems that can be made to resonate magnetically at frequencies depending
upon the atomic structure of material and the applied strength magnetic field. Resonant absorption takes
place when such a resonance is stimulated by an external signal at that frequency. If the material is suitably
excited or pumped from another source emission will occur.
The materials used could be gaseous such as Ammonia or solid state such as Ruby.
Ruby Maser is the more practical maser amplifier .Noise figures of a fraction of a dB are common in masers.
Strip-lines and micro-strip lines
Strip lines and Micro strips are also conducting media developed as an alternate to waveguide for
applications that require miniaturization. Striplines evolved from a coaxial line and propagation in a strip
line is by means of a TEM mode. Microstrip is analogous to parallel wire line .Semiconductor microwave
devices are often packaged so that they can be directly connected to a strip line or a microstrip. In recent
years with the introduction of Monolithic Microwave Integrated circuits(MMICS) microstrip lines and
coplanar strip lines have been used extensively because they provide one free and accessible surface over
which solid state device can be placed.
37
Important points about Microstrip lines:

1. It is also called as open strip line
2. Modes on microstrip lines are only Quasi Transverse Electric and Magnetic(TEM)
3. Radiation loss is a problem in case of micro-strip line particularly at such discontinuities as short
circuited posts ,corners and so on
4. By use of thin high dielectric material radiation loss of open strip line is reduced
Comparison of Microstrip and strip line:
1. Microstrip has advantage over strip line that it is simpler in construction and easier integration with
semiconductor devices
2. There is a greater tendency with microstrip to radiate from irregularities and sharp corners.
3. There is a lower isolation between adjoining circuits in microstrip than strip line
4. Both Q and power handling are lower with microstrip line.
Comparision of strip line and wave guide:
1. Advantages of strip line over wave guide are reduced bulk and greater bandwidth
2. Another advantage of strip line over wave guide is greater compatibility for integration with microwave
devices.
3. But strip line has greater losses, lower Q and lower power handling capability than wave guides.
4. Another disadvantage of strip-line and consequently of microstrip is that components made of it are not
readily adjustable.
Modes in strip line and microstrip line:
In case of strip line mode is purely TEM while for microstrip line mode is quasi TEM.
38
*****EDC and Analog circuit*****

Semiconductor diodes:
PN Junction:
If donor impurities are introduced into one side and acceptors into other side of a single crystal of a
semiconductor then P-N Junction is formed. Here donor ion is represented by a plus sign because after this
process impurity atom donates an electron& it becomes a positive ion. Here acceptor ion is indicated by a
minus sign because after this process atom accepts an electron& it becomes a negative ion.
Donorions
Acceptor
ions
Electrons
Hole
P-Type
N-Type
The uncircled charges on each side of junction represents the free carriers ie. plus sign on the p-side
represents free holes and minus sign on the n-side represents free electrons. The charges shown in circles
represent ionized impurities which cannot move
Formation of depletion layer:
Due to density gradient across the junction holes will diffuse to right across the junction and electrons to
left. Positive holes which diffuse across the junction will disappear as a result of recombination with
electrons. Similarly electrons will also recombine with holes after crossing the boundary.
The un-neutralized ions in the neighborhood of the junctions are referred as uncovered charges.
Since the region of junction is depleted of mobile charges it is called depletion region, the space charge
region or transition region.
Thickness of this region is of the order of visible light (0.5 m). within this very narrow space charge layers
there are no mobile carriers. when a sufficient number of donar & acceptor are uncovered then further
diffusion is stopped. It is because a barrier is setup against further movement of charge carriers. This is
called potential barrier or junction barrier. The potential barrier is of the order of 0.1 0.3 volt.
Depletion region:
P Type
N Type
Concentration of
acceptors
Concentration of holes
VB
x1
x2
39
The region across P-N junction in which potential changes from positive to negative is called depletion
region. The width of region is of the order of 108 meter. Since this region has immobile ions which are
electrically charged and it is called as space charge region.
This potential barrier discourages the diffusion of majority carrier across junction, but this potential barrier
helps minority carriers to drift across the junction.
Open circuited P-N junction:
No electric current can flow because no electric field is applied, and circuit is open circuited
P-Type
qv0
N-Type
Both P type and N type samples are at different positions with respect to band edges. But for thermal
equilibrium Fermi-level must be at same level.
When a P-N junction is formed Fermi level in N-Type is at higher level than in P-Type. Due to this
difference electrons will flow from material which has a higher Fermi-level to a material which has lower
Fermi-level until they attain a common level.
Conduction band of P-Type is shifted upward by qV0 over conduction band of N-Type. Where V0 is the
potential barrier developed across the junction.
Q. Although a potential barrier V0 exists at the P-N junction a voltmeter connected across P-N
junction will not read this why?
The reason is as follows:
If this is possible then let us assume that a current flows due to barrier voltage in a short circuit P-N Junction
diode. This current will heat the connecting metal wire. Since there is no external source of energy the
heating of wire must take place with a simultaneous cooling of P-N Junction diode. But under thermal
equilibrium this situation cant exist. Hence we conclude that current through the circuit is zero. This means
that barrier voltage must be balanced by metal to Semiconductor contact potentials at the ends of diode. A
voltmeter connected to terminals of diode shows zero voltage readings.
Application of voltage across a P-N junction:
V0
There are no free or mobile charge carriers in depletion layer. But it contains only immobile positive and
negative ions. A barrier potential is developed across depletion layer represented by symbol V0. The value of
V0 for Ge is 0.3 volt and value for Si is 0.7 volt. It has been observed that there is no diffusion of electrons
or holes across the junction due to barrier potential, unless an external field is established across the P-N
junction.
40
Forward biased P-N junction diode:

When an external voltage is applied to P-N junction in such a direction that it cancels the potential barrier
and permits the current flow is called as forward bias.
To apply a forward bias positive terminal of a battery is connected to P-type Semiconductor while negative
terminal is connected to N-Type Semiconductor. The applied forward potential establishes an electric field
opposite to potential barrier. Potential barrier is very small (0.3V for Ge and 0.7 V for Si) therefore a small
forward voltage is sufficient to eliminate the barrier. At same forward voltage the potential barrier at P-N
junction can be eliminated altogether then the junction resistance will become almost zero and a low
resistance path is established for the entire circuit. Thus a large current is generated in circuit even for small
potential applied. Such a circuit is called Forward bias circuit and current is called Forward bias current.
Current flow in forward biasing:
P
Free electon
flow
V0-V
In case of Forward bias the holes from p type S.C. are repelled by positive battery terminal towards the
junction and simultaneously the es in N-Type are repelled by negative battery terminal towards the junction.
when the electron hole combination takes place near the junction a covalent bond near the positive terminal
of battery breaks down. This causes liberation of an electron which enters the positive terminal. This action
creates a new hole which move towards the junction. For each electron in N-region that combines with a
hole from P-region an electron enters the crystal from negative terminal. The constant movement of
electrons towards the positive terminal and holes toward the negative terminal produces a high forward
current. As the applied voltage is further increased the electrons and holes having lower energy will be able
to cross the potential barrier and current will increase further.
I
Reverse biased P-N junction diode:

when an external voltage is applied to P-N junction in such a direction that it increases the potential barrier
then it is called Reverse bias. For Reverse bias positive terminals of battery is connected to N-Type and
negative terminal is connected to P-type.
This applied Reverse voltage establishes an electric field which acts in same direction of potential barrier.
Therefore the resultant field is strengthened and barrier height is increased. Thus a high resistance path is
established for the entire circuit and current does not flow through the junction i.e. effect of reverse bias is to
() potential barrier and allows a very little current to flow.
41
When junction is reverse biased then es in N-Type S.C. and holes in P-type S.C. are attracted away from
junction under the action of applied voltage. Since there is no recombination of electron-hole pairs thus
current is negligibly small ie. junction has a high resistance.
P
V0-V
Conclusion: we conclude that when a P-N, junction is Forward biased it has a low resistance path and hence
current flows in circuit. On the other hand when it is Reverse biased it has high resistance path and no
current flows in circuit.
Thus P-N junction diode is a one way device which offers a low resistance when forward biased and
behaves like an insulator when reverse biased. So it can be used as a rectifier.
VI characteristic of P-N junction:
P
V
R
mA
Rh
VBR
Forward
current
Voltmeter and milli-ammeters are connected to record the values of voltage and current respectively.
VI Characteristic in PN junction:
when applied voltage is zero no current flows through the circuit but as applied voltage is increased by
adjusting the potential divider Rh a small current flows in circuit. Once voltage is increased then resistance
of PN junction reduces and voltage increases sharply.
Forward voltage
V 0.3V for Ge
0.7V for Si
42
In case of Rev. bias current is due to flow of minority carriers. If voltage is further increased in reverse
direction then reverse current does not increase. At the breakdown of junction, value of current increases
abruptly.
So
I0 T2 e G
In above discussion effect of carrier generation and recombination has been ignored. This is valid for Ge but
not for Si.
From above discussion it is clear that I0 becomes double for every 10C rise in temperature.
T T
I 0 (T2 ) I 0 (T1 ) 2 2 1
10
Effect of Temp on P-N junction diode:
E / KT
I0 K T
VG 0
VT
For Ge: = 1 m = 2,
VG0 = 0.785 V
For Si: = 2 m 1.5, VG0 1.21V

dV
2.1 mv / C for Ge
dT
2.3 mv C for Si
But in general it can be assumed that

dV
2.5 mV / C for both Ge and Si.
dT
Diode Resistance:
1. Static resistance / DC resistance:
Static resistance of a diode is defined as ratio V/I of the voltage to current. Static resistance R is equal to
reciprocal of slope of a line joining Q pt. to origin.
Typical values are VF = 0.8 volt at IF = 10 mA corresponds to RF = 80. IR = 10 A at VR 50 V & Rv = 500
M.
The application of DC voltage to a circuit containing a S.C. diode will result in an operating point on
characteristic curve which will not change with time. DC resistance of diode is independent of shape of
characteristics in region surrounding point of interest.
ID(mA)
ID
V
RD D
ID
VD
VD
2. Dynamic resistance or AC resistance:

For small signal operation dynamic or incremental resistance is an important parameter and is defined as
reciprocal of slope of voltage-ampere characteristics. Dynamic resistance is not constant but depends upon
operating voltage.
Different junction in diode:
1. Step graded junction:
43
Consider a junction in which there is an abrupt charge from acceptor ions on one side to donor side on other
side. Such a junction is formed experimentally for example by placing a Indium which is trivalent against
N-Type Ge and heating combination to a high temperature for a short time.
ND
xn
xp
NA
For step graded junction

NA >> ND
q N D w2
Vj =
w V j1/2
2
2. Linearly graded junction:
It is obtained by drawing a single crystal from a melt of Ge whose type is changed during drawing process
by adding first P-Type and then N-type impurities.
Charge density
x=0
Here total width of space charge layer w is w V j
Different type of capacitances in P-N Jn diode:

1. Space charge or Transition capacitance:
When a P-N junction is reverse biased then depletion region acts like an insulator or dielectric material
while P and N regions on either side have low resistance and acts as the plate. So this P-N junction in Rev.
bias may be regarded as a parallel plate capacitor if A is area of parallel plate capacitor and w is width of
depletion layer then
Varactor Diode:
Voltage Variable capacitances are called Varactors. Varicaps or Voltcaps. A circuit model for a Varactor
diode under reverse bias is shown
R
CT
RS
Rs Body / ohmic resistance of diode Typical values of CT and RS are 20 pF and 8.5 respectively at a
reverse bias of 4v. The value of R is large (> 1M).
44
2. Diffusion or storage capacitance (CD):

When forward biased P-N junction is applied then potential barrier is reduced and then majority carriers
diffuse away from the junction and progressively recombine. The density of carriers is high near the junction
and decays exponentially with distance so that a charge is stored on both side of junction when a forward
bias voltage is applied. It is clear that amount of charge stored varies with applied potential as for a true
capacitor so origin of diffusion capacitance lies in injected charge stored near the junction outside the
transition region. So rate of change of injected charge with voltage called diffusion capacitance or storage
capacitance.
Junction diode switching time:
In a given P-N junction diode when external voltage is suddenly reversed in a diode circuit which has been
carrying current in forward direction the diode current will not immediately fall to its steady state reverse
voltage value until injected or excess minority carrier density pn pn0 has dropped normally to zero the
diode will continue to conduct easily and current will be determined by the external resistance in diode
circuit. Value of trr is generally of the order of 400 n sec.
Opto electronics:
1. Bulk type photo conductors:
If energy of photon is greater than energy gap of semiconductor then covalent bonds of SC will be broken
and new EHPs are created which will increase conductivity of semiconductor. This effect is known as
Photoconductive effect.
Due to increase in conductivity resistivity will decrease i.e. resistance will decrease hence device is called
photo resistor or photo conductor. Photo conductive cell is a device in form of either a slab of a
Semiconductor in bulk form or a thin film of semiconductor deposited on an insulating substrate with
ohmic contacts at opposite ends.
R
Examples of photo conductive cells are Cds, Cdse ,PbS&Tls.The most popularly used photo conductive cell
in visible spectrum is Cds cell. In case of Cds in absolute darkness resistance is as high as 2 M but
in strong incident light it has resistance as small as 10 .
Cds photo conductive cells has merits:
1. High dissipation capability
2. Excellent sensitivity in visible spectrum
3. Low resistance when irradiated by light.
Application of photo conductive cells:
1. To measure the intensity of light
2. As a voltage regulator
3. To record modulated light intensity
4. Used in counting applications
2. Junction type photo conductors:
(a) P-N Photo diodes
(b) solar cells
(c) PIN Photo diodes
(d)Avalanche Photo diodes
45
(e) NPN transistors

(a) P-N Photodiodes:
A P-N photo diode is essentially a reverse biased P-N Junction diode in which light is permitted on one
surface of junction. This device consists of a P-N junction embedded in clear plastic as indicated in figure.
Radiation is allowed to fall upon one surface across the junction. The remaining sides of plastics are either
Clear Plastic
painted black or enclosed in a metallic case.
Radiation
V-I characteristics of Photo diode:

(Photo - diode)
If reverse voltage in excess of a few tenth of a volt are applied then a reverse current independent of
magnitude of reverse voltage is obtained. This dark current corresponds to reverse current due to thermally
generated minority carriers. If light falls upon surface additional EHPs are created proportional to number of
Incident photons .So here Total current Itotal is given by
Itotal=Io+Is where Is is the short circuit current proportional to light intensity.
Typical V-I characteristics of photo diode are shown in figure:
40
30
20
10
100
300
400
The curves dont pass through origin (with the exception of dark current curve).
Note: Radiation must be focused near the junction. If radiation is focused into a small spot away from the
junction the injected minority carrier can recombine before diffusing the junction and hence a much
smaller current will result.
Application of photo diode:
1. High speed reading of computer punch cards and tapes
2. Light detection system
3. Reading of film sound track
4. Light operated switches
5. Switching
6. Optical communication
46
Photo voltaic potential:

In case of Photo diode if forward bias is applied then potential barrier is lowered and majority current
Increase. When majority current equals to minority current then this total current is reduced to zero.
The voltage at which zero current is obtained is called the photo voltaic potential.
when light falls on the P-N junction diode then reverse current increases and forward current also
Increases to make total current equal to zero. This photo voltaic potential is of the order of magnitude of 0.5
volt for silicon and 0.1 volt for Ge.
In open circuited condition for I=0 then photo voltaic voltage is generated and voltage is Vmax
I
I
Vmax VT ln 1 s
Since s >>1 so Vmax increases logarithmically with Is. Here Is changes with
Io
Io
intensity of light.
Solar energy converters:
It is clear that a definite non zero current is obtained for zero applied voltage. Hence a junction photo cell
may be used under short circuited conditions. As here Is is proportional to light intensity. The current drain
from a photo voltaic cell may be used to power electronic equipment or more commonly to charge auxiliary
storage batteries. Such energy converters using sun light as primary energy are called solar batteries and are
used in solar cells.
(b)Solar cell:
The solar cell is basically a P-N junction diode that converts sunlight directly to electrically with large
conversion efficiency. The action of solar cell is explained as follows:
When a P-N junction diode is exposed to light photons are absorbed and EHPs are generated in both P&N
side of junction. The electrons move to N side and holes move to P side.
When the P-N junction diode is open circuited the accumulation of electrons and holes on two side of
junction give rise to an open circuited voltage Vo .If a load resistance is connected across the diode a current
will flow in circuit. The maximum current called short circuited current is obtained when an electric short is
connected across the diode terminals. Note that current flows as long as the diode is exposed to sun light and
magnitude of current is proportional to light intensity.
Solar cells are used extensively in satellite and space vehicle as most important long duration power supply.
Solar cells are constructed with Silicon, Gallium arsenide, Cadmium sulphide and with many other
semiconductors.
(c) PIN Photo diode:

An intrinsic silicon layer is inserted between heavily doped P and N type silicon materials. The intrinsic
silicon reduces the transit time of photo induced electron hole pairs. The reason is that carriers generated
by light photons incident on middle of this layer have less distance to travel than if generated at one side or
the other of the layer. The response time of PIN photo diode is ultra fast with a switching speed of nanosecond. So PIN phto diodes are used in ultra fast switching and logic circuits.
47
(d) Avalanche Photo diode:

When photo diode is operated in break down region then this diode is Avalanche Photo Diode (APD).
current sensitivity is increased by 30-100 times in case of APD. These diodes are operated at high reverse
bias voltage so that break down of diode takes place.
Main advantage of APD is its high sensitivity.
(e) Photo transistors:
The photo transistor is a junction transistor with collector base junction exposed to light. It is similar to
photo diode but has a sensitivity gain of 50 to 100 times more. Generally NPN transistors are used to its
increased gain and greater sensitivity.
Light Emitting Diode (LED):
Metal
Contact
Anode
Metal Contact
Cathode
It is a forward biased P-N junction diode .In this case holes move from P side to N side and electrons from
N side to P side due to diffusion process. When electrons from N side cross the junction then they recombine
with holes on the P side. When holes from P side cross the junction then they recombine with electrons
on the N side. In case of Si and Ge this recombination takes place through traps and liberated energy goes
into crystal as a heat. But in semiconductors like GaAs there is considerable amount of direct recombination
without the aid of traps.
Under such circumstances the energy released when electron falls from CB into VB appears in
form of radiation. Such a PN diode is called Light Emitting Diode. The efficiency of the process of light
generation increases with the injected current and with a decrease in temperature.
GaAs emits light in Infra-red region. GaP& GaAsP emits light in visible region.
Advantages of LED:
1. Low working voltage &current
2. Less power consumption
3. Very fast action
4. Small size and weight
5. Long life
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD):
LCD has the distinct advantage of having a low power requirement than LED. It is typically of the order of
Microwatt for display as compared to same order of mill watts for LEDs. It however require an external or
internal light source and is limited to a temperature range of about 00C to 600C.Life time is an area of
48
concern because LCD can chemically degrade. LCD are much slower than LED.LCD typically have
response times in range of 100-300 m-sec. while LED are available with response time slower below 100
nsec. There is greater range of color choice in case of LCD.
Rectifier converts AC in pulsating DC. A diode rectifier forms an essential building block of DC power
Supplies required to power electronic equipment. As indicated the power supply is fed from 120V (rms)
60HZ ac line and it delivers a DC voltage V0(usually in range of 5-20 Volt) to an electronic circuit
Represented by the load block.
Rectifier &Filter:
Block diagram of a power supply:
Transformer
Rectifier
IC
Regulator
Filter
Load
1. Power transformer: It consists of two separate coils wound around an iron core that magnetically
couples the two windings. The primary winding having N1 turns is connected to 120 V ac supply and
the secondary winding having N2 turns is connected to circuit of DC power supply.
In addition to providing the appropriate sinusoidal amplitude for the DC power supply the power
transformer provides the electrical isolation between electronic equipment and the power line circuit.
This isolation minimizes the risk of electric shock to the equipment user.
2. Rectifier: The diode rectifier converts the input sinusoid to a unipolar output which can have
pulsating waveform. But this waveform has a non zero average or DC Component. Its pulsating
nature makes it unsuitable as a DC source for electronic circuit hence there is no need of filter.
3. Filter: The output of the rectifier filter is much more constant than without the filter but it still
contains a time dependent component known as ripple.
4. Voltage regulator: To reduce the ripple and to stabilize the magnitude of DC a voltage regulator is
employed against variations caused by changes in load current.
Summary of HWR and FWR
HWR
FWR
1.
Aveg. Value of O/p
Vm/
2Vm/
2.
3.
4.
5.
RMS value of O/P

Maxm efficiency
Ripple factor
Ripple frequency
Vm/2
40.6%
1.21
same as i/p
Vm/ 2
81.2%
0.48
Twice of i/p
6.
PIV
Vm
Vm Bridge
2Vm Centre tapped
7.
% Regulation
8.
9.
Form factor
TUF
Rf
RL
100%
1.57
0.287
Rf
RL
100%
1.11
0.693
49
THYRISTOR
Thyristor (also called silicon controlled rectifier or SCR) consists of alternate p and n layers (i.e., p-n-p-n)
forming three p-n junctions. The anode terminal is outside the p layer. A contact welded to inner p layer
(i.e., p2) forms the gate. Its symbol is as shown in Figure.
V-I Characteristics of Thyristor:

The v-i characteristic of a thyristor is shown in Figure. The behavior of a Thyristor can be explained by two
transistor model as shown in figure.
Thyristor can be turned on by applying a positive gate signal. Other triggering methods are dv/dt triggering,
high temperature triggering and light triggering. When a thyristor is triggered the gate loses control. It can
be turned off by decreasing the current to less than holding current. The turn on time of Thyristors is less
than about 3 -s and turn off time is between 10-300 -s.
Thyristors are available upto about 10 KV and 1200 A rating. For high voltage and high current circuits
series and parallel connection of thyristors are used. When connected in series, the voltages across the
thyristors are not equal. When connected in parallel, the currents through them are non-equal. Therefore
thyristors in series need static and dynamic equalizing circuits.
50
It is necessary to turn on and turn off a thyristor at proper instant. The turned on is done by applying a
positive gate signal. The turn off methods are called commutation methods. Commutation can be natural or
forced. When an SCR is connected to an ac source, the current goes through its natural current zero at the
end of every half cycle and a reverse voltage automatically appears across it. This is called natural
commutation. In dc circuits there is no natural current zero and forced commutation (class B commutation)
Auxiliary commutation (class C commutation), Complementary commutation (Class D commutation) and
external pulse commutation (Class E commutation). Natural commutation is also called line commutation or
class F commutation.
Comparison between Power MOSFET and BJT:
1. Power MOSFET has slower switching losses but its on resistance and conduction losses are more. A
BJT has higher switching losses but lower conduction loss. So at high frequency power MOSFET is the
obvious choice but at lower frequency BJT is superior.
2. BJT is a current controlled device and Power MOSFET is a voltage controlled device.
3. MOSFET has positive temperature coefficient for resistance this makes parallel operation of MOSFET
easy. A BJT has negative temperature coefficient.
4. MOSFET is a unipolar device while BJT is bipolar device
5. Base current in BJT is much larger than the control signal (or gate current)required in MOSFET.
6. Gate circuit impedance in MOSFET is extremely high.
7. BJT suffers from secondary break down voltage where as MOSFET is free from this problem because
BJT has negative temperature coefficient while MOSFET has positive temperature coefficient.
Two-transistor model of a Thyristor:
Two-transistor model of a Thyristor can be used for explaining turn-on and turn-off mechanisms of
Thyristor.For turning on mechanisms are
1. Gate triggering
2. Forward voltage triggering
3. dv/dt triggering
4. Temperature triggering
5. Light triggering
Comparison of Thyristor and Transistor operation:
1. Once a Thyristor is on by a gate signal it remains latched in on state due to internal regeneration action.
However in case of transistor a continuous base signal must be given to remain in on state.
2. In order to turn-off a thyristor a reverse voltage must be applied across its anode cathode terminals.
However a transistor turns off when its base signal is removed.
Thyristor protection:
In general a Thyristor may be subjected to over voltages or over currents. During SCR turn on di/dt may be
prohibitively large and there may be false triggering of SCR by high value of dv/dt.So thyristors must be
protected against all such abnormal conditions for satisfactory and reliable operations.
di/dt problem:
When a thyristor is forward biased and is turned on by a gate pulse conduction of anode current begins in
immediate neighborhood of gate cathode junction therefore current spreads across the whole area of
junction. The thyristor design permits the spread of conduction to whole junction area as rapidly as possible.
51
But if rate of rise of anode current i.e. di/dt is large as compared to spread velocity of carriers local hot spot
will be formed near the gate connection on account of high current density. This localized heating may
destroy the transistor.
So the rate of rise of anode current at the time of turn on must be kept below the specified limiting value.
Solution of di/dt problem:
The value of di/dt can be maintained below acceptable limits by using a small inductor called di/dt inductor
in series with the anode circuit. Typical limit values of di/dt are 20-500 A/micro-sec.
dv/dt problem:
If the rate of rise of forward voltage dv/dt is high the charging current I will be more .This charging current
plays the role of gate current and turns on SCR even when gate signal is zero. Such phenomena of turning
on a thyristor called a dv/dt turn must be avoided as it leads to false operation of thyristor circuit. For
controllable operation of thyristor, the rate of rise of forward anode to cathode voltage dv/dt must be kept
below the specified rated limit. Typical values of dv/dt are 20-500 V/micro sec.
Solution of dv/dt problem:
False turn-on of a thyristor by large dv/dt can be prevented by using a snubber circuit in parallel with the
device. A snubber circuit consists of a series combination of resistance RS and a capacitance CS in parallel
with the thyristor.
Transistor:
Transistor is a 3 layer semiconductor device consisting of either two N and one P type layer of material or
Two P and one N type layers of material. The former is called NPN transistor while later is called PNP
transistor. The emitter is heavily doped base is lightly doped and collector only lightly doped. The outer
layers have width much greater than sandwiched P or N type material. Ratio of total width to central width is
around 150:1.
Transistors are made from Ge or Si are shown in figure:
C
EBJ
N
B
CBJ Metal
Contact
E
C
E
P
N
B
Direction at emitter denotes convention direction of current. In case of PNP current flows from Emitter to
base while in case of NPN it is from Base to emitter.
3 important parts of BJT are:
1.
Emitter region
2.
Base
region
3.
Collector region
52
Main function of emitter is supply majority charge carriers to the base region and hence it must be heavily
doped in compare to other parts. Base region is lightly doped and thin so that it may pass most of the
injected charge to the collector region. Collector collects majority charge carriers after passing through the
base region. Generally size of collector is larger than that of emitter because collector has to dissipate much
more power and i.e. why emitter and collectors are not interchangeable.
Transistor biased in active region:
E
P
B
N
C
P
VEE
VCC
For active region Emitter base junction is forward biased and collector base junction is reverse biased.
Forward biasing of emitter base junction lowers the emitter base potential by VEB whereas reverse
Biasing of collector junction increases the collector base potential by VCB .
Minority Carrier
Concentration
|VEB|
pn
V0
|VCB|
np
np
np0
np0
np0
EBJ forward biased:

Due to emitter base junction as forward biased width of depletion region between emitter and base will be
reduced and there will be heavy flow of majority carriers from P type (Emitter) to N type (Base). When
these holes pass through base region then they are recombined with electrons and contribute to base current.
CBJ reverse biased:
Due to Collector base junction reverse biased width of depletion layer will be increased so there will be no
direct diffusion process of carriers. But these holes which are majority carriers will move easily to collector.
The reason for relative ease with which these majority carriers can cross the reverse biased junction is easily
understood if we consider that for the reverse biased junction diode the injected majority carrier will appear
as minority carriers in N type material.
53
Current components in case of a transistor in active mode: (PNP)

IpE
Ipc1
IC
Ic
Ipco
Ico
InE
Inco
IB
VEB
VCB
Emitter region:
The forward biased on emitter junction will cause current to flow across this junction. This current will
consists of two components
1. Holes injected from emitter to base region (IpE)
2. Electrons injected from base to emitter region ( InE)
It is highly desirable to have the first component at a much higher level than second component .Due to this
region only emitter is highly doped and base is lightly doped it means device will have a high density of
holes in emitter region and low density of electrons in base region.
Different modes of operations in BJT:
Transistor consists of two P-N junctions Emitter Base Junction (EBJ) and Collector Base Junction (CBJ)
Depending on the bias condition (forward or reverse) of each of these junctions different mode of operations
of BJT are obtained.
The active mode which is also known as forward active mode is the one used if transistor is to operate as an
amplifier.
Switching applications (eg. logic circuits) use both cut-off and saturation mode.
The reverse active mode or inverse active mode has very limited applications but is conceptually important.
BJT Mode of operations:
MODE
Emitter-Base Jn
Cut-off Mode
Reverse
Active
Forward
Saturation
Forward
Reverse Active
Reverse
Collector-Base Jn
Reverse
Reverse
Forward
Forward
NPN
VBE<0 &VBC<0
VBE>0 &VBC<0
VBE>0 &VBC>0
VBE<0 &VBC>0
PNP
VEB<0 &VCB<0
VEB>0 &VCB<0
VEB>0 &VCB>0
VEB<0 &VCB>0
Transistor as an amplifier:
RL
VEB
VCC
54
A load resistor RL is in series with the collector supply voltage VCC. A small voltage change Vi between
emitter and base causes a relatively large emitter current change I E we define a symbol ' that fraction of
this current change which is collected and passed through RL so here IC 'I E
The change in output voltage across load resistor will be VL RL IC ' RL I E
But
Vi re I E
AV
So Voltage gain
VL ' RL I E ' RL
Vi
re I E
re
26
IE
Where I E is quiescent emitter current in mA.
re
I E I pE I nE
Emitter injection Effeciency : ( )
I pE
for ideal case 100%

I pE I nE
Base - region:
Holes injected from emitter will enter into base region .These holes will be minority carriers in base region
and will recombine with electrons. Base in usually very thin and proportions of holes lost through this
recombination will be very small
Base current IB will be composed of two components:
1. First component is due to electrons injected form base into emitter
2. second component is due to electrons that have to be supplied by external circuit in order to replace the
electrons lost from the base through recombination process.
Value of common emitter current gain ():
is constant for a particular transistor and for modern NPN transistor it lies in range of
50-200 but it can be as high as 1000 for special devices.
depends upon following factors:
1. width of the base region
2. relative doping of emitter to base region
From above result it is clear that for high value of
1. Base width should be thin
2. Base should be lightly doped
3. Emitter must be highly doped
Relation between and :
I C I E (1)
I C I B (2)
I E I B I C (3)
By above equations
is a constant for a given transistor and has value less than one but very close to unity. If =100 then
value of will be 0.99. Typical values lie in range of 0.90 to 0.995.
55
For very small change in there is large change in value of . So transistors of same type may have
widely different values of .
Early effect or base width modulation:
Width w of depletion region of a diode increases with magnitude of reverse bias voltage. Since emitter
Junction is forward biased and collector Junction is reverse biased in active region then barrier width at J E is
negligible as compared with space charge width at JC.
As applied voltage across Junction increases then transition region penetrates deeper into collector and base.
Doping in base is smaller than collector so more depletion layer portion will be in base region. If width of
base region is wB then by application of reverse bias voltage effective width of base is decreased.
So Modulation of effective base width by collector voltage is known as early effect. ic I s e
qVBE
KT
vCE
1
vA
Effect of base width modulation:

Value of both and are increases because there is less chance of recombination within the base region.
Punch through or Reach through. If collector voltage is increased then there is chance that base width will
become zero and this phenomenon is known as punch through
Break down voltages:
In case of a transistor before punch through breakdown of transistor occurs.
BVCEO is break down voltage for CE configuration & B VCBO is break down voltage for CB configuration.
BVCEO BVCBO n
1
hFE
If n = 6 and hFE = 50
Transistor Biasing:
Transistor is a magical device that that can raise the level of applied ac input without assistance of an
external energy source. In actual the improved output ac power level is the result of transfer of energy from
applied DC power supply. The analysis or design of any electronic amplifier has two components the dc
portion and ac portion. So amplification in a transistor depends upon DC characteristics of BJT.So Gain in
BJT will be affected by DC level parameters.
For Faithful amplification following conditions must be full filled
1. Emitter-Base Junction must be forward biased
2. Collector-Base Junction must be revere biased
3. Value of IC and VCE must be proper.( Both values are taken as DC values)
Co-ordinates of (VCE, IC) are known as operating points. For proper amplification position of Q point
Must be in middle of DC load line. Maintenance of Q point for proper amplification is known as biasing.
Biasing: when Q point of a transistor is not in active region i.e it is not properly biased then BJT will work
inefficiently and produces distortion in output signal.So a transistor is properly biased with the help of
batteries and external resistor to maintain Q point in proper position. This method is known as biasing and
associated circuits are known as biasing circuits.
Q. Why operating point shifts?
There are following reasons for shift in Q point of BJT?
1.
Transistor parameters are temperature sensitive
56
2.
Replacement of transistor with another transistor
3.
Thermal run away
Variation of transistor parameters with temperature:
DC collector current(IC) in BJT varies with temperature which also effects values of VCE and finally
Operating point shifts due to change in temperature.
1. ICO becomes double for every 100C rise in temperature
IC I B (1 ) ICO so value of IC will change with change in temperature.
2. Value of increase with increase in temperature which will effect value of collector current(IC)
3. VBE decrease by -2.5 mV/0C which will also effect value of collector current.
dVBE
-2.5 mV/0C
dT
Replacement of transistor:
When a transistor is replaced by another transistor of same type then it is possible that value of and VBE
dont remain same and hence Q point is changed. So Q point must be stabilized in such a manner that it
remains fixed irrespective of replacement of transistor.
Thermal run away:
Typically junction temperature range for Ge and Si transistor are
Ge: 600C-1100C and for Si: 1500C-2250C
If due to increase in temperature collector current increase then large collector current may heat up the
transistor and it may burn out. So variation in collector current with respect to temperature must be
maintained. Self destruction of a transistor without any biasing method is known as thermal run away.
Various methods for stabilization:
1. Stabilization methods:
In stabilization method resistor and power supplies are designed in such manner that value of collector
current IC becomes constant with respect to change in temperature. It means there is very less change in
value of IC with respect to change in ICO,VBE and .
Different methods used are:
1. Fixed bias circuit
2. Emitter stabilized bias circuit
3. Voltage divider bias
4. Voltage Feedback biasing
2. Compensation method:
Different compensation methods used are
1. Diode compensation for VBE
2. Diode compensation for ICO
3. Thermistor compensation
Temperature range of a transistor:
Si:
Temp. Range is from 150 225C
Ge: Temp. Range is from 60 100C
Thermal runaway:
57
Due to power dissipation at junction, junction temperature increases and this will () collector current with a
subsequent increase in power dissipation. This phenomenon is referred as Thermal runaway and it may
damage transistor permanently.
Thermal resistance:
Steady state temperature rise at collector junction is proportional to power dissipation at junction.
Tj TA = PD
Tj junction Temp.
TA Ambient Temp.
Thermal resistance
PD Power dissipated in watt at collector
Condition for thermal stability:
The rate at which heat is released at collector Junction must not exceed the rate at which heat can dissipate
So To avoid thermal run away:
PC 1
V
or
VCE < CC
T j
2
Heat sink:
Power transistors are mounted in a large metal case to provide a large area from which heat generated by
device may be radiated. The metal sheet that helps to dissipate the additional heat from transistor is known
as heat sink.
V = 24V
CC
R1
RC = 5K
R2
Field Effect Transistor:

The Field Effect Transistor is a semiconductor device which depends upon its operation on the control of
current by an electric field. There are two types of FETs
1. Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET or simply FET)
2. Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor (IGFET) More commonly known as MOS or MOSFET
Difference between BJT &FET:
1. Its operation depends upon flow of majority carriers only so it is unipolar
2. It is simpler to fabricate and occupies less space in IC form
3. It exhibits a high input impedance typically Mega ohm
4. It is less noisy than BJT because partition noise is absent in case of FET.
5. BJT is Current controlled current device while FET is Voltage Controlled current device.
6. It exhibits no offset voltage at zero drain current and hence makes an excellent signal chopper
7. Gain Bandwidth product (GBWP) of FET is small in compare to BJT.
8. FET has better thermal stability in compare to BJT.
9. FET is less affected by radiation
10. Due to low value of trans-conductance FET has low voltage gain in compare to BJT.
58
Basic structure of JFET:

JFET is a 3 terminal device with one terminal capable of controlling the current between other two.
Basic structure of N channel JFET is shown in figure in which N type material forms channel between
Embedded layers of P type material. The top of N type channel is connected through an ohmic contact to
terminal Drain (D) while the lower end of same material is connected through an ohmic contact to a terminal
known as Source(S). Both source(S) and Drain (D) can be interchanged.
Parts of FET:
1. Source: It is the terminal through which majority carrier enter the semiconductor bar.
2. Drain: It is the terminal through which majority carrier enter the semiconductor bar
3. Gate: These are two heavily connected heavily doped impurity regions which forms two P-N Junctions.
4. Channel: It is the space between two gates through which majority carriers pass.
D
P
G
S
S
N-channel JFET
D
D
For N-channel FET ID and VDS are positive while value of VGS is negative
For P-Channel FET ID and VDS are negative while value of VGS is positive.
The direction of arrow at the gate indicates the direction in which the gate current flows when gate junction
Drain (D)
is forward biased.
Zero biased condition:
G
N-channel
Depletion region
Source (S)
In absence of any applied potential JFET has two P-N junctions under no bias conditions. The result is a
depletion region at each junction as shown in figure. This is same as region of a diode under no bias
conditions.
59
Q.
Why depletion region is wider at drain side than source side?

D
A
P
Due to current flow there will be a uniform voltage drop while going from drain to source. Let V A and VB be
potential drop at these points and value of VA>VB due to progressive voltage drop along length of channel.
So reverse biasing effect on P-N junction is stronger near the drain than near source.
Operation of N-channel JFET:
Case-1 when VGS=0 and VDS>0
When no potential is applied between gate and source and a potential is applied between drain and source.
Drain current will flow and it will have maximum value because channel is widest.
Case-2 when VGS<0 and VDS>0
If gate is reverse biased by applying a negative voltage between gate and source then width of depletion
layer will increased and thereby decreases cross section of N channel. Due to decrease in cross sectional
area of N channel the Drain current ID will decrease. When gate biased in increased further and is equal to
Pinch-off voltage (VGS= -VP) then value of drain current becomes equal to zero. So drain current is a
function of voltage and i.e. why FET is a voltage controlled current device.
D
Depletion
layer
VDD
Enhancement type of MOSFET (MOS):

Enhancement type MOSFET differs from the depletion type that no continuous channel exists between
Source and drain. In N-channel enhancement MOSFET P type substrate extends all the way to metal
Oxide layer. Since it does not conduct when VGS=0 hence it is called OFF MOSFET also.
Working of N-MOS:
P type substrate insulating dielectric SiO2 layer and metal layer of gate forms a parallel plate capacitor.
When a positive voltage is applied to gate with respect to substrate then minority carriers in P substrate
electrons are drawn towards the dielectric. Due to electrons negative charge is induced on P type substrate
and forms an inversion layer. If positive voltage on gate is increased then magnitude of induced negative
charges in semiconductor increases and thus conductivity of induced N-channel increases leading to higher
drain current because negative charge carriers are increased. Value of threshold voltage is in range of 2-4
Volts. Here drain current has been increased by application of positive voltage so this MOSFET is termed as
Enhancement type MOSFET.
60
Sio2
Enhancement NMOS characteristics:

D
Nochannel
Metallic
Contact
P Type
Substrate
SS
Case-1: VGS=0 volt and VDS>0

Since channel is absent and will result in a current of effectively zero ampere. In this case it is not sufficient
to have a large accumulation of charge carriers (electrons) at the drain and source. With VDS some positive
voltage VGS at 0 volt and terminal SS directly connected to the source there are in fact two reverse biased
P-N junctions between N doped region and P substrate to oppose any significant flow between drain and
source.
Case-2: VGS>0 and VDS>0
In this case drain and gate are at positive potential with respect to source. The positive potential at gate will
pressure the holes in P substarate along the edge of SiO2 layer to leave the area and enter deeper regions of
P substrate and result is a depletion region near the SiO2 insulating layer void of holes. But the electrons in
P substarate will be attracted to the positive gate and accumulate in region near the surface of SiO2 layer.
The SiO2 layer and its insulating qualities will prevent the negative carriers from being absorbed at the gate
terminal.
Case-3: VGS=VT and VDS>0
If value of VGS increases in magnitude then concentration of electrons near the SiO2 surface increase until
eventually the induced N type region can support a measurable flow between drain and source. The level of
VGS that that results in significant increase in drain current is called Threshold voltage and is given symbol
VT .since the channel is nonexistent with VGS=0 and enhanced by application of a positive gate to source
Voltage this type of MOSFET is called enhancement type MOSFET.
Case-4: VGS>VT and VDS>0
As value of VGS is increased beyond VT the density of free carriers in the induced channel will increase
resulting in an increased level of drain current. If we hold VGS constant and increase the level of VDS the
drain current will eventually reach a saturation level as occurred for JFET and Depletion type MOSFET.
If VGS is held fixed and value of VDS is increased then gate will become less and less positive with respect to
drain. The reduction in gate to drain voltage will in turn reduce the attractive forces for free carriers
(electrons) and causes a reduction in effective channel width. In this case the channel will be reduced to
point of pinch-off and a saturation conditions will be established. If value of VDS is further increased at a
fixed value of VGS then saturation current ID will not be affected.
Transistor as an amplifier:
Transistor is a magical device which converts an low level ac input into high level ac output. It amplifies an
ac signal by use of DC power supply. There are various models for expressing amplification in transistor.
61
If vbe is the ac input and ic is the ac output then

ic gmvbe
Where g m
IC
VT
There are various models for explaining transistor models.

re transistor model:
The re model employs a diode and controlled current source to duplicate the behavior of a transistor in the
region of interest. Recall that a current-controlled current source is one where the parameters of the current
source are controlled by a current else-where in the network. In fact in general BJT transistor amplifiers are
referred to as current-controlled devices.
Common Base transistor:
Ie
Ie
Ie
Ie
Ic = Ie
re
26 mV
IE
The subscript e of re was chosen to emphasize that it is the dc level of emitter current that determines the ac
level of the resistance of the diode .
Input impedance and output impedance for CB:
Ie
Ic
c
re
b
Zi re CB
For the common-base configuration typical values of Zi range from a few ohms to a maximum
of about 50 .
Z0 CB
In general for the common-base configuration the input impedance is relatively small and the output
impedance quite high.
Voltage gain and Current gain for CB:
Ie
Ic
e
c
re
b
b
If resistance RL is connected between CB terminals and Vi is connected between EB terminals.
If I0 is the load current between RL.
Vcb = I0RL = (Ic)RL = IeRL
Veb Vi I e Zi I e re
62
So that
and
Av
Vo I e RL
Vi
I e re
For the current gain:

I
I
I
Ai o c e Ai CB 1
Ii
Ie
Ie
h-parameter model for transistor:
The quantities hie, hre, hfe, and hoe are called the hybrid parameters and are the components of a small-signal
equivalent circuit to be described shortly. For years the hybrid model with all its parameters was the chosen
model for the educational and industrial communities. Presently however the re model is applied more
frequently but often with the hoe parameter of the hybrid equivalent model to provide our description of the
hybrid equivalent model will begin with the general two-port system.
The following set of equations is only one of a number of ways in which the four variables can be related.
It is the most frequently employed in transistor circuit analysis, however, and therefore is discussed in detail
in this chapter.
I
I
i
1'
Vi
V0
2'
Vi h11I i h12V0 (1)

I 0 h21I i h22V0 (2)
If we arbitrarily set V0 = 0 (short circuit the output terminals) and solve for h11 in Eq.(1)&(2) the following
will result:
h11
Vi
Ii
Ohms
V0 0
If Ii is set equal to zero by opening the input leads the following will result for h12:
h12
h21
h22
Vi
V0
Ii 0
I0
Ii
V0 0
I0
V0
Ii 0
unit less
unit less
Siemens
FET AC Equivalent Circuit:

A model for the FET transistor in the ac domain can be constructed. The control of Id by Vgs is included as a
current source gmVgs connected form drain to source as shown in Figure.
63
The current source has its arrow pointing from drain to source to establish a 180 phase shift between output
and input voltages as will occur in actual operation.
The input impedance is represented by the open circuit at the input terminals and the output impedance by
the resistor rd from drain to source. Note that the gate to source voltage is now represented by Vgs (lowercase subscripts) to distinguish it from dc levels. In addition take note of the fact that the source is common to
both input and output circuits while the gate and drain terminals are only in touch through the controlled
current source gmVgs.
+
Vgs
gmVgs
rd
Cascode connection:
A cascade connection has one transistor on top of (in series with) another. Figure shows a cascade
configuration with a common-emitter (CE) stage feeding a common-base (CB) stage. This arrangement is
designed to provide high input impedance with low voltage gain to ensure that the input Miller capacitance
is at a minimum with the CB stage providing good high-frequency operation. A practical BJT version of a
cascade amplifier is provided in Figure.
VCC
RC
RB1
V1
Q
V0
Q1
RB
RL
RE
CE
RB
CB
Darlington connection:
A very popular connection of two bipolar junction transistors for operation as one super beta transistor is
the Darlington connection shown in Figure. The main feature of the Darlington connection is that the
composite transistor acts as a single unit with a current gain that is the product of the current gains of the
individual transistors. If the connection is made using two separate transistors having current gains of 1 and
C
2 , the Darlington connection provides a current gain of
D 1 2
Q1
B
QD
Q2
E
E
64
If the two transistors are matched so that 1 = 2 = the Darlington connection provides a current gain of
D 2
A Darlington transistor connection provides a transistor having a very large current gain, typically a few
thousand.
Feedback pair:
The feedback pair connection is a two-transistor circuit that operates like the Darlington circuit. Notice that
the feedback pair uses a pnp transistor driving an npn transistor, the two device acting effectively much like
one pnp transistor. As with a Darlington connection, the feedback pair provide very high current gain (the
product of the transistor current gains). A typical application uses a Darlington connection and a feedback
pair connection to provide complementary transistor operation. A practical circuit using a feedback pair is
provided in Figure .Some consideration of the dc bias and ac operation will provide better understanding of
C
how the connection works.
B
Constant current source:

1. JFET Current Source
E
A simple JFET current source is that of Figure with VGS set to 0 V the drain current I fixed at
I D I DSS 10 mA
The device therefore like a current source of value 10 mA. While the actual JFET does have an output
resistance, the ideal current source would be a 10-mA supply as shown in figure.
ID
IDSS = 10 mA
VP = 4V
I=
10 mA
2. Transistor/Zener Constant-Current Source

Replacing resistor R2 with a Zener diode, as shown in Figure provides an improved constant-current source
The Zener diode results in a constant current calculated using the base-emitter KVL (Kirchhoff Voltage
Loop) equation. The value of I can be calculated using
V VBE
I IE Z
RE
A major point to consider is that the constant current depends on the Zener diode voltage, which remains
quite constant and the emitter resistor RE. The voltage supply VEE has no effect on the value of I.
VB
R1
+
VBE(on) VE
+
IE=I
VZ RE
VEE
65
Current mirror circuits

A current mirror circuit provides a constant and is used primarily in integrated circuits. The constant current
is obtained from an output current, which is the reflection or mirror of a constant current developed on one
side of the
+V
CC
IX
RX
I
Q1
Q2
The current IX and I can be obtained using the circuit currents listed in Figure.We assume that the emitter
current (IE) for both transistors is the same (Q1 and Q2 being fabricated near each other on the same chip).
The two transistor base currents are then approximately
I
I
IB E E
1
The collector current of each transistor is then
IC IE
Finally, the current through resistor RX, IX, is
2I
I
2I
2
I X IE E E E
IE IE
In summary, the constant current provided at the collector of Q2 mirrors that of Q1. Since
V VBE
I X CC
RX
Class C Amplifier
A class C amplifier as that shown in Figure is biased to operate for less than 180 of the input signal cycle.
The tuned circuit in the output however will provide a full cycle of output signal for the fundamental or
resonant frequency of the tuned circuit (L and c tank circuit) of the output. This type of operation is
therefore limited to use at one fixed frequency, as occurs in a communications circuit for example.
Operation of a class C circuit is not intended primarily for large-signal or power amplifiers.
+VCC
C
V0
Vi
RFC
VBB
66
Class D Amplifier:
A class D amplifier is designed to operate with digital or pulse-type signals. An efficiency of over 90% is
achieved using this type of circuit making it quite desirable in power amplifiers. It is necessary however to
convert any input signal into a pulse-type waveform before using it to drive a large power load and to
convert the signal back to a sinusoidal-type signal to recover the original signal. Figure shows how a
sinusoidal signal may be converted into a pulse-type signal using some form of saw tooth or chopping
waveform to be applied with the input into a comparator-type op-amp circuit so that a representative pulsetype signal is produced. While the letter D is used to describe the next type of bias operation after class C the
D could also be considered to stand for Digital, since that is the nature of the signals provided to the class
Converts digital
D amplifier.
back to sinusoidal
Sawtooth
generator
Amplifier
Vi
Low-pass
filter
V0
Feedback
Basic concept of oscillation:

+
Vi
+
V0=AVi
Steady-state envelope
limited by circuit saturation
Initial noise
voltage
Nonsinusoidal waveform
due to saturation
Phase-shift oscillator:
An example of an oscillator circuit that follows the basic development of a feedback circuit is the phase-shift
oscillator. An idealized version of this circuit is shown in Figure. Recall that the requirements for oscillation
are that the loop gain A is greater than unity and that the phase shift around the feedback network is 180
(providing positive feedback). In the present idealization we are considering the feedback network to be
driven by a perfect source (zero source impedance) and the output of the feedback network to be connected
into a perfect load (infinite load impedance). The idealized case will allow development of the theory behind
the operation of the phase-shift oscillator. Practical circuit versions will then be considered.
67
C
R
C
R
C
R
FET Phase-Shift Oscillator:

A practical version of a phase-shift oscillator circuit is shown in Figure. The circuit is drawn to show clearly
the amplifier and feedback network. The amplifier stage is self-biased with a capacitor bypassed source
resistor Rs and a drain bias resistor RD. The FET device parameters of interest are gm and rd. From FET
amplifier theory, the amplifier gain magnitude is calculated from
|A| = gmRL
VDD
RD
gm, rd
RS
CS
f=
C
R
C
R
C
R
Transistor Phase-Shift Oscillator:

If a transistor is used as the active element of the amplifier stage, the output of the feedback network is
loaded appreciably by the relatively low input resistance (hie) of the transistor. Of course, an emitterfollower input stage followed by a common-emitter amplifier stage could be used. If a single transistor stage
is desired, however the use of voltage-shunt feedback (as shown in Fig.) is more suitable. In this connection
the feedback signal is coupled through the feedback resistor R in series with the amplifier stage input
resistance (Ri).
68
VCC
RC
R1
R2
RE
f=
R
1
6+4(Rc/R)
C
R
CE
C
R
1
1
2 RC 6 4( RC /R)
h fe 23 29
R
R
4 C
RC
R
Wein bridge oscillator:

A practical oscillator circuit uses an op-amp and RC bridge circuit with the oscillator frequency set by the R
and C components. Figure shows a basic version of a Wien bridge oscillator circuit. Note the basic bridge
connection. Resistors R1 and R2 and capacitors C1 and C2 form the frequency-adjustment elements while
resistors R3 and R4 form part of the feedback path. The op-amp output is connected as the bridge input at
points a and c. The bridge circuit output at points b and d is the input to the op-amp.
a
C1
R3
R1
+VCC
_
R2
C2
f0
Output
sinusoidal
signal
d
R4
VEE
c
1
2 R1C1R2C2
69
Radio frequency oscillator:
X1
X2
X3
Oscillator Type
Colpitts oscillator
Hartley oscillator
Tuned input, tuned output
X1
C
L
LC
Reactance Element
X2
X3
C
L
L
C
LC
Colpitts Oscillator
FET colpitts oscillator:
A practical version of an FET Colpitts oscillator is shown in Figure. The circuit is basically the same form as
shown above with the addition of the components needed for dc bias of the FET amplifier. The oscillator
frequency can be found to be
f0
Where Ceq
1
2 LCeq
C1C2
C1 C2
VDD
RFC
V0
CC
RG
C1
C2
L
70
BJT Colpitts oscillator:

VCC
RFC
C1
L
R1
V0
C2
CC
R2
RE
CE
Crystal oscillator:
Quartz crystal exhibits the property that when mechanical stress is applied across the faces of a crystal a
difference of potential is developed across the opposite faces of crystal. This property is called piezo electric
effect. Similarly a voltage applied across one set of faces of crystal causes mechanical distortion in crystal
shape.
Equivalent circuit of crystal:
R
CM
L
C
Crystal impedance versus frequency:
|Z|
f1
f2
(series-resonance) (antiresonances)
71
Unijunction oscillator
A particular device the Unijunction transistor can be used in a single-stage oscillator circuit to provide a
pulse signal suitable for digital-circuit applications. The unijunction transistor can be used in what is called a
relaxation oscillator as shown by the basic circuit of Figure shown.
Resistor RT and capacitor CT are the timing components that set the circuit oscillating rate. The oscillating
frequency may be calculated which includes the unijunction transistor intrinsic stand-off ratio as a factor
(in addition to RT and CT) in the oscillator operating frequency.
V
BB
R2
RT
B2
VE
VB2
E
B1
CT
VB1
R1
Wave forms at B1 B2 and E in UJT:

VBB
VE
VE=VP
VEmin
0V
Time
VB1
0V
Time
VB2
0V
VBB
RT
TimeBB
RT
CT
R2
CT
R1
72
Chapter-2 Important terms used in Electronics communication

Absorption: Loss or dissipation of energy as it travels through a medium Example: radio waves lose some
of their energy as they travel through the atmosphere.
AC coupling: Circuit that passes an AC signal while blocking a DC voltage.
AC load line: A graph representing all possible combinations of AC output voltage and current for an
amplifier.
Active component: A component that changes the amplitude of a signal between input and output.
Active filter: A filter that uses an amplifier in addition to reactive components to pass or reject selected
frequencies.
Active region: The region of BJT operation between saturation and cutoff used for linear amplification.
Admittance :( symbol "Y") Measure of how easily AC will flow through a circuit. Admittance is the
reciprocal of impedance and is measured in Siemens.
Alternating current: An electric current that rises to a maximum in one direction, falls back to zero and
then rises to a maximum in the opposite direction and then repeats.
Amplifier: A circuit that increases the voltage, current, or power of a signal.
Amplitude: Magnitude or size of a signal voltage or current.
Analog: Information represented as continuously varying voltage or current rather than in discrete levels as
opposed to digital data varying between two discrete levels.
Antenna, transmitting: A device that converts an electrical wave into an electromagnetic wave that
radiates away from the antenna.
Antenna, receiving: A device that converts a radiated electromagnetic wave into an electrical wave.
Armstrong oscillator: An oscillator that uses an isolation transformer to achieve positive feedback from
output to input.
Astable multivibrator: An oscillator that produces a square wave output from a DC voltage.
Attenuate: To reduce the amplitude of an action or signal. The opposite of amplification.
Band-pass filter: A tuned circuit designed to pass a band of frequencies between a lower cut-off frequency
(f1) and a higher cut-off frequency (f2). Frequencies above and below the pass band are heavily attenuated.
Band-stop filter: A tuned circuit designed to stop frequencies between a lower cut-off frequency (f1) and a
higher cut-off frequency (f2) of the amplifier while passing all other frequencies.
Bandwidth: width of the band of frequencies between the half power points.
Barrier potential: The natural difference of potential that exists across a forward biased pn junction.
Baud: A unit of signaling speed equal to the number of signal events per second. Not necessarily the same
as bits per second.
Bias: A DC voltage applied to a device to control its operation.
Bistable multivibrator: A multivibrator with two stable states. An external signal is required to change the
output from one state to the other. Also called a latch.
Bleeder current: A current drawn continuously from a source. Bleeder current is used to stabilize the
output voltage of a source.
Bridge rectifier: A circuit using four diodes to provide full wave rectification. Converts an AC voltage to a
pulsating DC voltage.
Buffer: An amplifier used to isolate a load from a source.
73
Bulk resistance: The natural resistance of a "P" type or "N" type semiconductor material.
Butterworth filter: A type of active filter characterized by a constant gain (flat response) across the
midband of the circuit and a 20 dB per decade roll-off rate for each pole contained in the circuit.
Bypass capacitor: A capacitor used to provide an AC ground at some point in a circuit.
Capacitance: The ability of a capacitor to store an electrical charge. The basic unit of capacitance is the
Farad.
Capacitive reactance: The opposition to current flow provided by a capacitor. Capacitive reactance is
measured in ohms and varies inversely with frequency.
cascaded amplifier: An amplifier with two or more stages arranged in a series configuration.
Cascode amplifier: A high frequency amplifier made up of a common-source amplifier with a commongate amplifier in its drain network.
Center frequency: Frequency to which an amplifier is tuned. The frequency half way between the cut-off
frequencies of a tuned circuit.
Center tap: Midway connection between the two ends of a winding.
Center tapped transformer: A transformer with a connection at the electrical center of a winding.
Center tapped rectifier: Circuit that make use of a center tapped transformer and two diodes to provide full
wave rectification.
Ceramic capacitor: Capacitor in which the dielectric is ceramic.
Charge: Quantity of electrical energy.
Chebyshev filter: A type of active filter characterized by high roll-off rates (40 dB per decade per pole) and
midband gain that is not constant.
Choke: Inductor used to oppose the flow of alternating current.
Circuit: Interconnection of components to provide an electrical path between two or more components.
Circuit breaker: A protective device used to open a circuit when current exceeds a maximum value. In
effect a reusable fuse.
Clamper: A diode circuit used to change the DC level of a waveform without distorting the waveform.
Clapp oscillator: A variation of the Colpitts oscillator. An added capacitor is used to eliminate the effects of
stray capacitance on the operation of the basic Colpitts oscillator.
Clipper: A diode circuit used to eliminate part of a waveform
Coaxial cable: Transmission line in which the signal carrying conductor is covered by a dielectric and
another conductor.
Colpitts oscillator: An oscillator with a pair of tapped capacitors in the feedback network.
Common-mode rejection ratio :( CMRR) The ratio of op-amp differential gain to common-mode gain. A
measure of an op-amp's ability to reject common-mode signals such as noise.
Comparator: An op-amp circuit that compares two inputs and provides a DC output indicating the polarity
relationship between the inputs.
Complementary symmetry amplifier: A class B amplifier using matched complementary transistors. Does
not require a phase inverter for push-pull output.
Complementary transistors:
Two transistors, one NPN and one PNP having near identical charastictic N-channel and P-channel FETs
can also be complementary.
74
Constant current circuit: Circuit used to maintain constant current to a load having resistance that changes.
Crossover distortion: Distortion caused by both devices in a class B amplifier being cut-off at the same
time.
Crystal: Natural or synthetic piezoelectric or semiconductor material with atoms arranged with some degree
of geometric regularity.
Crystal-controlled oscillator: Oscillator that uses a quartz crystal in its feedback path to maintain a stable
output frequency.
Current: Measured in amperes, it is the flow of electrons through a conductor. Also know as electron flow.
Current amplifier: Amplifier to increase signal current.
Current-limiting resistor: Resistor in the path of current flow to control the amount of current drawn by a
device.
Current mirror: Term used to describe the fact that DC current through the base circuit of a class B
amplifier is approximately equal to the DC collector current.
Cutoff: Condition when an active device is biased such that output current is near zero or beyond zero.
Cutoff frequency: Frequency at which the power gain of an amplifier falls below 50% of maximum.
Darlington pair: An amplifier consisting of two bipolar junction transistors with their collectors connected
together and the emitter of one connected to the base of the other. Circuit has an extremely high current gain
and input impedance.
DC load line: A graph representing all possible combinations of voltage and current for a given load resistor
in an amplifier.
DC offset: The change in input voltage required to produce a zero output voltage when no signal is applied
to an amplifier.
Degenerative feedback: Also called negative feedback. A portion of the output of an amplifier is inverted
and connected back to the input. This controls the gain of the amplifier and reduces distortion and noise.
Delay time: The time for collector current to reach 10% of its maximum value in a BJT switching circuit.
Depletion region: The area surrounding a P-N junction that is depleted of carriers.
Depletion mode: In a FET, an operating mode where reverse gate-source voltage is used to deplete the
channel of free carriers. This reduces the size of the channel and increases its resistance.
Dielectric: Insulating material between two plates where an electrostatic field exists.
Dielectric constant: Property of a material that determines how much electrostatic energy can be stored per
unit volume when unit voltage is applied.
Dielectric strength: The maximum voltage an insulating material can withstand without breaking down.
Differential amplifier: An amplifier in which the output is in proportion to the differences between voltages
applied to its two inputs.
Diffusion: Tendency of conduction band electrons to wander across a pn junction to combine with valence
band holes.
Digital: Relating to devices or circuits that have outputs of only two discrete levels. Examples: 0 or 1, high
or low, on or off, true or false etc.
Diode: A two terminal device that conducts in only one direction.
Direct coupling: Where the output of an amplifier is connected directly to the input of another amplifier or
to a load. Also known as DC coupling because DC signals are not blocked.
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Discrete component: Package containing only a single component as opposed to an integrated circuit
containing many components in a single package.
Dissipation: Release of electrical energy in the form of heat.
Distortion: An undesired change in a waveform or signal.
Distributed capacitance: Any capacitance other than that within a capacitor. For example, the capacitance
between adjacent turns of wire in a coil.
Distributed inductance: Any inductance other than that within an inductor. Example inductance in any
conductor.
Domain: A moveable magnetized area in a magnetized material. Also known as magnetic domain.
Doping: The process of adding impurity atoms to intrinsic (pure) silicon or germanium to improve the
conductivity of the semiconductor material.
Drift: A problem that can develop in tuned amplifiers when the frequency of the tuned circuit changes due
to temperature or component aging.
Dual in-line package: Integrated circuit package having two rows of connecting pins.
Dual trace oscilloscope: Oscilloscope that can simultaneously display two signals.
Efficiency: The amount of power delivered to the load of an amplifier as a percentage of the power required
from the power supply.
Electric charge: Electric energy stored on the surface of a material. Also known as a static charge.
Electric field: A field or force that exists in the space between two different potentials or voltages. Also
known as an electrostatic field.
Electricity: Science states that certain particles possess a force field or charge. The charge possessed by an
electron is negative while the charge possessed by a proton is positive. Electricity can be divided into two
groups, static and dynamic. Static electricity deals with charges at rest and dynamic electricity deals with
charges in motion.
Electromagnetic communication: Use of an electromagnetic wave to pass information between two points.
Also called wireless communication.
Electromagnetic wave: wave that consists of both electric and magnetic variation.
Emitter feedback: Coupling from the emitter output to the base input of a bipolar junction transistor.
Emitter follower: A common collector amplifier. Has a high current gain, high input impedance and low
output impedance.
Enhancement-mode MOSFET:A field effect transistor in which there are no charge carriers in the channel
when the gate source voltage is zero.
Feedback: A portion of the output signal of an amplifier which is connected back to the input of the same
amplifier.
Feedback amplifier: An amplifier with an external signal path from its output back to its input.
Fiber optics: Lasers light output carries information that is conveyed between two points by thin glass
optical fibers.
Field effect transistor :(FET) A voltage controlled transistor in which the source to drain conduction is
controlled by gate to source voltage.
Flip flop: A bistable multivibrator. A circuit which has two output states and is switched from one to the
other by means of an external signal (trigger).
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Floating ground: Common connection in a circuit that provides a return path for current but is not
connected to an earth ground.
Flywheel effect: Sustaining effect of oscillation in an LC circuit.
Free running multivibrator:A multivibrator that produces a continuous output waveform without any
signal input. A square wave generator used to produce a clock signal.
Frequency-division multiplex :( FDM) Transmission of two or more signals over a common path by using
a different frequency band for each signal.
Frequency-domain analysis: A method of representing a waveform by plotting its amplitude against
frequency.
Function generator: Signal generator that can produce sine, square, triangle and saw tooth output
waveforms.
Gain: Increase in voltage, current and/or power. Gain is expressed as a ratio of amplifier output value to the
corresponding amplifier input value.
Gain bandwidth product: A device parameter that indicates the maximum possible product of gain and
bandwidth. The gain bandwidth product of a device is equal to the unity gain frequency (funity) of the device.
Ground: An intentional or accidental conducting path between an electrical system or circuit and the earth
or some conducting body acting in place of the earth. A ground is often used as the common wiring point or
reference in a circuit.
Gunn diode: A semiconductor diode that utilizes the Gunn effect to produce microwave frequency
oscillation or to amplify a microwave frequency signal.
half power point: A frequency at which the power is 50% of maximum. This corresponds to 70.7% of
maximum current or voltage.
h-parameters:(hybrid parameters) Transistor specifications that describe the component operating limits
under specific circumstances.
Hartley oscillator: An oscillator that uses a tapped inductor in the feedback network.
High-pass filter: A tuned circuit designed to pass all frequencies above a designated cut-off frequency.
Frequencies below the cut-off frequency are rejected or attenuated
Hole: A gap left in the covalent bond when a valence electron gains sufficient energy to jump to the
conduction band
Hybrid circuit: Circuit that combines two technologies (passive and active or discrete and integrated
components) onto one microelectronic circuit. Passive components are usual made by thin film techniques,
while active components are made with semiconductor techniques.
Hysteresis: Amount that the magnetization of a material lags the magnetizing force due to molecular
friction. In Schmitt Trigger circuits, the difference between the upper and lower trigger points.
IC: Abbreviation for "integrated circuit"
IC voltage regulator: Three terminal device used to hold the output voltage of a power supply constant
over a wide range of load variations.
Impedance :(Z) Measured in ohms it is the total opposition to the flow of current offered by a circuit.
Impedance consists of the vector sum of resistance and reactance.
Impedance matching: Matching the output impedance of a source to the input impedance of a load to attain
maximum power transfer.
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Inductance: Property of a circuit to oppose a change in current. The moving magnetic field produced by a
change in current causes an induced voltage to oppose the original change.
Input impedance: Opposition to the flow of signal current at the input of a circuit or load.
Integrated: When two or more components are combined into a circuit and then incorporated into a single
package.
Integrator: A device that approximates and whose output is proportional to an integral of the input signal. A
low pass filter.
Intermediate frequency amplifier :In a superheterodyne radio it amplifies a fixed frequency lower than the
received radio frequency and higher than the audio frequency.
Internal resistance: Every source has some resistance in series with the output current. When current is
drawn from the source some power is lost due to the voltage drop across the internal resistance. Usually
called output impedance or output resistance.
Intrinsic material: A semiconductor material with electrical properties essentially characteristic of ideal
pure crystal. Essentially silicon or germanium crystal with no measurable impurities.
Intrinsic stand-off ratio: A unijunction transistor (UJT) rating used to determine the firing potential of the
device.
Junction: Contact or connection between two or more wires or cables. The area where the p-type material
and n-type material meet in a semiconductor.
Junction diode: A semiconductor diode in which the rectifying characteristics occur at a junction between
the n-type and p-type semiconductor materials.
Kirchhoff"s current law: The sum of the currents flowing into a point in a circuit is equal to the sum of the
currents flowing out of that same point.
Kirchhoff"s voltage law: The algebraic sum of the voltage drops in a closed path circuit is equal to the
algebraic sum of the source voltages applied.
Knee voltage: The voltage at which a curve joins two relatively straight portions of a characteristic curve.
For a PN junction diode, the point in the forward operating region of the characteristic curve where
conduction starts to increase rapidly. For a zener diode, the term is often used in reference to the zener
voltage rating.
Laser: Device that produces a very narrow intense beam of light. The name is an acronym for "light
amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
LED: Abbreviation for "light emitting diode."
Lenz's law: The current induced in a circuit due to a change in the magnetic field is so directed as to oppose
the flux, or to exert a mechanical force to oppose the motion.
Level detector: An op-amp circuit that compares two inputs and provides a DC output indicating the
polarity relationship between the inputs.
Lie-detector: Piece of electronic equipment also called a polygraph used to determine whether a person is
telling the truth by looking for dramatic changes in blood pressure, body temperature, breathing rate, heart
rate and skin moisture in response to questions.
Light-emitting diode: A semiconductor diode that converts electric energy into electromagnetic radiation at
a visible and near infrared frequencies when its pn junction is forward biased.
Limiter: Circuit or device that prevents some portion of its input from reaching the output. A clipper.
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Linear: Relationship between input and output in which the output varies in direct proportion to the input.
Loading effect: Large load impedance will draw a small load current and so loading of the source is small.
(light load). Small load impedance will draw a large load current from the source. (heavy load).
Load regulation: The ability of a voltage regulator to maintain a constant output voltage under varying load
currents.
Load resistance: Resistance of a load.
Logic: Science of dealing with the principle and applications of gates, relays and switches.
Magnetic poles: Points of a magnet from which magnetic lines of force leave (north pole) and arrive (south
pole).
Matched impedance: Condition that occurs when the output impedance of a source is equal to the input
impedance of a load.
Matching: Connection of two components or circuits so that maximum power is transferred between the
two.
Maximum power transfer: A theorem that states that maximum power will be transferred from source to
load when input impedance of the load equals the output impedance of the source.
Metal oxide field effect transistor :( MOSFET) A field effect transistor in which the insulating layer
between the gate electrode and the channel is a metal oxide layer.
Microphone: Electro acoustic transducer that converts sound energy into electric energy.
Microwave: Band of very short wavelength radio waves within the UHF, SHF and EHF bands.
Midband gain: Gain of an amplifier operating within its bandwidth.
Miller's theorem: A theorem that allows you to represent a feedback capacitor as equivalent input and
output shunt capacitors.
Minority carriers: The conduction band holes in n-type material and valence band electrons in p-type
material. Most minority carriers are produced by temperature rather than by doping with impurities.
Mismatch: Term used to describe a difference between the output impedance of a source and the input
impedance of a load. A mismatch prevents the maximum transfer of power from source to load.
Modulation: Process by which information signal (audio for example) is used to modify some characteristic
of a higher frequency wave known as a carrier (radio for example).
Monostable multivibrator: A multivibrator with one stable output state. When triggered, the circuit output
will switch to the unstable state for a predetermined period of time and then return to the stable state. A
timer.
MOSFET: Abbreviation for "metal oxide field effect transistor" also known as an "insulated gate field
effect transistor). A field effect transistor in which the insulating layer between the gate electrode and the
channel is a metal oxide layer.
Multivibrator:A class of circuits designed to produce square waves or pulses. Astable multivibrators
produce continuous pulses without an external stimulus or trigger. Monostable multivibrators produce a
single pulse for some predetermined period of time only when triggered. Bistable multivibrators produce a
DC output which is stable in either one of two states. Either high or low. An external stimulus or trigger is
required for the bistable circuit to change states, either high to low or low to high.
Negative feedback: A feedback signal 180 out of phase with an amplifier input signal. Used to increase
amplifier stability, bandwidth and input impedance. Also reduces distortion.
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Negative resistance: A resistance such that when the current through it increases the voltage drop across the
resistance decreases.
Negative temperature coefficient: A term used to describe a component whose resistance or capacitance
decreases when temperature increases.
Network: Combination of interconnected components, circuits or systems.
Noise: Unwanted electromagnetic radiation within an electrical or mechanical system. An operational
amplifier circuit having no phase inversion between the input and output.
Non-inverting input: The terminal on an operational amplifier that is identified by a plus sign.
Norton's theorem: Any network of voltage sources and resistors can be replace by a single current source
in parallel with a single resistor.
Notch filter: A filter which blocks a narrow band of frequencies and passes all frequencies above and below
the band.
NPN transistor: A bipolar junction transistor in which a p-type base element is sandwiched between an ntype emitter and an n-type collector.
Offset null: An op amp control pin used to eliminate the effects of internal component voltages on the
output of the device.
Ohm's law: Relationship between voltage, current and resistance. Ohm's law states that current in a
resistance varies in direct proportion to voltage applied and inversely proportional to resistance.
Ohms per volt: Refers to a value of ohms per volt of full scale defection for a moving coil meter
movement. The number of ohms per volt is the reciprocal of the amount of current required to produce full
scale deflection of the needle. A meter requiring 50 microamps for full scale deflection has an internal
resistance of 20 kW per volt. The higher the ohms per volt rating, the more sensitive the meter.
One-shot: Monostable multivibrator.
Op-amp: Abbreviation for operational amplifier.
Open loop gain: Gain of an amplifier when no feedback is present.
Open loop mode: An amplifier circuit having no means of comparing the output with the input. (No
feedback.)
Operational amplifier: A high gain DC amplifier that has high input impedance and a low output
impedance. Op-amps are the most basic type of linear integrated circuits.
Oscillate: To produce a continuous output waveform without an input signal present.
Oscillator: An electronic circuit that produces a continuous output waveform with only DC applied.
Oscilloscope: An instrument used to display a signal graphically. Shows signal amplitude, period and
waveshape in addition to any DC voltage present. A multiple trace oscilloscope can show two or more
waveforms at the same time for phase comparison and timing measurements.
Output: Terminal at which a component, circuit or piece of equipment delivers current, voltage or power.
Output impedance: Impedance measured across the output terminals of a device without a load connected.
Overload: condition that occurs when the load is greater than the system was designed to handle. (Load
resistance too small, load current too high.) Overload results in waveform distortion and/or overheating.
Overload protection: Protective device such as a fuse or circuit breaker that automatically disconnects a
load when current exceeds a predetermined value.
Paper capacitor: Fixed capacitor using oiled or waxed paper as a dielectric.
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Parallel resonant circuit: Circuit having an inductor and a capacitor in parallel with one another. Circuit
offers a high impedance at resonant frequency. Sometimes called a "tank circuit."
Pass band: The range of frequencies that will be passed and amplified by a tuned amplifier. Also the range
of frequencies passed by a band pass filter.
Passive component: Component that does not amplify a signal. Resistors and capacitors are examples.
Passive filter: A filter that contains only passive or non amplifying components.
Passive system: System that emits no energy. It only receives. It does not transmit or reveal its position.
Peak inverse voltage:(PIV) The maximum rated value of a AC voltage acting in the direction opposite to
that in which a device is designed to pass current.
Peak to Peak: Difference between the maximum positive and maximum negative values of an AC
waveform.
Pentavalent element: Element whose atoms have five valence electrons. Used in doping intrinsic silicon or
germanium to produce n-type semiconductor material. Most commonly used pentavalent materials are
arsenic and phosphorus.
Percent of regulation: The change in output voltage that occurs between no-load and full-load in a DC
voltage source. Dividing this change by the full-load value and multiplying the result by 100 gives percent
regulation.
Percent of ripple: The ratio of the effective rms value of ripple voltage to the average value of the total
voltage. Expressed as a percentage.
Phase shift oscillator: An oscillator that uses three RC networks in its feedback path to produce the 180
phase shift required for oscillation.
Phase splitter: Circuit that takes a single input signal and produces two output signals that are 180 apart in
phase.
Photoconductive cell: Material whose resistance decreases or conductance increases when exposed to light.
Photoconduction: A process by which the conductance of a material is change by incident electromagnetic
radiation in the visible light spectrum.
Photo-detector: Component used to detect or sense light.
Photodiode: A semiconductor diode that changes its electrical characteristics in response to illumination.
Photon: Discrete portion of electromagnetic energy. A small packet of light.
Photo resistor: Also known as a photoconductive cell or light dependent resistor. (LDR) A device whose
resistance decreases with exposure to light.
Photovoltaic cell: Component commonly called a solar cell used to convert light energy into electrical
energy.
Piezoelectric crystal: Crystal material that will generate a voltage when mechanical pressure is applied and
conversely will undergo mechanical stress when subjected to a voltage.
Piezoelectric effect: The production of a voltage between opposite sides of a piezoelectric crystal as a result
of pressure or twisting. Also the reverse effect which the application of a voltage to opposite sides causes a
deformation to occur at the frequency of the applied voltage. (Converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy and electrical energy into mechanical energy.)
Pinch-off region: A region on the characteristic curve of a FET in which the gate bias causes the depletion
region to extend completely across the channel.
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Pole: In an active filter, a single RC circuit. A one pole filter has one capacitor and one resistor. A two pole
filter has two RC circuits and so on.
Positive feedback: A feedback signal that is in phase with an amplifier input signal. Positive feedback is
necessary for oscillation to occur.
Potentiometer: A variable resistor with three terminals. Mechanical turning of a shaft can be used to
produce variable resistance and potential. Example: A volume control is usually a potentiometer.
Power: Amount of energy converted by a circuit or component in a unit of time, normally seconds.
Measured in units of watts. (Joules/second).
Power amplifier: An amplifier designed to deliver maximum power output to a load. Example: In an audio
system, it is the power amplifier that drives the loudspeaker.
Power dissipation: Amount of heat energy generated by a device in one second when current flows through
it.
Programmable UJT: Unijunction transistor with a variable intrinsic stand-off ratio.
Quality factor of an inductor or capacitor:
It is the ratio of a component's reactance (energy stored) to its effective series resistance (energy dissipated).
For a tuned circuit, a figure of merit used in bandwidth calculations. Q is the ratio of reactive power to
resistive power in a tuned circuit. Also the symbol for charge in coulombs (Q for quantity).
Quiescent: At rest. For an amplifier the term is used to describe a condition with no active input signal.
Quiescent point :( Q point) A point on the DC load line of a given amplifier that represents the quiescent
(no signal) value of output voltage and current for the circuit.
Radio communication: Term used to describe the transfer of information between two or more points by
use of radio or electromagnetic waves.
Radio-frequency amplifier: Amplifier having one or more active devices to amplify radio signals.
Radio-frequency generator: Generator capable of supplying RF energy at any desired frequency in the
radio-frequency spectrum.
Radio-frequency probe: Probe used in conjunction with an AC meter to measure radio-frequency signals.
RC time constant: Product of resistance and capacitance in seconds.
Reactance: Symbol "X". Opposition to current flow without the dissipation of energy. Example: The
opposition provided by inductance or capacitance to AC current.
Recombination: Process by which a conduction band electron gives up energy (in the form of heat or light)
and falls into a valence band hole.
Rectangular coordinates: A Cartesian coordinate of a Cartesian coordinate system whose straight-line axes
or coordinate planes are perpendicular.
Regenerative feedback: Positive feedback. Feedback from the output of an amplifier to the input such that
the feedback signal is in phase with the input signal. Used to produce oscillation.
Regulated power supply: Power supply that maintains a constant output voltage under changing load
conditions.
Regulator: Device or circuit that maintains a desired output under changing conditions.
Relay: Electromechanical device that opens or closes contacts when a current is passed through a coil.
Relaxation oscillator: Free running circuit that outputs pulses with a period dependent or one or more RC
time constants.
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Reluctance: Resistance to the flow of magnetic lines of force.

Residual magnetism: Magnetism remaining in the core of an electromagnet after the coil current is
removed.
Resistance: Symbolized "R" and measured in ohms. Opposition to current flow and dissipation of energy in
the form of heat.
Resistive power: Amount of power dissipated as heat in a circuit containing resistive and reactive
components. True power as opposed to reactive power.
Resistor: Made of material that opposes flow of current and therefore has some value of resistance.
Resonance: Circuit condition that occurs at the frequency where inductive reactance (XL) equals capacitive
reactance (XC).
Reverse bias: Bias on a PN junction that allows only leakage current (minority carriers) to flow. Positive
polarity on the n-type material and negative polarity to the p-type material.
Reverse breakdown voltage: Amount of reverse bias that will cause a PN junction to break down and
conduct in the reverse direction.
Reverse current: Current through a diode when reverse biased. An extremely small current also referred to
as leakage.
Reverse saturation current: Reverse current through a diode caused by thermal activity. This current is not
affected by the amount of reverse bias on the component, but does vary with temperature.
Ripple frequency: Frequency of the ripple present in the output of a DC source.
Ripple voltage: The small variations in Dc voltage that remain after filtering in a power supply.
Rise time: Time for the leading edge of a pulse to rise from 10% of its peak value to 90% of its peak value.
RL differentiator: An RL circuit whose output voltage is proportional to the rate of change of the input
voltage.
RL filter: Selective circuit of resistors and inductors that offers little or no opposition to certain frequencies
while blocking or attenuating other frequencies.
RL integrator: RL circuit with an output proportionate to the integral of the input signal.
Rms value: Rms value of an AC sine wave is 0.707 times the peak value. This is the effective value of an
AC sine wave. The rms value of a sine wave is the value of a DC voltage that would produce the same
amount of heat in a heating element.
Roll-off rate: Rate of change in gain when an amplifier is operated outside of its bandwidth.
Rotary switch: Electromechanical device that has a rotating shaft connected to one terminal capable of
making or breaking a connection to one or more other terminals.
R-2R ladder: Network or circuit composed of a sequence of L networks connected in tandem. Circuit used
in digital to analog converters.
Saturation: Condition in which a further increase in one variable produces no further increase in the
resultant effect. In a bipolar junction transistor, the condition when the emitter to collector voltage is less
than the emitter to base voltage. This condition puts forward bias on the base to collector junction.
Saw tooth wave: Repeating waveform that rises from zero to maximum value linearly drops back to zero
and repeats. A ramp waveform.
Schmitt trigger: Circuit to convert a given waveform to a square wave output.
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Schottky diode: High speed diode that has very little junction capacitance. Also known as a "hot-carrier
diode" or a "surface-barrier diode."
Selectivity: Chrematistic of a circuit to discriminate between wanted and unwanted signals.
Self biasing: Gate bias for a field effect transistor in which source current through a resistor produces the
voltage for gate to source bias.
Self inductance: Property that causes a counter electromotive force to be produced in a conductor when the
magnetic field expands or collapses with a change of current.
Semiconductor: An element which is either a good conductor or a good insulator, but rather lies somewhere
between the two. Characterized by a valence shell containing four electrons. Silicon, germanium and carbon
are the semiconductors most frequently used in electronics.
Series circuit: Circuit in which the components are connected end to end so that current has only one path
to follow through the circuit.
Series resonance: Condition that occurs in a series LC circuit at the frequency where inductive reactance
equals capacitive reactance. Impedance is minimum, current is maximum limited only by resistance in the
circuit.
Seven segment displays: Device made of several light emitting diodes arranged in a numeric or
alphanumeric pattern. By lighting selected segments numeric or alphabet characters can be displayed.
Shield: Metal grounded cover used to protect a wire, component or piece of equipment from stray magnetic
and/or electric fields.
Short circuit: Also called a short. Low resistance connection between two points in a circuit typically
causing excessive current.
Signal: Electrical quantity that conveys information.
Signal to noise ratio: Ratio of the magnitude of the signal to the magnitude of noise usually expressed in
decibels.
Silicon :( Si) Non metallic element (atomic number 14) used in pure form as a semiconductor.
Silicon-controlled rectifier :(SCR) Three terminal active device that acts as a gated diode. The gate
terminal is used to turn the device on allowing current to pass from cathode to anode.
Silicon controlled switch: An SCR with an added terminal called an anode gate. A positive pulse either at
the anode gate or the cathode gate will turn the device on.
Silicon dioxide: Glass like material used as the gate insulating material in a MOSFET.
Simplex: Communication in only one direction at a time. Example: FAX.
Simulcast: Broadcasting a program simultaneously in two different forms, for example a program broadcast
in both AM and FM.
Single pole double throw :(SPDT) Three terminal switch in which one terminal can be connected to either
one of the other terminals.
Single pole single throw :(SPST) Two terminal switch or relay that can open or close one circuit.
Single sideband :(SSB) AM radio communication technique in which the transmitter suppresses one
sideband and therefore transmits only a single sideband.
Single throw switch: Switch containing only one set of contacts which can be either opened or closed.
Sink: Device such as a load that consumes power or conducts away heat.
Skin effect: Tendency of high-frequency (rf) currents to flow near the surface layer of a conductor.
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Slew rate: The maximum rate at which the output voltage of an op-amp can change.
Software: Program of instructions that directs the operation of a computer.
Solar cell: Photovoltaic cell that converts light into electric energy. Especially useful as a power source for
space vehicles.
solid state: Pertaining to circuits where signals pass through solid semiconductor material such as transistors
and diodes as opposed to vacuum tubes where signals pass through a vacuum.
Sonar: Acronym for "sound navigation and ranging." A system using reflected sound waves to determine
the position of some target.
Sound wave: Pressure waves propagated through air or other plastic media. Sound waves are generally
audible to the human ear if the frequency is between approximately 20 and 20,000 vibrations per second.
(Hertz)
Source follower: FET amplifier in which signal is applied between gate and drain with output taken
between source and drain. Also called "common drain."
Source impedance: Impedance through which output current is taken from a source.
Spectrum: Arrangement or display of light or other forms of electromagnetic radiation separated according
to wavelength, energy or some other property.
Spectrum analyzer: Instrument used to display the frequency domain of a waveform plotting amplitude
against frequency.
Speed-up capacitor: Capacitor added to the base circuit of a BJT switching circuit to improve the switching
time of the device.
Stop band: Range of frequencies outside the pass band of a tuned amplifier.
Storage time: In a BJT switching circuit, it is the time required for collector current to drop from 100% to
90% of its maximum value.
Stranded conductor: Conductor composed of a group of strands of wire twisted together.
Stray capacitance: Undesirable capacitance that exists between two conductors such as two leads or one
lead and a metal chassis.
Superconductor: Metal such as lead or niobium that, when cooled to within a few degrees of absolute zero,
can conduct current with no resistance.
Super heterodyne receiver: Radio receiver that converts all radio frequencies to a fixed intermediate
frequency to maximize gain and bandwidth before demodulation.
Super high frequency :( SHF) Frequency band between 3 GHz and 30 GHz. So designated by Federal
Communications Commission (FCC).
Superposition theorem: Theorem designed to simplify networks containing two or more sources. It states
that in a network containing more than one source, the current at any one point is equal to the algebraic sum
of the currents produced by each source acting separately.
Sweep generator: Test instrument designed to produce a voltage that continuously varies in frequency over
a band of frequencies. Used as a source to display frequency response of a circuit on an oscilloscope.
Switch: Electrical device having two states, on (closed) or off (open). Ideally having zero impedance when
closed and infinite impedance when open.
Switching transistor: transistor designed to change rapidly between saturation and cut-off.
Synchronization: Also called sync. Precise matching of two waves or functions.
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Synchronous: Two or more signals in step or in phase.

System: Combination of several pieces of equipment to perform in a particular manner.
Tank circuit: Parallel resonant circuit containing only a coil and a capacitor. Both the coil and capacitor
store electrical energy for part of each cycle.
Telegraphy: Communication between two points by sending and receiving a series of current pulses either
through wire or by radio.
Telemetry: Transmission of instrument readings to a remote location either by wire or by radio.
Telephone: Apparatus designed to convert sound waves into electrical waves which are sent to and
reproduced data distant point.
Telephone line: Wires existing between subscribers and central stations in a telephone system.
Television :System that converts both audio and visual information into corresponding electrical signals
which are then transmitted through wires or by radio waves to a receiver which reproduces the original
information.
Thermal runaway: Problem that can develop in an amplifier when an increase in temperature causes an
increase in collector current. The increase in collector current causes a further increase in temperature and so
on. Unless the circuit is designed to prevent this condition, the device can be driven into saturation.
Thermal stability: The ability of a circuit to maintain stable characteristics in spite of increased
temperature.
Thermistor: Temperature sensitive semiconductor that has a negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
As temperature increases, resistance decreases.
Thermocouple: Temperature transducer consisting of two dissimilar metals welded together at one end to
form a junction that when heated will generate a voltage.
Thermostat: Device that opens or closes a circuit in response to changes in temperature.
The venins theorem: Theorem that replaces any complex network with a single voltage source in series
with a single resistance.
Threshold voltage: For an enhancement MOSFET, the minimum gate source voltage required for
conduction of source drain current.
Thyristor: A term used to classify all four layer semiconductor devices. SCRs and triacs are examples of
thyristors.
Time constant :(t) Time required for a capacitor in an RC circuit to charge to 63% of the remaining
potential across the circuit. Also time required for current to reach 63% of maximum value in an RL circuit.
Time constant of an RC circuit is the product of R and C. Time constant of an RL circuit is equal to
inductance divided by resistance.
Time division multiplexing :( TDM) Transmission of two or more signals on the same path, but at different
times.
Transconductance: Also called mutual conductance. Ratio of a change in output current to the change in
input voltage that caused it.
Transmission line: Conducting line used to transmit signal energy between two points.
Triggering: Initiation of an action in a circuit which then functions for a predetermined time. Example: The
duration of one sweep in a cathode ray tube.
Trimmer: Small value variable capacitor, resistor or inductor used to fine tune a larger value.
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Tuned circuit: Circuit that can have its component values adjusted so that it responds to one selected
frequency and rejects all others.
Tunnel diode: Heavily doped junction diode that has negative resistance in the forward direction of its
operating range.
Turn-off time: Sum of storage time and fall time.
Turn-on time: Sum of delay time and rise time.
Ultrasonic: Signals that are just above the frequency range of human hearing of approximately 20 kHz.
Unijunction transistor: Three terminal device that acts as a diode with its own internal voltage divider
biasing circuit.
Varactor diode: PN junction diode with a high junction capacitance when reverse biased. Most often used
as a voltage controlled capacitor. The varactor is also called: varicap, tuning diode
Very high frequency :(VHF) Electromagnetic frequency band from 30 MHz to 300 MHz
Very low frequency :(VLF) Frequency band from 3 kHz to 30 kHz.
Video amplifier: Amplifier having one or mare stages designed to amplify video signals.
Virtual ground: Point in a circuit that is always at approximately ground potential. Often a ground for
voltage, but not for current.
voice synthesizer: Synthesizer that can simulate speech by stringing together phonemes.
Voltage amplifier: Amplifier designed to build up signal voltage. By design amplifiers can have a large
voltage gain or a large current gain or a large power gain. Voltage amplifiers are designed to maximize
voltage gain often at the expense of current gain or power gain.
Voltage controlled oscillator: Oscillator whose output frequency depends on an input control voltage.
Voltage follower: Operational amplifier circuit characterized by a high input impedance, low output
impedance and unity voltage gain. Used as a buffer between a source and a low impedance load.
Voltage gain: Also called voltage amplification. Ratio of amplifier output voltage to input voltage usually
expressed in decibels.
Voltage multiplier: Rectifier circuit using diodes and capacitors to produce a DC output voltage that is
some multiple of the peak value of AC input voltage. Cost effective way of producing higher DC voltages.
Voltage doublers and voltage triplers are examples.
Waveguide: Rectangular or circular pipe used to guide electromagnetic waves at micro frequencies.
Wien-bridge oscillator: Oscillator that uses an RC low-pass filter and an RC high-pass filter to set the
frequency of oscillations.
Wheatstone bridge: Four arm bridge circuit used to measure resistance, inductance or capacitance.
Wideband amplifier: Also called "broadband amplifier." Amplifier with a flat response over a wide range
of frequencies.
Woofer: Large loudspeaker designed primarily to reproduce low frequency audio signals.
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Chapter-3 Latest Technology Part-1:

Global Positioning system:
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system made up of a network of 24
satellites placed into orbit by the U.S. Department of Defence. GPS was originally intended for military
applications, but in the 1980s, the government made the system available for civilian use. GPS works in any
weather conditions, anywhere in the world 24 hours a day. There are no subscription fees or setup charges to
use GPS.
Working of GPS:
GPS satellites circle the earth twice a day in a very precise orbit and transmit signal information to earth.
GPS receivers take this information and use triangulation to calculate the user's exact location. Essentially,
the GPS receiver compares the time a signal was transmitted by a satellite with the time it was received. The
time difference tells the GPS receiver how far away the satellite is. Now, with distance measurements from a
few more satellites, the receiver can determine the user's position and display it on the unit's electronic map.
A GPS receiver must be locked on to the signal of at least three satellites to calculate a 2D position (latitude
and longitude) and track movement. With four or more satellites in view, the receiver can determine the
user's 3D position (latitude, longitude and altitude). Once the user's position has been determined, the GPS
unit can calculate other information, such as speed, bearing, track, trip distance, distance to destination,
sunrise and sunset time and more.
GPS Satellite system:
The 24 satellites that make up the GPS space segment are orbiting the earth about 12,000 miles above us.
They are constantly moving, making two complete orbits in less than 24 hours. These satellites are travelling
at speeds of roughly 7000 miles an hour.GPS satellite are powered by solar energy. They have backup
batteries onboard to keep them running in the event of a solar eclipse, when there's no solar power. Small
rocket boosters on each satellite keep them flying in the correct path.
Generation of Mobile:
1G: Purely analog
2G: It is mainly for voice and slow transmission
2.5G: So the cellular services combined with GPRS became 2.5G.
GPRS could provide data rates from 56 kbit/s up to 114 kbit/s. It can be used for services such as Wireless
Application Protocol (WAP) access, Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS), and for Internet
communication services such as email and World Wide Web access.
2.75G: GPRS networks evolved to EDGE networks with the introduction of 8PSK encoding. Enhanced Data
rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE), Enhanced GPRS (EGPRS), or IMT Single Carrier (IMT-SC) is a
backward-compatible digital mobile phone technology that allows improved data transmission rates, as an
extension on top of standard GSM.
EDGE can be considered a 3G radio technology and is part of ITU's 3G definition, but is most frequently
referred to as 2.75G. EDGE was deployed on GSM networks .
3G:
International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000):
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Better known as 3G or 3rd Generation, is a family of standards for wireless communications defined by the
International Telecommunication Union, which includes EDGE, CDMA2000, the UMTS family as well as
DECT and WiMAX. Services include wide-area wireless voice telephone, video calls, and wireless data, all
in a mobile environment. Compared to 2G and 2.5G services, 3G allows simultaneous use of speech and
data services and higher data rates (up to 14.4 Mbit/s on the downlink and 5.8 Mbit/s on the uplink with
HSPA+). Thus, 3G networks enable network operators to offer users a wider range of more advanced
services while achieving greater network capacity through improved spectral efficiency.
GPRS (General Packet Radio Service):
It offers high speed data services in GSM network. It uses Packet Mode Technique to transfer data and
provides connectivity to Internet. Users will be able to browse Internet using handsets supporting Internet
browsing. They will also be able use their e-mail accounts as is being done through landline Internet access.
Also browsing of Internet from Laptops and Desktop computers is possible by connecting the computer with
the GPRS enabled mobile handset through a data cable or Infrared connectivity.
Using GPRS you can download in your mobile the following:
Polyphonic
ring
tones
MP3
tones
Colour
logos
Wallpapers
Videos
GSM&CDMA:
GSM: Global system for Mobile Communication
CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access.
GSM networks operate in a number of different frequency ranges (separated into GSM frequency
ranges for 2G and UMTS frequency bands for 3G). Most 2G GSM networks operate in the 900 MHz
or 1800 MHz bands. Some countries in the Americas (including Canada and the United States) use the 850
MHz and 1900 MHz bands because the 900 and 1800 MHz frequency bands were already allocated.
Most 3G GSM networks in Europe operate in the 2100 MHz frequency band.
GSM-900 uses 890915 MHz to send information from the mobile station to the base station (uplink)
and 935960 MHz for the other direction (downlink), providing 125 RF channels (channel numbers 0 to
124) spaced at 200 kHz. Duplex spacing of 45 MHz is used.
In some countries the GSM-900 band has been extended to cover a larger frequency range. This extended
GSM, E-GSM uses 880915 MHz (uplink) and 925960 MHz (downlink), adding 50 channels (channel
numbers 975 to 1023 and 0) to the original GSM-900 band. Time division multiplexing is used to
allow eight full-rate or sixteen half-rate speech channels per radio frequency channel. There are eight
radio timeslots (giving eight burst periods) grouped into what is called a TDMA frame. Half rate channels
use alternate frames in the same timeslot. The channel data rate for all 8 channels is 270.833 kbit/s, and the
frame duration is 4.615 ms.The transmission power in the handset is limited to a maximum of 2 watts in
GSM850/900 and 1 watt in GSM1800/1900.
SIM:
One of the key features of GSM is the Subscriber Identity Module, commonly known as a SIM card.
The SIM is a detachable smart card containing the users subscription information and phone book. This
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allows the user to retain his or her information after switching handsets. Alternatively the user can also
change operators while retaining the handset simply by changing the SIM. Some operators will block this by
allowing the phone to use only a single SIM, or only a SIM issued by them, this practice is known as SIM
locking, and is illegal in some countries.
WAP (Wireless Application Protocol):
It provides a standardized way of linking the Internet to mobile phones. WAP is an application
communication protocol. WAP is used to access services and information. It is inherited from Internet
standards. It is used for handheld devices such as mobile phones and PDAs. It is a protocol designed for
micro browsers. It enables the creating of web-applications for mobile devices
WAP
uses
the
mark-up
language
called
WML
instead
of regular
HTML.
The WAP facility is available over CSD & GPRS for the Cell One customers.
MMS:
Mobile Messaging is evolving beyond SMS text messaging with the introduction of MMS (Multimedia
Messaging Service). MMS delivers a total communication experience allowing personalized multimedia
content
such
as
images,
audio,
text,
video
and
combinations
of
these.
Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) is a store and forward messaging service that allows mobile
subscribers to exchange multimedia messages with other mobile subscribers. As such it can be seen as an
evolution of SMS, with MMS supporting the transmission of additional media types.
MMS is an important emerging service, which allows the sending of multiple media in a single message,
and the ability to send a message to multiple recipients. The originator can easily create a Multimedia
Message, either using a built-in or accessory camera, or can use images and sounds stored previously in the
phone (and possibly downloaded from a web site).Even if the recipient phone is not switched on, the
Multimedia Message will be stored and sent to the recipient as soon as they switch on their phone. If the
recipient has not subscribed to the MMS service, still he/she can view the MMS through internet based on
the
SMS
notification
he/she
gets.
A number of Multimedia Messages can be stored in the users handset and reviewed or forwarded at a later
date.
ATM&PVC:
(Asynchronous Transfer Mode & Permanent Virtual circuit):
ISDN:(integrated circuit Digital Network):
ISDN Has emerged as a powerful tool worldwide for provisioning of different services like voice, data and
image transmission over the telephone line through the telephone network. ISDN is being viewed as the
logical extension of the digitalization of telecommunication network and most developed countries are in
different
stages
of
implementing
ISDN.
An ISDN subscriber can establish two simultaneous independent calls (except when the terminal equipment
is such that it occupies two 'B' channels for one call itself like in video conferencing etc.) on existing pair of
wires of the telephone line (Basic rate ISDN) where as only one call is possible at present on the analog line
/telephone connection. The two simultaneous calls in ISDN can be of any type like speech, data, image etc.
Services Offered By ISDN
Normal
Telephone
&
Fax
(G3)
Digital Telephone -with a facility to identify the calling subscriber number and other facilities.
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G4
Fax
Data Transmission at 64 Kbps with ISDN controller card
Video Conferencing at 128 Kbps
Video Conferencing at 384 Kbps (Possible with 3 ISDN lines)
Broadband service:
BSNL is in the process of commissioning of a world class, multi-gigabit, multi-protocol, convergent IP
infrastructure through National Internet Backbone-II (NIB-II), that will provide convergent services through
the same backbone and broadband access network. The Broadband service will be available on DSL
technology (on the same copper cable that is used for connecting telephone), on a countrywide basis
spanning 198 cities. In terms of infrastructure for broadband services NIB-II would put India at par with
more advanced nations. The services that would be supported includes always-on broadband access to the
Internet for residential and business customers, Content based services, Video multicasting, Video-ondemand and Interactive gaming, Audio and Video conferencing, IP Telephony, Distance learning
messaging: plain and feature rich, Multi-site MPLS VPNs with Quality of Service (QoS) guarantees.
The subscribe will be able to access the above services through Subscriber Service Selection System (SSSS)
portal.
Important Terms in modern communication:
Wi-Fi: Wireless fidelity
1. Wi-Fi allows local area networks (LANs) to be deployed without wires for client devices, typically
reducing the costs of network deployment and expansion. Spaces where cables cannot be run, such as
outdoor areas and historical buildings, can host wireless LANs.
2. Wireless network adapters are now built into most laptops. The price of chipsets for Wi-Fi continues
to drop, making it an economical networking option included in even more devices. Wi-Fi has become
widespread in corporate infrastructures.
3. Different competitive brands of access points and client network interfaces are inter-operable at a basic
level of service. Products designated as "Wi-Fi Certified" by the Wi-Fi Alliance are backwards
compatible. Wi-Fi is a global set of standards. Unlike mobile telephones, any standard Wi-Fi device
will work anywhere in the world.
4. Wi-Fi is widely available in more than 220,000 public hotspots and tens of millions of homes and
corporate and university campuses worldwide. The current version of Wi-Fi Protected Access
encryption (WPA2) is not easily defeated, provided strong passwords are used. New protocols for
Quality of Service (WMM) make Wi-Fi more suitable for latency-sensitive applications.
Wi-MAX: worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
WiMAX, meaning Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access, is a telecommunications
technology that provides wireless transmission of data using a variety of transmission modes, from
point-to-multipoint links to portable and fully mobile internet access. The technology provides up to 3
Mbit/sec broadband speed without the need for cables. The technology is based on the IEEE 802.16
standard (also called Broadband Wireless Access). The name "WiMAX" was created by the WiMAX
Forum, which was formed in June 2001 to promote conformity and interoperability of the standard. The
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forum describes WiMAX as "a standards-based technology enabling the delivery of last mile wireless
broadband access as an alternative to cable and DSL
What is electronics?
Electronics is flow of electrons or other electrically charged particles in semiconductor in a controlled
manner but electrical is study of presence or movement of electric charge.
Microwave oven:
It uses Magnetron microwave and generates microwave at frequency of 2.45 GHz for purpose of cooking of
food. This is based on molecule of water and other components and other compounds which rotate or vibrate
and due to this vibration heat is generated. Every organic matter is generally made up of matter.
Different microwave frequency band:
L, S, C, X, Ku, K, Ka (1-40GHz) and other higher frequency bands are as follows:
1. Q-band(30-50)
2. U-Band(40-60)
3. V-band(50-75)
4. E-band(60-90)
5. W-band(75-110)
6. F-Band(90-140)
7. D-band(110-170)
Cable TV: CATV (Community Antenna TV)
CATV is a system of providing TV FM radio programming and other services to consumer via radio
frequency signals transmitted directly to peoples TV through optical fiber and Co axial cable. In case of
radio broad casting use of different frequency allow many channels to be distributed through same cable
without separates wires for each. Here tuner of TV-VCR (Video-Cassette-Recorder). Since here a point is
operating like an antenna from where many households are taking cables so it is known as community
antenna TV.
Plasma TV:
It is an emissive flat panel display. It is lighter and much thinner than traditional TV and video display .In
Plasma TV light is emitted by phosphorous which is excited by plasma discharge between two flat panels of
glass. Thickness of plasma is less than 10 cm. There is Neon and Xenon gas in plasma TV which is
contained between hundred of tiny cells. Phosphorus in a plasma display give-off colored light when they
are excited. Contrast ratio of plasma TV is 5000:1. Main advantage of plasma TV is that a very wide screen
can be produced using extremely thin materials. In plasma each pixel is lit individually so image is very
bright and looks good from almost every angle.
Plasma state: It is an ionized gas and considered to be a distinct phase of matter, here ionized means at
least one electron has been disassociated from a significant fraction of molecule. Plasma are most common
phase of matter and entire visible universe outside solar system is plasma.
LCD:
It is a thin flat display device made of any number of color or monochrome pixels arrayed in front of a light
source or reflector. It uses a very small amount of power and i.e. Why suitable for use in battery powered
electronic devices. LCD works on concept of optical polarizer. For color LCD 3sub pixels are used which
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are colored as red, green and blue. Main advantage of LCD is less power consumption and its disadvantages
are lower contrast ratio and larger response time.
Analog Digital TV:
Analog TV encodes television picture information as an analog signal i.e. by varying the voltage or
frequency of signal. Common Analog TV system are NTSC (National Television system Committee) and
PAL (Phase Alternating Line).
Digital TV uses digital modulation and compression to broad cast video audio and data signals. It can be
used to carry more channels in some amount of bandwidth than analog TV and it receive high definition
programming. This digital signal eliminates common analog broad casting defects such as ghosting, static
noise etcs.
Aspect ratio in case of digital TV is 16:9 while in analog it is 4:3.
High-Definition-TV (HDTV):
It has higher resolution than traditional formats like NTSC, PAL etcs. HDTV is broadcasted generally and
therefore coincides with introduction of digital TV. High definition means TV or display is able to accept
video over a HDMI connection using a new connector known as HDMI. HDTV has aspect ratio of 16:9 and
thus effective resolution is increased.
High Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI):
It provides an interface between any compatible digital audio video/audio source such as set-top-box, DVD
player and digital TV. HDMI supports standard, enhanced or high definition video plus multichannel audio
on a single cable.
Direct to Home (DTH):
It is a term that describes satellite television service which is delivered via communication satellite.
Radio frequency:
It is a portion of electromagnetic spectrum in which electromagnetic waves can be generated by AC fed to
an antenna. Generally RF range is between 3Hz-300GHz.
Sub-marine cable:
This is cable laid beneath the sea to carry telecommunication between countries. Normal radio
communication cant travel through thick conductors such as salt water. VLF(3-30 KHz) can penetrate sea
water down to a depth of roughly 20 meter hence a submarine staying at shallow depth can use these
frequencies.
Repeater:
It is an analog device that amplifies an input signal which may be either digital or analog. Repeaters are used
in both copper wire cables and optical fiber carrying light. Repeaters are used in broadcasting where they are
known as booster.
FCC- Rules :( Federal Communication Commission)
These are certain rules and which governed all radio spectrums in world wide.
Short wave: (3MHz-30MHz)
Short wave frequencies are capable of reaching other side of planet because they can be reflected by
ionosphere. SW are used for domestic broad casting in countries with a widely dispersed population and also
for international broad casting.
Medium wave (300 KHz-3MHz)
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It is standard AM broad cast band. These waves have property of following curvature of earth i.e ground
wave at all times and also reflect ionosphere. Medium wave is ideal for both local and continent worldwide.
Long wave (<500KHz)
Frequency below 500 KHz in these wave follow curvature of earth unlike SW they dont reflect or refract
from ionosphere.
Different broad cast frequency:
1. AM radio :535-1605 KHZ(LF)
2. TV band-I :54MHz-88MHZ(VHF)
3. FM radio band-II: 88MHz-108MHz(VHF)
4. TV band-III: 174MHz-216MHz
5. TV band-IV&V:512MHz-806MHz(UHF)
Audio frequency:
It has range between 20-20KHz. These range are audible to human ear. It contains bands ELF, SLF,
ULF&VLF.
Nano technology:
This technology is based upon fact that properties of material becomes totally different when their size
approaches that of a few hundred or tens of atoms. By control of matter at dimension of roughly 1-100nm
property will change. 2 phenomenonas occur by going at that level.
1. Quantum confinement
2. Gibbs-Thomson effect.
So nano technology means there is plenty of room at bottom
Wi-Fi :( Wireless-fidelity)
By this technique a computer/laptop/PDA will connect to internet. There is a hot spot which is radiating
internet signals in air. Wi-Fi uses IEEE802.11 standard. For access to internet persons laptop must be Wi-Fi
enabled. In this case hot-spot will broadcast its SSID (Service Set Identifier Network) via packets.
Wi-Max (Worldwide Interoperability of Microwave Access):
It is similar to Wi-Fi concept but it is used for long distance access. Wi-MAX is a wireless MAN. It is a
network that connects IEEE 802.11(hot spot) with each other and to other parts of internet and provides a
wireless alternative to cable and DSL. IEEE 802.16 provides upto 50 km of linear service area range and
allows connectivity between users without a direct LOS.
ISDN: (Integrated service Digital Network)
It is a type of circuit switched telephone network which is designed to allow digital transmission of voice
and data over ordinary telephone copper wires which result in better quality and higher speed than available
with analog system. It provides simultaneous voice-data and text transmission between individual desktop
,video conferencing and group video conferencing systems.
Channels in ISDN:
B-channel are used for data and D-channels are intended for signaling and control but can be used for data
also.
Access in ISDN:
There are two types of access to ISDN.
1. Basic Rate Interface (BRI): Here BRI consists of 2B channels with a B.W of 64Kbps and one D channel
with a B.W of 16 Kbps. So BRI contains 2B+D
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2. Primary Rate Interface (PRI): here PRI consists of large no of B channels and one D channel. PRI
consists of 23B+D
Digital Subscriber-Line (DSL):
DSL is replacement of ordinary modem over same copper cable. So it is a family of technologies that
provides digital data transmission over local telephone network. Down load speed ranges from 128 kbps to
24000kbps. It is a very high speed connection that uses same wire as regular telephone network.
Advantages of DSL Modem:
1. In this case one can leave interconnection open and can still use phone line for voice call.
2. Speed of DSL is higher than that of normal modem
3. DSL modem does not require new wiring and can use same phone line for internet connection.
Disadvantage of DSL modem:
1. DSL connection is better when you are closer to providers central office
2. Connection is faster for receiving data than for sending it over the internet
3. Service is not available every where
ADSL-(Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line):
Here data flow in 1direction is higher than data flow in other direction .Here down load speed is higher than
upload speed. ADSL uses two frequency band
1. 25.875KHz-138KHz is used for upstream
2. 138KHz-1104KHz is used for down load speed.
VDSL-Very high bit rate DSL: It is used for high bit rate DSL
SDSL- Symmetric DSL: It is used mainly by business man. Receiving and sending data rate is same for
both down load speed.
RADSL- Rate Adaptive DSL:
Variation of ADSL modem can adjust speed of connection depending upon length and quality of line.
Mechatronics:
It is combination of mechanical-engineering, electronics-engineering& software- engineering. Mechatronics
is related with self operating machine eg.robot.
Internet&World Wide Web:
Internet is a collection of interconnected computer networks linked by copper wires&fiber optics cables.
While web is a collection of interconnected documents linked by hyper links and URL and is accessible
using internet. It is publically accessible worldwide system of interconnected computer network which
transmits data by packet switching using a standardized Internet protocol (IP). Internet is based upon packet
switching.
Internet was started as ARPANET in 1965 by DARPA (Defence Advance Research project Agency) which
later grew as internet. ARPANET is Advanced Research Project Agency Network.
Internet protocol (IP):
These are certain rules which govern communication of data across a packet switched network.
IP-Address:
It is a unique number that devices use in order to identify and communicate with each other on a network
utilizing internet protocol standard. Number currently used in IP address ranges from 1.0.0.0 to
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255.255.255.255. Internet protocol knows each logical host interface by a number, the IP address on any
given network.
I-Mode:
It is a wireless internet service which is very popular in Japan. It was inspired by WAP developed in USA. Imode was developed as an expensive method of packet switched high speed communication.
WAP :( Wireless Application Protocol)
It is an open international standard for application that uses wireless communication eg. Internet access from
a mobile phone. It is known protocol used for majority of worlds mobile internet sites.
POTS service: (Post office Telephone service)
ACARS :( Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting system):
It is a digital data link system for transmission of small message between aircraft and ground station via
radio or satellite. It was protocol defined in 1970 and used telex format.
Mobiles phone are not allowed in aircraft because mobile phone could interfere with sensitive equipment on
aircraft. Level of interference depends upon phone system used and phone components in plane. Older
analog phones transmit more power and so more interference.
Blue tooth:
It is a way to connect and exchange information between two devices like mobiles Mobile jammer:
,PCs, laptops, printers and digital camera etc.It is available everywhere and i.e. why called as globally
available short range network. Both devices in this network must be blue tooth enabled.
General application of blue tooth:
It transfers file between 2 mobiles, laptop to laptop, 2 LANS can also be constructed keyboard to PC and
between desk top and mice.
Mobile Jammer:
By use of mobile jammer mobile cant transmit and receive signal from/to BTS. It is basically used for
avoiding disturbances at temple, church etc. It works on very simple concept that is interference. This
mobile jammer sends same frequency which mobile phone uses and this causes enough interference for
mobile signal which make mobile signal very weak and finally not able to communicate with respective
BTS.
E-mail:
For sending e-mail from one place to another important protocols used are SMTP and POP-3.
Working of E-mail:
Step-1: sender writes e-mail and his MUA (Mail-User-Agent)formats the message in internet e-mail format
and a protocol SMTP sends it to local MTA(Mail-Transfer-Agent). Mail-Transfer-Agent is a computer
program that transfer e-mail message from one place to another place MTA is same as Mail-ExchangeServer.
Step-2: MTA looks up this domain name in DNS to find another MTA accepting message for that domain
this another MTA is nothing but another Mail-Exchange-Server.
Step-3: Now message goes to Users inbox from this MTA by use of SMTP protocol. So mail is reached in
inbox from MTA by use of SMTP.
Step-4: Now user gets this e-mail by use of Post-Office-Protocol (POP-3)
Modem and Codec:
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Modem: For long distance transmission data should be in analog form because digital data cant be sent for
long distance. In case of digital repeater, transformer cant be used efficiently. But in general modulation
used is Digital so to avoid this problem one will use Modem which will convert digital to analog on TX side
and analog to digital on Rx side. So by use of modem transmission is made easier over transmission channel.
So Modem means modulation and demodulation both.
Codec: It means coding/decoding or compression/decompression.
Difference between communication/Telecommunication: Exchanging information between 2entities is
known as communication if it is at long distance then it is known as telecommunication. If receiver is
listening and understands everything effectively then it is called as effective communication
Various channel Access method:
FDMA: Frequency Division Multiplexing
TDMA: Time Division Multiplexing
SSMA: Spread Spectrum Multiplexing
SDMA: Space Division Multiplexing
WDMA: wave length Division Multiplexing
CSMA: Carrier Sense Multiplexing
FDMA: In this case total bandwidth is divided into many bands of frequency and each subdivision/band has
its own carrier frequency.
TDMA: In this case same frequency is divided into different time slots. This is generally used in mobile
telephony.
GSM uses FDMA to prevent interference between outward and inward signals while TDMA is used to allow
multiple handsets to work on a single cells.
SSMA: In this case energy generated at a single frequency is deliberately spread over a wide band of
frequency. This concept is generally used in mobile jammers.
SDMA: Here power is distributed in a particular direction which has more number of users. So directivity
of antenna will be high in a particular direction and low in another direction. So space division is according
to situation or availability of users.
WDMA: when multiple optical carrier signals are multiplexed on a single optical fiber by use of different
wavelengths of LASER light to carry different signals.
Note: WDM is applied to optical carrier while FDM is applied to radio carrier. Both Radio and light are both
forms of electromagnetic radiation.
CSMA: Transmitter listens for carrier wave before trying to send it, it tries to detect the presence of an
encoded signal from another station before attempting to transmit. Multiple accesses means multiple nodes
send and receive on one medium.
Line code: it is a code chosen for use within a communication system for transmission purposes. This line
code must not contain DC component because transmission of DC component is not possible for long
distance so line code is preferred for long distance communication. Example of line code are Uni-polar,
Polar, Bi-polar and Manchester.
Manchester coding is one in which each bit of data is signified by at-least on transition. It is known as self
clocking i.e. accurate synchronization of data stream is possible.
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM): It is a standard form of digital audio
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&video and is used in Compact Disc (CD). PCM is a digital representation of an analog signal where
magnitude of signal is sampled regularly at uniform intervals and then quantized to a series of symbols in
digital code.
MP-3 player: MPEG-1 audio layer-3 is a lossy compression format and it provides representation of PCM
audio data in much smaller size by compressing redundant terms. So MP-3 player is nothing but compressed
form of PCM based digital audio.
Dolby sound: It is a trade mark for audio noise reduction system and other systems that improves
performance and fidelity of audio recording.
FM&PM: Frequency modulation and Phase modulation are two modulation techniques. FM is generally
used at VHF radio frequency for high fidelity broadcasts of music and speech. Advantage of FM is that it is
more robust against noise and interference and i.e. why it is a high fidelity radio transmission. PM is not
preferred because it requires more complex receiving hardware and there can be ambiguity problem of
phase.
TV/Car remote control:
IR (Infra-red) transmission is used for this type of remote control. IR transmission is used for short range
communication. Remote control contains LED which transmits IR light and TV/car contains Si-Photo-diode.
IR light from remote control falls on the photo diode of TV and this photo diode responds to IR light.
Generally this photo diode responds only to rapidly pulsing signal created by transmitter.
IR radiations are useful for indoor use in areas of high population density and it cannot penetrate walls &so
does not interfere with other devices in adjoining room.
I-MAX: It is a film projection system created by company called I MAX of Canada. It is 22 meter wide and
16 meter high.
Global-Positioning System (GPS): it is a satellite navigation system which is used to determine position of
a target by use of a satellite constellation of 24 satellite in intermediate circular orbit 20200Km. It is used for
locating a target, vehicle and also used for surveying.
Vehicle tracking by GPS/GPS tracking:
Every vehicle will contain GPS receiver and calculates current position using process of trilateration after
measuring distance to at least 4 satellites by comparing satellite coded time signal transmission. Here
receiver calculates the orbit of each satellite based on information encoded in their radio signals and
measures distance to each satellite. So this data is recorded in this unit,this recorded data can be stored
within tracking unit or it may be transmitted to a central location form where info can be send back to user
after making it in user friendly form.
Attenuation&distortion:
Attenuation means loss of signal and generally repeaters are used for compensating attenuation or loss. But
repeaters amplify the noise along with the signal resulting in a poor signal to noise ratio.
Distortion means inaccurate reproduction of a signal caused by changes in signals waveform,either
amplitude or frequency. To avoid distortion equalizers are used and one type of equaliser used in analog
environment is the load coil. By use of load coils frequency response is flatten.
Performance parameters in digital transmission:
In digital transmission system the quality of communication is mainly assessed by two factors:
1. Bit-Error-Rate
98
2. Jitter
BER: The BER is the measure of error bits with respect to total number of bits transmitted in a given time.
The total number of bits transmitted can be known from the bit rate of digital signal. For quality
communication the requirement is not more than one error bit in one million bits.
Short term variation of the significant instances of digital signal from their corresponding reference positions
is referred to as jitter.
99
Chapter-4: Latest technology Part-II

Teledensity: 75% (Mobile user)
Total Telephone in India 900 million connections
Mobile Communication:
There are 1st generation to 5th generation mobile technology variations/
Wired telephony was replaced by wireless technology and has various generation mobiles:
1G (1980) : AMPS (Advance mobile system phone)
Speed -2.4 kbps (Analog)
2G: Digital (CDMA/GSM) = GMSK voice (64 kbps = 8(bit) 8 KHz)
(CDMA 2000) is name for CDMA technology
i.e. TDMA & FDMA concept is used.
no video / only MMS &picture (JPEG)
MPEG = Moving Picture Expert Group
JPEG works on DCT (Direct/Discrete Cosine Trans Group)
GMSK Modulation technique was used
2.5 G: GPRS (General Packet Radio System)
Speed: (64-144) kbps
For downloading 3 min. song we require at least 10 min time
2.75 G (EDGE) (Enhanced data for GSM Evolution)
Speed: 384 kbps
Modulation :( 8 array PSK)
3G (WCDMA / UMTS) :> 2 Mbps
Downloading speed is 14.4 Mbps
Uploading speed is 5.8 Mbps
Example: Video streaming is possible to download a 3 min. song it takes around 10-15 seconds.
UMTS (Universal mobile Telecommunication System):2 Mbps.
3.5 G: HSDPA
(High speed Downlink Packet Access)
(Bandwidth is enhanced due to complex Multiplexing technique & complex TX & RX)
4 G (Wimax): LTE or HSDPAT
100 Mbps Gbps
LTE (Long Term Evolution)
Punch line for 4G is Mobile Broadband, anywhere any time
Magic
M Mobile Multimedia
A Anytime Anywhere
G Global Mobility Support
I Integrated wireless Solution
C Customized Personal Service
User required service: car driving coffee making.
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Difference b/w 3G & 4G:

3G
>2Mbps
4G
100 Mbps
(220 Mbps)
BW: 5 20 MHz
BW: 100 MHz
Used frequency : (1.6 2) GHz
(2 8) GHz
PS less utilized
Packet Switching more utilized
(16 PSK)
(64 QAM)
5G:
Speed is greater than 1Gbps
Basics of Mobile communications:
BSC = Base Station Controller
MSC = Mobile Switching Centre
BTS = Base Trans receiver station
MS = Mobile Station
Uplink & Downlink:
In satellite :( U.L.) > (D.L.) frequency
In Mobile: (U.L) < (D.L) frequency
Basics of GSM (Global system for Mobile Communication):
It is a hybrid combination of TDMA & FDMA.
Cell Shape i.e. Hexagonal cell size depends upon no. of user & type of area i.e. landscape, subscriber density
& demand.
Adjacent Chanel
Interfence
Cochannel Interfence
F
E
A
B
C
D
If No. of cells are increased then it will channel capacity or more number of users can be used.
Adjacent Channel Interference: If interference is between cells having nearby frequency.
Co-channel interference: If interference is b/w signals having same frequency then known as co channel
interference.
Various type of numbers used in mobile communication:
1. IMEI: International Mobile Equipment Identity which is unique for a given handset
2. MSISDN: Mobile subscriber ISDN no is a national country code followed by Mobile no. 00091
xxxxxxxxxx and cant exceed more than 15 digits
3. IMSI: International Mobile Subscriber Identity. It is permanently assigned to subscriber with mobile
equipment. 15 digits permanently stored in SIM & HLR (Home Location Register).
4. TMSI: Temporary Mobile Subscriber (when MSC is changed) Identity. It is temporary no for
mobile it is periodically changed so that subscriber cannot be identified. Its importance is only in
local area & this no. is generally of 8 or less digit& is stored in VLR (Visitor Location Register)
5. MSRN : Mobile Station Roaming Number.
101
Functions of BTS,BSC and MSC:

BTS:
(1) Transcoding, (Coding & Encoding)
(2) Time & frequency synchronization.
(3) Encryption & Decryption
TRAU (Transcoder Rate Adapter Unit) comes under BTS and plays main role in coding and decoding
BSC:
1. Self Management of cells
2. Hand over between cells
3. Power control transmission of both (BTS & MS)
4. Handover b/w cell,
MSC:
1.To manage comm. b/w GSM user & landline user (i.e. other telecom network)
2. Handless all diff. type of no. & identity related to MSC.
3. SMS & Mail delivery system handled by MSC to BTS
4. Reallocation of frequency in its area to meet heavy demand
5. Mobile to Landline city change,SMS& Bill
1 MSC = 16 BSC
1024 TRAU = 1 BSC
HLR :( Home Location Register)
1. Permanent data base
2. All no.s are stored in it &also store VLR & MSC address
3. Coding info also stored by HLR.
VLR :( Visitor Location Register)
(1) Tempory data (TMSI)
Power Control is done by BSC
How GSM is Hybrid combination of TDMA & FDMA??
U.L. = 890 -915 MHz
D.L. = 935 - 960 MHz
B.W. = 25 MHz
Each channel gets 200 KHz Band width
25 000
125
200
Channels = 125 carrier= 124 channels + 1 G.B.
Starting frequency
1st: 890.2 MHz
2nd: 890.4 MHz
3rd: 890.6 MHz
124th: 915 MHz
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Here 200 MHz channels are divided so Frequency Division Multiplexing is used here. Now Frequency
between 890.2 MHz to 890.4 MHz is divided into 8 time slots so TDMA is used here.
One channel from 890.2 MHz-890.4 MHz is multiplexed by TDMA= 8 Time slots= users in each channel
TS7
Hence Total no. of user= 124 8= 992 user
Here 1 MS call is associated with 1 TS of TDMA frame.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
TS0
4.615ms
4.615
Each Time Slot =
0.577 ms
8
Each Time slot is within TDMA frame & each TDMA frame is within FDMA frame
E-1 Link or E-1 system:
E-1 link is also known as PCM system
E-1 System: Known as PCM because it converts (voice) 8 kbps into 64 kbps digital data
TS0 TS16 TS17
Total Time slot = 32
Sampling is done at 8 KHz.
For each Time slot there are 8 bits so
Sampling rate = 8 X8000 = 64 kbps
i.e. 32 channels
TS31
Hence Total bit rate = 64 32 = 25 26 211

2048 kbps
=2.048 Mbps
TS-O = Zero number slot is used for framing & Synchronization and by using this time slots framing
alignment word is sent.
TS-16 = used for signaling
Signaling is done with the help of CAS, CCS, ISDN i.e. control operation.
(30 time slots are used for information)
i.e. 30 T. S. are available for user (voice comm.) and one for synchronization and one for signaling.
CAS = Channel Associate Signaling
CCS = Common Channel Associate Signaling
ISDN signal =
(Signaling covers for basic requirement of exchange i.e. dial tone, tower working properly or not)
Signaling rate = nfs
Sampling Frequency = 8 KHz = 8000 Hz
1
Sampling period
125 s = Time of 1 TDMA frame
8 103
125
3.9 s
Duration of 1 TS =
32
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PDH (Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy)

It means PDH works in a state when various different type of N/Ws are synchronized with each other.
Pleasio = Near
Greek word
Sinchronois = Time
E1 speed = 2 Mbps
E2 (MUX of E1) = 4 2 = 8 Mbps
E3 = 34 Mbps (By MUX Tech).
E4 = 140 Mbps
Limitation of PDH:
1. It is asynchronous structure.
2. No Management capability.
3. It has no optical interfacing.
STM / SDH: Also known as SONET ((Synchronous Transfer Module)
i.e. Synchronous Optical Network
(1) It has inbuilt synchronization
(2) Can interface with any type of system
(3) it allows signal telecom infrastructure to connect different vendors.
(4) it is a set of global standard for interfacing equipment from diff. vendors.
It is based upon direct synchronous multiplexing & has very 2 speed in compare to PDH.
Basic Unit is STM-1 which has speed of 155.52 Mbps
STM -4 : 622.08 Mbps
STM -16 : 2.488 Gbps
STM -64 : 9.953 Gbps
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
How frequency reuse concept?
How it is so secure??
Large no. of Transmission are combined on an RF channel at same time & frequency but separated by
different codes.
Subscriber in every cell can reuse same frequency at same time with different codes
Frequencies used are 824 849 (UL) & (869 894) KHz (DL)
Why CDMA fail?
Not network compatible as Rx required similar type of system so roaming problem
Carrier frequency used is 1.25 MHz
Here every user occupy 1.25 MHz spectrum with different unique code so that these is no interference.
PN codes used are wall codes which are 64 bit long, 64 codes are there & all codes are orthogonal to each
other.
Use of modulator all codes are spreaded over entire spectrum & at Rx side, only selected binary codes are
accepted so that information is received in form of message.
Transmission & Reception of signals differentiated by codes using same frequency simultaneously by no.
of users is known as CDMA Punch line
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CDMA = IS95
CDMA = IEEE (802.3)
Difference b/w GSM & CDMA:
CDMA
Technique Spread spectrum Tech.
All fqs are used at one time
Security More secure (due to coding & High BW)
BW Users are concn on whole fq. faster
Tech. EVDUO=2Mbps
25% of total user (Reason :- Less compatibility)
CDMA cover more area with few BTS (Tower)
Less Radiation.
GSM
GMSK
All fq are divided (sharing)
Less secure (Particular BW & TS can be identified)
Users are concn on small fq slower
EDGE = 386 kbps
75% of total Mobile user
GSM Covers less area
Emits 28 times Radiation Compare to CDMA
WI-FI &WI-MAX:
International Standard not a technology.
WiFi : IEEE 802.11
WiMax : IEEE 802.16
Operation of WiFi:
1. Based on Packet Switching
2. Routes/Hotspot (in case of WiFi) has in built modem
3. This router provides local routing for used devices (Laptop, PC, Cell phone, Phone)
4. The router provide path for local used device.
5. WiFi (Wireless Fidelity)
6. Uses (8 -Array) PSK
7. It is generally (54) Mbps (data speed from Wi-Fi) Data speed.
8. Indoor (45 m) & Outdoor (90m)
9. Wi-fi Indoor speed is less because there are more obstacles inside. (like wood, material)
10. It uses 2.4 GHz 2.487 GHz frequency (BW = 0.087 GHz = 87 MHz)
11. It is a global set of standard and there is no need of license.
12. Both WiFi & WiMax uses Data link & Physical Address layer
WiMax:
1. Worldwide Interoperability of Microwave Access
2. Uses 70 Mbps data rate
3. Range more than 10 Km
4. Frequency range is from 10-66 GHz
5. Band width is 50 GHz
6. Also known as delivery of last mile
7. wireless broadband access
8. It is alternative of cable & DSL.
105
9. (64-QAM) technology used for modulation

10. WiMax connects 100s of E-1 system so that speed will be increased
11. WiMax uses orthogonal FDM
12. WiMax can connect all hotspots of WiFi
WiMax Disadvantage:
1. High Power Consumption
2. Bluetooth / Cordless Phone / microwave oven operates in same band (2.4 GHz)
WAP: (Wireless Application Protocol):
The interfacing b/w Internet & required app to access Internet
It is a technical standard for accessing information over a mobile wireless network that means it is used for
internet access for a mobile phone.
It does not use HTML language but uses separate marks up language that is govern by WAP.
Switching:
Connection of path creating a temporary connection b/w two or more devices or exchanging information in
digital form.
CS : Digital switching (permanent): Circuit switching
PS : Digital Switching: Packet switching
One to one service (Physical layer)
In CS, No. of bits = 8
Fr of PCM = 8 kbps
Hence 64 kbps digital info is used.
Dedicated path is given.
(a)
(b)
(c)
It operates in 3 step
Circuit establishment
Data Transfer
Circuit disconnect
Real time video Transmission.

Live = Voice comm. = CS
Data = Email = PS = Internet
Error rate in data cant be handle more (Data require more accuracy than voice)
Advantage of CS:
(1) Guarantee quality of service (205)
(2) No interference
(3) No Sharing
(4) Full BW Utilization
(5) Sequence is maintained Hence No requirement of assembling
Packet Switching: Info is broken in packets.
Packet can take any path. Each packet is sent with
Header address which checks final destination.
Header also describes sequence of reassembly at destination so those packets are put back in correct order
One to many service
106
Disadvantage of CS
(1) Systems must be compatible for circuit switching
(2) Two diff. Category cant be used (diff. speed)
(3) Single path
Note:
PS = Part;
CS = Slow
Less secure
Highly secure
(High data loss)
(Data loss very less)
More about packet switching:
In PS diff. systems (speed) can be communicated not affected by single route. It is multipath comm.
Delay in case of PS packet may lost.
Various protocols are required.
1. (TCP/IP = Tx protocol
2. X2.5
3. Operates on network layer
Difference between connection less and connection oriented packet
switching :
Connection less (Non vital Data)
Connection Oriented (Virtual
(Datagram Approach)
circuit Approach)
Eg : ATM (Vital)
TCP/IP
No guarantee of reaching the
Guaranteed certain protocols are
destination
used eg X2.5 (TCP/IP)
Every piece of Data is
These Protocols ensured the
independently routed so that into
delivery of data by following
maynot be reached at destination
Certain rules. Highly efficient
switching Method.
Diff b/w CS & connection oriented PS: In connection oriented PS we are making virtual N/w via some
protocols but in CS there is dedicated line no requirement of virtual N/w.
(Advanced version of PS)
Mobile Jammer concept
Let BTS generates 900 915 MHz then Jammer generate 900 915 MHz i.e. same type of fq. Which gives
lots of interference then ultimate resultant signal frequency will be zero.
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
Works on layer 3
MPLS = Hybrid combination of ATM & IP
Thats why MPLS is assumed to be work an (2.5 layer)
Used in corporate area (MPLS) does not depend upon local N/w.
MPLS is an implementation of circuit switch model in packet switch area.
MPLS uses various by use of data link frame like Ethernet, frame relay, ATM.
(VOIP for VIP persons uses MPLS) funda of HOTLINE
107
Cordless : 1MS ; 1BTS

Mobile : ManyMS, 1BTS
Work b/w layer 2 & layer 3
MPLS uses label switching & multiple protocols like
OSPF (Open Short Path First)
BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)
RRP (Resource Reservation protocol)
It is a mechanism in which high performance telecomm N/w direct data based one node to another
based on short path labels rather than long N/w address.
Lease line may be work on local area but MPLS works on general (standard) address.
Here data packets are assigned labels these packet forwarding contents of label without need of
packet itself
Advantages of MPLS:
(1) Improve user experience
(2) Utilize BW
(3) Highly efficient
(4) Secured communication
Various Internet Connection:
(1) Dial UP Modem (Either Pone or (Data) Internet)
(2) ISDN
(3) DIAS
(4) Cable Modem
(5) Satellite
(6) Leased line or MPLS
(1) Dial up Modem : 56 kbps (Theory) 10 20 kbps (Pract)
(2) ISDN (Integrated Service Digital N/W) : Integrate voice & data over a single N/w. It offers two high
speed line capable of running at 64 kbps throughout the existing N/w.
One for voice (64 kbps)
One for data (64 kbps)
One can connect two line simultaneously to obtain 128 kbps speed.
BRI (Basic Rate Interface) : 2B + D
PRI (Primary Rate Interface) : 30 B + D signal (Dial tone)
= N-ISDN
BRI = 2 64 + 16 = 144 kbps (signaling)
PRI = 30 64 + 16 = 1920 + 16
= 1936 kbps
N-ISDN
= 1.93 Mbps
In this case N/w can offer a speed of a given PRI.
BRI = ISDN = 144 kbps
PRI = N-ISDN = 1.93 Mbps
108
(1) Video on demand

(2) Full motion picture
(3) LAN interconnection
DIAS
Commercial Dispose
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) Net + Voice both = Broadband
Speed > 256 (kbps) = Broadband
It has very high speed in compare to regular modem.
It uses crusting telephone line as a transmission medium.

Modem speed varies by Modulation Tech.
(1) ADSL (Asymmetric Digital subs line)
(2) VDSL (Very High speed DSL)
(3) RADSL (Rate Adoptive DSL)
(4) SDSL (Symmetric DSL)
(5) HDSL (High Speed DSL)
Modulation technique used are
(1) CAP (Carrier less Amplitude phase modulation)
Which is a variation of QAM.
(2) DMT (Discrete Multitone Modulation) in which multi carrier Modulation are used.
ADSL (has high downloading speed than uploading data speed)
For upstream fq. Used is from (25.875 138) KHz
For Downloading (138 1104) KHz
Disadvantage : DSL modem is distance sensitive it means distance from DSL modem for D-SLAM is
high.
(1) Level 1 Global Trunk
(2) Level 2 State exchange
(3) Level 3 (local exchange BTS)
GPS (Global Positioning System) Google maps
2 Satellite Volume
3 Satellite Surface
4 Satellite Point used for
3 satellite give line information i.e. longitude & latitude.
Satellite communicate only through by control room on earth.
Designed by us defense department of USA )
L1 C t t1
x x1 y y1 z z1
L2 C t t2
x x2 y y2 z z2
L3 C t t3
x x3 y y3 z z3
109
L4 C t t4
x x4 y y4 z z4
2
4 equation 4 variable (x, y, z, t)

This method is known as Triangulation Method.
It is a satellite based navigation system uses 24 satellite placed in orbit

It uses Neo satellite.
Neo or Leo
Orbit / Lower earth orbit : 7000 km (Satellite Phone)
GPS works in any weather & anywhere.
All satellite have same clock set & exact time & they known there exact position.
1 Seidual day = 23H 56M 4sec
Resolution :- 1m (from earth Height)
Microwave Access: LOS propagation WiMax based upon Microwave Access i.e. LOS.
NGN (Next Generation N/w)
Voice would also be communicate through PS.
It is packet based N/w it will transport all info & service (voice, data, video) in form of packet
similar to internet.
Soft Switch : VOIP
Connection b/w CS & PS is done by soft switch.
It is a central device in telecommunication N/w which connects telephone N/w from one phone line to
another one. It is generally used for IP 2 connection for eg. Skype.
It is used to control connection at junction point b/w circuit switch & packet switch N/w.
Bluetooth (PAN) 2-4 GHz

PAN = Personal Area N/w.
It support both voice & data.
Uses both PS & CS
Range :10 m
May vary upon given power
Max Range : 100 m (Not practically)
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
This technology is independent of Transmission medium which mean medium can be wired (CU, Coaxial)
or wireless (U.F.C) etc.
In this case PS is used & cell Relay method.
Cell Relay from of 53 octets.
ATM Packet size is fixed to 53 Octet known as 1 cell
Any type of Traffic (voice, data video, syn., Asychr, short long) Packets can be converted into ATM
cell by a process known as emulation so it is also celled as cell relaying technology
Speed of STM-1 is 155.52 Mbps.

By further multiplexing it can reach up to 9.952 Gbps.
Leased line : it is a permanent connection b/w user & ISPC Internet service providers.
110
It is a non switched line which provides symmetric communication b/w two points. Provide band on
monthly basis
MLLN (Managed Leased Line N/w)
It is the integrated fully managed multi service digital N/w platform through which ISP can provide or
customize desired service at optimal cost.
Rail Tel : Organized/ Managed the whole Railway info.
Advantage of MLLN :
On demand, BW can increased, 205 High protection against failure of ckt faster Internet service etc.
MLLN used by various banks, ATMs s/w companies,
Internet Arpanet (WAN) (1980s) (Interconnection of Pocket switched N/w)
WAN : i.e. Wide Area N/W
MAN : Metropolitan Area N/W
LAN : Local Area N/W
PAN : Bluetooth
URL : http://www.upsc.gov.in/ what new. htm this page can be anything . php/jpg
(Uniform Resource Locator)
www: By default protocol use to find global address.
Access service
HTTP : Hyper text Transfer Protocol defines which type of protocol we are using.
HTTPS :
FTP : File Transfer protocol the way of transferring file
Proxy Server : b/w web server & main server (real one)
It intercept all request before reaching to real N/w.
Google is a search engine.
America online, MSN provide proxy server.
Main Function :
Firewalling & Filtering.
It is used as caching page by user & visited and save unnecessary use of BW.
Email Working :
(1) MUA : Mail user Agent used by user to type email & After typing msg transfer to MTA.
(2) MTA : MTA uses SMTP (Protocol) Transfer Mail Transfer protocol (Msg Transfer)
(3) LDA : (Local Delivery Agent)
(4) Mail Notifier :
A
B
Message (MUA)
MTA
MUA Msg
MTA
(SMTP = Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

A
Message (MUA)
111
SMTP server (MTA Via SMTP)

SMTP Protocol
POP3 Server
POP3 Protocol
(Delivery) LDA (B)
SMTP used for Transfer
POP3 used for delivery.
(Post Office Protocol)
DNS Server (Domain name Server)
It translate Domain Name into IP address
If address in a format of 4 no. set separated by periods.

0010.0000.255.xxxx
Radius Server:
(Remote Authentication dial in user service)
It is basically used for checking correct user name & password
It means all info related to login password stored in radius server

(Open System Inter Connection) OSI LAYER:
Application Duta Application
(1) N/w process to App.
Presentation Data Presentation
(2) Data Representation
Session Data Session
(3) Inter host Comm..
Transport Segment Transport
(4) End to end Comm.
N/W Packet N/W
(5) Address & best path
Data link frame Data link / MAC Address
(6) Access to media
Physical Bill form Physical
(7) Binary Transmission
Open: Any two systems can connect which are using this reference model.
Transport layer convert data Segment
Network layer convert Segment Packet
Data link layer convert Packet Frame
Physical layer convert Frame Bit
It is an international standard used for comm. Architecture & main function is to send data from one
app. / one comp. to another app. on another Desktop.
112
Every layer in OS/ model communicates with three layer layer itself one layer above it & another
layer below it.
This standard defines necessary elements for data communication b/w two device.
When data comes from Top to bottom then a header is added & it is transmitted from top to bottom
Header is layer specific into which explains what function layer has carried out.
Top3 layers convert data from users I/P.

OSI model provides a frame work for communication not a method of communication
Actual comm. Made by using comm. Protocol.

Application Layer :
Deals with App. Issues & generally implemented in s/w.
It provide N/w service directly to application eg. : Fill Transfer, Email Transfer.
Presentation Layer :
It defines the data to be express / presenting
it defines coding & conversion function so that into send by app. layer is readable by app. layer of
other system.
Session :
It establishes manage comm. Channel & terminate also.
(provides Session)
Login, pass also deals with session layer.
Transport : Provide error control & flow control.
Establish virtual circuit
N/w layer :
Switching & Routing
Congestion control ; Heterogeneous devices

Data link : It provide reliable format to link with physical layer
Error control & flow control of frame (Sequencing of Packet)
Logical Addressing
Physical : Frame bit
It is a physical link b/w comm. N/w systems.

Transport Set :
Router : Connect two Diff. N/ws & works on layer no. (3) of OSI model set of comm.
Gateway : Convert one protocol to other set of comm. Protocol. It works on layer (7).
Hub : layer (1)
Bridge : Works on layer (2)
Physically different but logically same.
Repeater : Works on layer (1)
LAN protocol works on layers (1) & (2) WAN protocol works on layer (1), (2), (3)
TCP/IP : is a connection oriented protocol & gives guarantee for delivery. It works on layer (4)
UDP : Connectionless unreliable protocol which doesnt give guarantee for delivery.
It works on layer (3) Switch works on layer (2)
113
Chapter-5: Technical questions asked in interview:

Questions asked from communication system:
Q. what is meaning of communication?
Q what is the meaning of Tele communication?
Q. what is the meaning of effective communication?
Q. what is difference between simplex, half duplex and full duplex system?
Q. what codes are used for communication system?
Q. what is meaning of radio frequency used in communication? and what are FCC rule used in
communication?
Q. what are medium wave, short wave and FM wave ? what propagations are used for them?
Q. why FM propagation cant be used for long distance while AM&SW wave propagation can be used for
long distance?
Q. what is the meaning of modulation and what are its advantages and disadvantages?
Q. what is meaning of order of modulation?
Q. Can you define under modulation and over modulation in Amplitude modulation?
Q. what is the meaning of bandwidth of a signal in terms of time &frequency domain?
Q. how bandwidth is related to speed?
Q. Can you explain envelop detector method for detection of AM?
Q. when Envelop detector is used?
Q. How value of RC is designed in case of envelop detector?
Q. what is diagonal clipping in case of envelop detector?
Q. How diagonal clipping can be removed?
Q. what is the consequence of diagonal clipping on detection?
Q. what is difference between synchronous detection and envelop detection?
Q. How envelop detector is an asynchronous detector?
Q. How DSB-SC has power saving in compare to AM while both has same bandwidth?
Q. How much power is saved in DSB-SC?
Q. what are the advantages and disadvantages of DSB-SC?
Q. whether DSB-SC is better method for one to many transmission or not?
Q. what is main role of ring modulator?
Q. How carriers are suppressed by ring modulator?
Q. whether ring modulator is the best method for DSB-SC?
Q. Whether envelop detector can be used for DSB-SC or not ? if yes how and if not why?
Q. what is the best method for detection of DSB-SC and how that method is the best?
Q. what is quadrature null effect in DSB-SC?
Q. How will you define attenuation and distortion and what is the difference between both?
Q. which one is more dangerous attenuation or distortion?
Q. what is Hilbert Transform?
Q. what is physical meaning of Hilbert transform?
Q. How Hilbert and Fourier transform are different?
Q. what are applications of Hilbert transform?
28A/11, Ground Floor- Jia Sarai New Delhi 16 Ph.: 09811382221, 011-32662945 www.panaceainstitute.org.in 114
Q. How SSB-SC is different from DSB-SC?

Q. How power is saved in SSB-SC? How B.W is saved in SSB-SC?
Q. whether SSB-FC is possible? Where it is used?
Q. what are various methods for generation for SSB-SC?
Q. SSB-SC requires minm power and minm bandwidth but still it is not used always why?
Q. Can you explain practical use of SSB-SC?
Q. what are the limitations of SSB-SC?
Q. How SSB-SC is used in FDM? And why SSB-SC is preferred for FDM?
Q. How SSB-SC is used in Basic telephony system?
Q. what are the voice frequency? And why SSB-SC is preferred for Voice communication?
Q. whether voice frequency or audio frequency are same? If not how they are different?
Q. what is use of VSB-SC and how it is used?
Q. Why SSB-SC is not used in TV?
Q. Compare performances of DSB-FC, DSB-SC, and SSB-FC&SSB-SC in terms of all parameters?
Q. What are the advantages of FM over AM?
Q. what is difference between NBFM and WBFM?
Q. Where NBFM is used and whether envelop detector can be used for detection in NBFM?
Q. where WBFM is used?
Q. Can u explain VCO method for generation of FM and what are its disadvantages?
Q. How FET reactance modulator is the best direct method for generation of FM?
Q. How Armstrong method is good for FM generation?
Q. can you explain why frequency multiplier is required in Armstrong method?
Q. what is frequency multiplier circuit? And what are the devices inside it?
Q. what is non linear device inside freqn multiplier and what is band pass filter?
Q. what is the maximum freqn deviation in FM?
Q. what is the maximum freqn in case of FM?
Q. How PLL can be used for detection of FM?
Q. PLL is which type of filter?
Q. why PLL is the best method for detection of FM?
Q. what is difference between PM&FM and how will you distinguish between FM and PM?
Q. Can you compare FM and PM noise performance?
Q. which is better PM or FM and why?
Q. what is pulse modulation and what are its disadvantages?
Q. Whether pulse modulation or digital modulation is same?
Q. what is need of sampling? And what is instantaneous sampling?
Q. what are the limitations of instantaneous sampling?
Q. What is sampling theorem?
Q. what is the condn for sampling?
Q. what is aliasing? What is Nyquist rate?
Q. what is oversampling, under sampling and sampling?
Q. what is natural sampling & flat top sampling?
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Q. what is difference between natural&flat sampling?

Q. which modulation technique is used in FDM? What is the basic concept of FDM? What is the application
of FDM?
Q. what is the use of guard band in case of FDM?
Q. what is the value of bandwidth in case of FDM?
Q. what is the basic concept of PCM?
Q. what is the use of PCM?
Q. Where PCM technology is used?
Q. How PCM technology play a role in digital communication?
Q. whether PCM technology is used for transmission?
Q. How PCM is digital modulation technique?
Q. How quantizer&encoder works in case of PCM?
Q. what is the use of quantizer and what type of mapping it is?
Q. Quantizer is many to one or many to many mapping and if yes how?
Q. which type of encoder is used in PCM technology?
Q. what is the value of bandwidth and SNR in case of PCM?
Q. Can you give practical application of PCM?
Q. Can PCM may be used for compression techniques?
Q. How DPCM is different from PCM and what is the advantage of DPCM?
Q. what is the bandwidth in case of DPCM and what about SNR in case of DPCM?
Q. how DM is one bit DPCM?
Q. what type of Noise are present in case of DM?
Q. What is slope over load problem in case of DM?
Q. How this problem can be overcome in case of DM?
Q. what is positive slope overload and negative slope over load problem?
Q. Can you justify how slope overload occurs only at low frequency?
Q. How slope over load is more dangerous?
Q. what is granular noise effect? And what is this problem? Granular noise effect is less dangerous?
Q. what is the shape of output in case of granular noise effect?
Q. Compare slope overload problem and granular noise problem?
Q. which one is oversampled PCM or DM?
Q. Compare Noise performance of PCM or DM?
Q. Compare bandwidth requirement in DM&PCM?
Q. What is Matched filter? And where it is used?
Q. why Matched filter is called matched filter?
Q. How will you calculate matched filter for a rectangular pulse?
Q. What are the advantages of digital communication over analog communication?
Q. what is disadvantage of digital communication?
Q. How MODEM is used in case of digital communication?
Q. what is MODEM and what is the advantage of MODEM?
Q. Why transmission in case of digital communication is analog only?
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Q. why digital transmission is not possible in case of digital communication?

Q. what are the problems with digital transmission in case of long distance?
Q. Can you differentiate role of PCM and Modem in case of Digital communication?
Q. Whether MODEM is used at transmitter and receiver end both? If yes why?
Q. Can you explain PSK Modulation? What is BPSK?
Q. How Bandwidth utilization can be increased in case of QPSK?
Q. If QPSK is faster than BPSK then why we always not prefer QPSK?
Q. What are the advantages and disadvantages of QPSK?
Q. Can you compare constellation diagram of BPSK and QPSK?
Q. what is the relation between bandwidth of BPSK and QPSK?
Q. what is the synchronization problem in detection of BPSK&QPSK?
Q. what is the practical applications of BPSK&QPSK?
Q. Can you compare QPSK, 8ary PSK and 16 ary PSK in terms of bandwidth and speed?
Q. what is FSK? and can you explain its basic concept?
Q. what is MSK and what is basic meaning of MSK?
Q. what is ASK and how it works like OOK?
Q. Can you compare constellation diagram of ASK, PSK, QPSK and FSK?
Q. Can you compare bandwidth of ASK, PSK, QPSK and FSK?
Q. whether FSK is 3 dB inferior or superior to PSK?
Q. whether ASK is inferior to PSK and FSK and if by how much amount?
Q. which is the best method for MODEM and Why?
Q. what is QAM modem and what are its advantages?
Q. Can you explain constellation diagram of QAM and its applications?
Q. Morse code is used in ASK technique? How?
Q. what are different codes used in digital communication technique?
Q. what is the difference between synchronous communication & asynchronous communication?
Q. what are the start and stop bits in case of synchronous communication?
Q. what is the difference between channel capacity and bandwidth?
Q. Whether both channel capacity and bandwidth are same?
Q. What is the meaning of Baud rate in communication system?
Q. what is the difference between bit rate and baud rate in communication system?
Q.what is the baud rate for BPSK and QPSK?
Q. what is ISI and how ISI can be reduced?
Q. What is Roll-off factor in case of ISI and what is its effect on its bit rate?
Q. what is eye diagram and eye pattern?
Q. what is the use of satellite communication and how it is used?
Q. what is the frequency range of satellite communication? what is the general range of satellite freqn
Q. what are the advantages of satellite communication?
Q. what are the disadvantages of satellite communication?
Q. what is the value of delay in satellite communication? and why there is this delay in satellite?
Q. what is the value of round trip delay in satellite communication?
Q. what bands are used in satellite communication?
Q. why C-band and Ku-band are preferred in satellite communication?
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Q. what is the value of uplink and down link freqn in C-band and Ku-band?
Q. why uplink freqn is higher than down link in case of satellite ?
Q. why uplink freqn is lower than down link in case of mobile communication?
Q. which type of antenna is used in case of satellite communication?
Q. why 6/4 GHZ system is preferred over 14/12 GHz
Q. In rain attenuation C-Band is preferred why?
Q. In DTH Ku-band transponder is used in satellite communication why?
Q. why DTH system does not work properly in rain?
Q. what is the bandwidth of satellite communication and how many numbers of channels can be used?
Q. why bandwidth of C-band and Ku-band satellite remains same?
Q. How frequency reuse concept can be used in satellite communication?
Q. How Solar cell is used in satellite communication?
Q. How solar cell works? and how power may be achieved with solar cell without any biasing?
Q. what is the power source in case of emergency in case of solar cell?
Q. How 3 satellites can cover whole earth except polar region? Why polar region is not covered by 3
satellites?
Q. What is difference between passive and active satellite?
Q. what do you understand by geostationary satellite?
Q. why this is called geostationary?
Q. what is the height of geostationary satellite?
Q. what is time period and angular velocity of geostationary satellite?
Q. what is the meaning of Geo synchronous satellite?
Q. How it is Geo synchronous with orbit?
Q. what is the height of geosynchronous orbit?
Q. what is time period and angular velocity of geosynchronous satellite?
Q. what is the difference between geostationary and geosynchronous satellite?
Q. whether both are called communication satellite?
Q. Can you give me name of some communication satellites launched recently?
Q. From where communication satellites are launched?
Q. what are Keplers law in satellite communication?
Q. what is apogee and perigee in satellite communication?
Q. what is the path of satellite ? elliptical/circular or linear?
Q. what is optical fiber ? and what are its advantages in communication system?
Q. what type of light flow in OFC? Infrared/visible/Ultraviolet?
Q. Generally OFC is secure communication why?
Q. generally losses are less in case of OFC why?
Q. What is the main advantage of OFC in communication?
Q. why there is less interference in case of OFC?
Q. what is the basic principle of Optical fiber communication?
Q. How Total-Internal-Reflection play a role in transmission of OFC?
Q. What is skew ray in case of optical fiber?
Q. what are the factors which affect propagation of light in optical fiber?
Q. How composition of fiber and size of fiber affects propagation in fiber?
Q. Can you explain how voice/data or any information is transmitted in optical fiber?
Q. what is light source in OFC and what is light detector used in OFC?
Q. LED/Laser diode which is preferred as light source in OFC?
Q. Photo diode or Avalanche photo diode which one is preferred for photo detection?
Q. what are the advantages of APD over normal diode?
Q. Can you use PIN diode in optical fiber?
Q. what is responsivity in case of photo detector?
Q. what materials are used for Optical fiber?
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Q. What is the glass material used in OFC?

Q. why Plastic core and Glass clad is not used in OFC?
Q. for high speed what is preferred plastic or glass?
Q. what is Numerical aperture in case of OFC?
Q. what is the physical significance of Numerical aperture?
Q. Numerical aperture depends upon what factors?
Q. whether Numerical aperture depends upon dimension of fiber?
Questions asked from Microwave Engineering:
Q. what is use of transmission line?
Q. How propagation occurs in case of transmission line?
Q Propagation in transmission line is TE/TM or TEM?
Q. How information is transmitted in transmission line?
Q. How will you define microwave?
Q. what is the range of frequency in case of microwave?
Q. How will you link microwave with Feet?
Q. why microwave is called microwave?
Q. whether VHF&UHF lies in range of microwave?
Q. what is the range of voice frequencies?
Q. What is the range of frequency for Medium wave and short wave?
Q. what is the range of frequency for FM whether VHF&UHF both lies in FM wave?
Q. Can you arrange Infrared, Ultraviolet, Visible, X-rays and Gama Rays in order of frequency and wave
length?
Q. what are the frequencies of different microwave bands?
Q. What are the frequencies of C-band&Ku-band?
Q. Advantages of Microwave frequency?
Q. How bandwidth is increased in case of microwave frequency?
Q. what about fading effect in case of microwave?
Q. How fading is decreased in case of microwave?
Q. can you explain lumped elements and distributed elements?
Q. why lumped elements are used at low frequency?
Q. How power is calculated in case of lumped elements?
Q. why distributed elements are used at high frequency?
Q. How power is calculated in case of distributed elements?
Q. Can you explain Bolometer method for low microwave power calculation?
Q. How Bolometer works on concept of variable resistance?
Q. How Calorimetric is used for high power measurements?
Q. what is double minima method used for high value of VSWR?
Q. why double minima method is called double minima?
Q. what is reflectometer and what is the use of it?
Q. How S-Matrix can measure value of power directly?
Q. what is H-Plane Tee Junction and how it works?
Q. what is E-Plane Tee junction and how it works?
Q. How E-plane Tee junction and H-plane Tee junction works like 3 dB splitter?
Q. whether both E-plane Tee and H-plane Tee are doubling the value of power?
Q. what is the basic difference between E-plane Tee and H-plane Tee?
Q. why H-plane Tee is called as Current Junction?
Q. why E-plane Tee is also called as Voltage junction?
Q. where E-plane Tee or H-Plane Tee are used in Microwave?
Q. what is Magic Tee and why it is called magic Tee?
Q. what are the applications of Magic Tee?
Q. what is the directional coupler? And what is the basic structure of directional coupler?
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Q. what is the parameter which decides a directional coupler?

Q. what is gyrator?
Q. what is isolator?
Q. what is circulator? and how it is unsymmetrical device?
Q. what is the effect of transit time at microwave frequency?
Q. what are the problems arise due to transit time effect?
Q. what are the solutions of transit time problem?
Q. How Microwave utilize concept of transit time?
Q. what are the O type tube and how these tubes are linear beam tubes?
Q. whether TWT& Klystron are examples of linear beam tube? If yes how?
Q. what are M type tubes and how these are cross field devices?
Q. How Magnetron is an example of M type tube?
Q. Can you compare O type and M type tubes?
Q. Can you explain working of Two Cavity Klystron?
Q. what are the name of 2 cavities in 2cavity klystron?
Q. what are the function of both cavity?
Q. How velocity modulation occurs in buncher cavity?
Q. what is the result of velocity modulation?
Q. How Current modulation occurs in catcher cavity?
Q. what is density modulation in drift space?
Q. what is the meaning of bunching?
Q. How gain is increased due to bunching?
Q. How gain is measured in terms of 2 cavity klystron?
Q. Can you compare Velocity modulation, density modulation and current modulation?
Q. How Oscillations can occur in case of 2 cavity klystron?
Q. Whether 2 cavity klystron is an amplifier or oscillator?
Q. what is the maximum efficiency of 2 cavity klystron amplifier?
Q. what is the general efficiency in case of 2 cavity?
Q. How Length of drift space varies with applied RF voltage?
Q. what is the maximum value of bunching parameter in case of 2 cavity?
Q. what is the need of multi-cavity klystron and what are the distances between 2 cavities in case of multi
cavity?
Q. what is reflex klystron?
Q. How reflex klystron is used? How it is used as low power microwave source?
Q. Reflex klystron is oscillator or amplifier explain?
Q. How many cavities are there in reflex klystron? One or two?
Q. How one cavity can help in oscillations?
Q. Velocity modulation/Current modulation/Drift occurs in which portion of reflex klystron?
Q. why transit in repeller space of reflex klystron must be n+3/4 ?
Q. why reflex klystron is preferred over 2 cavity oscillator?
Q. Reflex klystron is known a slow power oscillator how?
Q. what is maximum efficiency in case of 2 reflex klystron?
Q. what is TWT? amplifier or oscillator?
Q. How gain of TWT is higher than 2 cavity klystron?
Q. How interaction between e beam and RF field is continuous in case of TWT?
Q. what is the need of slow wave structure in case of TWT?
Q. How Interaction between e beam and RF field prolongs in case of TWT?
Q. TWT is broad band amplifier how?
Q. How focusing is done in case of TWT?
Q. what is the role of attenuator in case of TWT?
Q. How oscillations are prevented by use of Attenuator?
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Q. TWT is preferred over Klystron due to higher value of gain or due to high value of bandwidth?
Q. Magnetron is a high power oscillator? how?
Q. where Magnetron is used?
Q. what is the dominant mode in Magnetron?
Q. what is Tunnel diode? How it is highly doped diode?
Q. How tunnel diode is negative resistance device?
Q. what is the order of doping in case of Tunnel diode?
Q. what is the biasing in case of Tunnel diode?
Q. what are the materials used in Tunnel diode?
Q. what is the range of frequency in case of Tunnel diode?
Q. what is the order of output in case of Tunnel diode?
Q. what is the equivalent circuit in case of Tunnel diode?
Q. what are the applications of Tunnel diode?
Q. what is backward diode and how it is linked with Tunnel diode?
Q. Can you call backward diode as highly doped Zener diode?
Q. what is the basic concept of varactor diode?
Q. How Capacitance varies with Rev.bias in case of Varactor diode?
Q. what is the symbol of varactor diode and where it is used?
Q. whether varactor diode is negative resistance device or not?
Q. How Varactor diode is used for tuning?
Q. How varactor diode is used in parametric amplifier?
Q. whether varactor can be used as amplifier or oscillator?
Q. what is the equivalent circuit of varactor diode?
Q. what is step recovery diode? Why it is called as Snap-off varactor?
Q. Step recovery works in F.bias or R.bias?
Q. what is difference between varactor and step recovery in terms of applications?
Q. Can you explain Metal Semiconductor diode? is it same as Schottkey diode?
Q. what are the materials used in case of Schottky barrier diode?
Q. what type of biasing is used in Schottky barrier diode?
Q. Is there any depletion layer in Schottky diode?
Q. why Schottky diode is called Hot carrier diode
Q. what is the difference between Schottky and Normal diode?
Q. Why cut-in voltage is less in Schottky and why reverse current is high in compare to normal diode?
Q. why Schottky diodes are used for fast switching?
Q. whether schottky diode is active or passive device?
Q. Can you explain PIN diode?
Q. Why PIN diode is PIN diode?
Q. Can you explain doping of P,I &N regions?
Q. How PIN diode is used as Microwave switch?
Q. why SI material is used for fabrication of PIN diode?
Q. what is Gunn diode?
Q.Gunn diode is negative resistance device? If yes how?
Q. Why Gunn diode is used for amplification&oscillation?
Q. For Gunn diode only direct band gap is used?
Q. Why Gunn diode are called as TED?
Q. what is TED?
Q. Can you explain 2 valley model in Gunn diode?
Q. why 2 valleys are used in Gunn diode?
Q. How domains are formed in Gunn diode?
Questions from material science, EDC and power electronics:
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Why silicon is preferred material for semiconductor? why not others?

Why Carbon cant be used as Semiconductor it is also from 4th group?
What is concept of hole and did they exist?
Does hole physically exist?
How will u define mobility?
Why electron mobility is always higher than holes?
What is concept of effective mass?
At what factor effective mass depends?
What are the disadvantages of Ge as a semiconductor material?
How silicon helps in fabrication?
What is use of SiO2 in case of fabrication?
What is use of Al in case of fabrication?
What are basic steps of fabricaton?
If we want a high speed diode will be prefer Si only?
What is value of intrinsic concentration (ni) in case of silicon and Ge at room temperature? And how
they changes with temperature?
How conductivity varies with temp for semiconductor and metal and why?
Why in a SC conductivity increases with temp and not in metal?
How extrinsic semiconductor are more conductive than intrinsic S.C explain?
What is effect of temperature on extrinsic SC
What are super conductors?
What is ideal behavior of a super conductor?
Why their conductivity is very high?
What are applications of super conductor?
Give some example of super conductors?
What is BCS theory for super conductor?
How N-type SC and P type SC forms?
What is effect on doping if temp is increased in case of N type and P-type?
What are direct and indirect band gap SC and their application?
Explain direct band gap and indirect band gap SC
What are applications of direct and indirect band gap SC?
What are degenerate semiconductor? And where they are used?
What is advantage of degenerate SC in tunnel diode
What is the position of Fermi level in degenerate SC
What happens on position of Fermi level if doping is increased)
How will you define Fermi level?
Fermi level is probability of what?
Where is Fermi level in case of N-type &P type?
What is Fermi level at absolute temperature?
Where is Fermi level for metals?
What are laws other than Fermi-Dirac distribution?
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What is Hall effect? and its application?

Discuss Hall effect for metal, SC&Insulator?
For Intrinsic SC Hall coeff is ve why?
For extrinsic hall coeff will be?
Can u tell difference between drift and diffusion current?
Which current plays a major role in current of diode and how?
What is ohms law for semiconductor?
What is concept of drift current? And how it can be increased?
Can u explain reverse current in diode and how it varies with reverse voltage?
Explain concept of photo diode and how it is different form solar cell?
Explain working of solar cell?
What are photo detector and give some example of it?
What is LED and how it works? How it different form LASER?
Where LED is used? How it is used in Optical fiber?
Can u explain concept Of Optical fiber?
What is opto-isolator in case of OFC?
Which light is used in case of OFC?
What is Total Internal reflection in OFC?
What is difference between Pin diode and APD? Which one is used where?
What is working of APD?
What is working of PIN diode?
What is break down in zener diode?
What is avalanche multiplication in zener diode? And what is tunneling?
What is basic difference between 2 mechanisms?
Which one is used for high doping and which one is used for low doping?
What is effect of temp in case of avalanche breakdown in zener diode?
Why voltage increases if temp is increased in avalanche breakdown in zener diode?
Can u explain Zener as a constant voltage regulator?
How zener diode can be used in DC power supply?
What are the basic blocks of Power supply?
What is the ripple used in a filter?
Can u compare HWR and FWR on basis of ripple frequency? And which one is better?
Which type of transformer is used in power supply and why?
What is use of bleeder resistor in case of power supply?
What is Form Factor and what is its significance?
What is voltage regulation for a power supply?
Can u differentiate between clipper and clamper?
Is clipper same as Rectifier followed by clamper?
What is voltage doubler /Tripler etc?
How forward voltage in a diode changes with temp?
Is it same for both Ge and Si?
123
Q. Why this value is negative?

Q. What is ideality factor in case of diode why this 1 for Ge and 2 for Si?
Q. Why reverse current change with voltage in case of Si but not in case of Ge.
Q. How will u define rectifier and what is its use?
Q. What is reverse recovery diode in case of diode used as a switch?
Q. How transistor work as an amplifier?
Q. Why there is 180 degree phase shift in case of CE mode and not in case of CB and CC?
Q. What is physical meaning of Beta in case of transistor?
Q. Why base width is narrow and doping light in case of transistor?
Q. For high speed transistor what will u do with base doping?
Q. What is transit time in case of transistor?
Q. What are use of CE CC and CB mode?
Q. Why CE as an amplifier?
Q. Why CC for impedance matching? And how it is used there?
Q. How CB is used as constant current source?
Q. What is early effect in case of transistor?
Q. What is punch through?
Q. How breakdown occurs before punch through in a transistor?
Q. What are advantage of FET over BJT?
Q. What are disadvantage of FET over BJT?
Q. Why FET is more temp stable than BJT?
Q. Why FET is less noisy than BJT?
Q. Why FET has high impedance than BJT?
Q. Is fabrication easy in case of FET?
Q. Compare gain bandwidth product b/w FET&BJT?
Q. Why BJT as a switch has higher speed than FET?
Q. How and when FET is used as Voltage variable Resistor?
Q. How FET is used as an amplifier in saturation region?
Q. Can u explain saturation and active region in FET?
Q. What is difference between FET&MOSFET?
Q. Why MOSFET has high impedance than FET? And what is its order?
Q. Can u draw ac model of a transistor?
Q. How can u draw h-parameter model with the help of ac model?
Q. Why h-parameter is called hybrid parameter?
Q. Explain variation of different h parameters with respect to temperature?
Q. Compare Input impedance, output impedance, voltage gain and current gain for CE CC and CB mode.
Q. Why CC is used as impedance matching?
Q. What is cascade and cascode combination?
Q. Why Gain Band width product of Cascode is higher?
Q. How Band width is increased in Cascode?
Q. What are advantages of Cascode configuration?
124
Q. Can you give some examples of constant current sources?

Q. How Zener diode can be used in constant current source?
Q. How SCR works?
Q. Compare power diode and power BJT?
Q. Explain latching and holding current in SCR?
Q. What is the application of SCR?
Q. What is dv/dt and di/dt effect in case of SCR?
Q. How dv/dt and di/dt can be avoided?
Questions based on analog electronics/Digital electronics:
Q. Why analog is called analog?
Q. What is difference between analog and digital?
Q. How will u calculate voltage amplification of BJT?
Q. Can u draw frequency response of BJT?
Q. Can u explain every part of frequency response?
Q. What are low frequency region mid band frequency region and high frequency region?
Q. Why gain decreases in low frequency and high frequency?
Q. Why gain remains constant in mid band frequency region?
Q. What are the role of coupling capacitor by pass capacitor and blocking capacitor in BJT amplifier?
Q. Which one of the following capacitor determines lower cut-off?
Q. Why gain decreases in high frequency region?
Q. What is parasitic capacitance in BJT amplifier?
Q. What are the capacitances available in parasitic capacitance?
Q. What happens to lower cut-off and higher-cut off in case of multistage amplifier?
Q. Please draw RC high pass filter?
Q. What happens when a step is given as input to it?
Q. When it works like a differentiator?
Q. Do values of R&C decide is it differentiator or not?
Q. What is the condition for RC high pass as a differentiator circuit?
Q. What is the output of RC differentiator if square wave is given as input?
Q. Same questions can be asked for RC low pass which is an integrator?
Q. What is tilt in case of High pass filter?
Q. How will u define rise time in case of RC LPF?
Q. Can u draw model of a transistor?
Q. What new changes occurs when a transistor is operated at high frequency?
Q. What is base spreading resistance?
Q. Why base spreading resistance occurs?
Q. Why junction capacitance occurs at high frequency in case of BJT?
Q. What are various junction/parasitic capacitance in case of BJT?
Q. Which capacitance is dominated for calculation of higher cut-off?
Q. Why h-parameter cant be used for power amplifier?
Q. Can u explain concept of oscillator?
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Is it same for sinusoidal &triangular wave generator?

What concept is used for sinusoidal generator?
What concept is used for triangular wave generator?
How RC phase shift oscillators used for sinusoidal wave generator?
What are the ranges of RC phase shift oscillator?
What is concept of offset nonlinearity in case of RC phase shift?
Can it be made by FET only or BJT also is used?
What is difference between RC phase shift by use of BJT&FET.
Why RC BJT oscillator uses voltage shunt feed back while RC phase shift FET uses voltage series
explain?
What factors change frequency of oscillation in both cases?
What is concept of wein bridge oscillator and where it is used?
What are audio frequency and radio frequency oscillator?
Do both have same concept?
What is basic concept of radio frequency oscillator?
What elements are used for radio frequency oscillator?
Is Radio frequency oscillator and Crystal oscillator same?
How relaxation oscillators are used for triangular wave generator?
What is basic concept of relaxation oscillator?
What are Bistable, Monostable &Astable multi-vibrator?
How will u decide which one is bistable, monostable&astable.
What is stable stable&which is quasi stable state?
What is difference between stable state& quasi stable state?
How will u use Bistable as a Flip-flop?
How will u use mono stable as Pulse width modulator?
How astable is used as voltage to frequency convertor?
How astable works as it has 2 quasi stable states?
What is Schmitt trigger?
How it is different from astable muti-vibrator?
Can u draw input and output for Schmitt Trigger?
Show UTP&LTP in terms of input and output?
Which mutivibrator is used for clock generation?
What are the advantages of negative feedback?
Compare negative feedback and positive feedback in terms of stability?
Why negative feed-back are stabilized while positive feedback are unstable?
How negative feedback improves stability?
When one uses negative feedback and when positive feedback?
What are DC amplifiers? And what are their applications?
What is the problem with DC amplifers?
What is the drift problem in case of DC amplifier?
How Differential amplifier can remove this problem?
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Explain working of differential amplifers?

What are different modes in differential amplifier?
What are differential mode and common mode in case of differential amplifier?
What is CMRR and what is physical significance of it?
Is CMRR link with noise rejection? What is meaning of infinite value of CMRR?
Where differential amplifiers are used and what is its use in case of OPAMP?
How will u define digital?
Is digital& binary are same?
What is difference between digital&discrete or both are same?
Are analog &continuous same?
How will u define continuous&analog?
What is difference between both continuous and analog?
What is meaning of universal gate?
Can MUX be used as a universal gate?
For (n) variable function implementation what should be size of MUX
What is difference between MUX and encoder?
What are encoder?
Can u tell one application of encoder?
What is decoder and how it is different from encoder?
What is priority encoder?
Where this priority encoder can be used?
How will u implement higher order decoder/MUX by lower order?
How will u implement 8x1Mux by use of 4X1 MUX?
How will u define select lines in case of MUX?
Can u design a Full adder with half adder only?
What is difference between combination circuit and sequential circuit?
What are the advantages of sequential circuits in digital?
Is feedback digital circuits same as sequential?
What are the basic applications of sequential circuits?
How sequential circuits used as a memory elements?
Are sequential same as Latch?
What is difference between latch and flip-flop?
What is basic use of latch?
What are transparent latch?
Can we differentiate latch and flip flop based upon triggering of clock?
In microprocessor how a latch is used?
What is difference between level triggering and edge triggering?
What is basic problem with level triggering?
How above problem can be removed by use of edge triggering?
What are set up time and hold up time? And what are their values and their significance?
What is their significance in case of level triggering and edge triggering?
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What is Meta stability problem in case of flip-flop?

Is it linked with setup time and hold up time?
How Meta stability can be removed?
What is race around condition?
Why does it occur?
Does it occur in case of both level and edge triggering?
How one can remove race around condition?
What is master slave flip-flop?
How does it remove race around condition?
Can u explain working of Master Slave FF?
Can u design MOD-10 counter by use of 4 FFs and NOR gate?
In place of NOR gate can we use AND gate?
Why we will use only NAND and OR gate in above case?
For ripple counter can we use D FF or S FFS?
Why only T&JK FFs are used?
What are special feature of JK and T FF.
Does triggering affects MOD of ripple counter?
What is basic problem with ripple counter?
Can u explain glitch problem in ripple counter?
How this glitch problem can be removed in ripple counter?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of synchronous over ripple?
How will u design a synchronous binary counter?
What components are required for design of MOD-16 synchronous counter?
128

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BEL Interview -2014( ECE)

2. Important terms used in Electronics

3. Latest technology material-I

4. Latest technology material-II

5. Technical questions asked in interview

Chapter-1: Important technical theory

Factors affecting range of a radar:

Path of lobe tip

Advantages of CW Doppler Radar:

Mean radius of earth R= 6378Km

*****Optical fiber communication:******

3. Plastic core with plastic cladding

sin a n1 sin n12 n2 2

By this classification there are 3 types of fibres:

Maximum Usable Frequency and Critical frequency:

Radio- horizon = 4.12 ht km

where ht & hr arein meter

Electric field at receiver antenna is

It is used in frequency range from (300 MHZ 30 GHZ)

Waveguide Corners, Bends, and Twists:

1. All ports are perfectly matchedMAGIC-TEE

where n is any positive integer.

Microwave amplifiers and oscillators:

2. More power is absorbed or grid loss is increased

Operation of reflex klystron:

Specification of reflex klystron:

Types of slow wave structure:

Expressed mathematically, the negative resistance of the sample at a particular region is

Two-Valley Model Theory

Data for two valleys in GaAs:

< 100 >

u 180 cm2 /V-sec

Important points about Microstrip lines:

*****EDC and Analog circuit*****

Forward biased P-N junction diode:

Reverse biased P-N junction diode:

For Si: = 2 m 1.5, VG0 1.21V

But in general it can be assumed that

2. Dynamic resistance or AC resistance:

For step graded junction

Here total width of space charge layer w is w V j

Different type of capacitances in P-N Jn diode:

2. Diffusion or storage capacitance (CD):

(e) NPN transistors

V-I characteristics of Photo diode:

Photo voltaic potential:

(c) PIN Photo diode:

(d) Avalanche Photo diode:

Aveg. Value of O/p

RMS value of O/P

V-I Characteristics of Thyristor:

EBJ forward biased:

Current components in case of a transistor in active mode: (PNP)

for ideal case 100%

Effect of base width modulation:

Field Effect Transistor:

Basic structure of JFET:

Why depletion region is wider at drain side than source side?

Enhancement type of MOSFET (MOS):

Enhancement NMOS characteristics:

Case-1: VGS=0 volt and VDS>0

If vbe is the ac input and ic is the ac output then

There are various models for explaining transistor models.

*Optical fiber communication:**

EDC and Analog circuit