Momentum, Impulse and Impact

If there is no force on a mass, acceleration is zero

mv = 0 = mv is constant
If two particles with masses m1 and m2 interact with equal and opposite forces F and F (and no
external force) then
F = m1 v 1 , F = m2 v 2
Adding:
m1 v 1 + m2 v 2 = 0
so
m1 v1 + m2 v2 = is constant
Definition The momentum p of a mass m travelling with velocity v is
p = mv.
Newtons Second Law for the case of variable mass is that force is rate of change of momentum
Of course for a particle of constant mass p = mv.
F = p.
If we consider a complete mechanical system the forces sum to zero (that is there are no forces external
to the system). Often we dont do this, for example we regard the earth, or the ceiling from which
a pendulum is hung, as static and not part of the system. This means that the sum of the forces in
the system we are considering is balanced by the external forces. If we considered the whole system,
earth and pendulum for example, the earth swings a little bit with the pendulum!
Conservation of Momentum If there are no external forces on any number of interacting particles
then the sum of the momentums of the masses is constant. Interacting here means that there may be
forces between the particles due for example to strings, gravity, springs or collisions. For n particles
p1 + p2 + + pn is constant.
Unlike energy momentum is a vector, so the x and y (and z) components of momentum are conserved.
Think for example of billiard balls before and after a collision. Conservation of momentum alone does
not give enough equations to solve for two colliding particles. For example we have velocities v1 and
v2 of particles before a collision, and v0 1 and v0 2 after the collision. In three dimensions conservation
of momentum gives us three equations for the velocities after the collision but there are six variables.
Clearly we need to know more about the collision.
Impulse and impact
Some forces are very large and very brief (eg in the collision of billiard balls). Such forces are difficult
to measure, but theri overall effect of a change in momentum is not.
Definition:The impulse of a force F on a particle of mass m over a time interval from t1 to t2 is
Zt2

I=

Z t2

Fdt =
t1

m
t1

dv
dt = mv(t2 ) mv(t1 )
dt

It follows that the impulse is exactly the same as the change in momentum.
In a collision F(t) (the force exerted by one object on the other) is non-zero for a very short time.
A very rapid change in momentum of each object results, although the sum of their momenta stays
constant.
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Coefficient of Restitution
In general energy is lost on an impact so that colliding particles move apart with a smaller reltive
speed than the speed in coming together. We define the coefficient of restitution as

R =

relative speed of moving apart

relative speed of moving together

We will see below that 0 R 1 always.

There are two extreme cases: R = 1 perfectly elastic collisions where no energy os lost, and R = 0
colliding masses which stick together.
Example Taking all movements to be along the x-axis (say) a mass m1 moving at velocity s hits a
mass m2 at rest. If the coefficient of restitution is R find the velocities v1 and v2 of the masses after
collision as a fraction of the initial kinetic energy 21 m1 s2 ?
Momentum is conserved so m1 s = m1 v1 + m2 v2 . Coefficient of restitution is R = (v2 v1 )/s.
Solving (check this for yourself) gives
v1 =

m1 R m2
s
m1 + m2

(1 + R )m1
s
m1 + m2
With the ratio of energy after to energy before given by (check this for yourself)
v2 =

1
1
2
2
2 m1 v1 + 2 m2 v2
1
2
2 m1 s

m21 + (1 + R 2 )m1 m2 + R 2 m22

m21 + 2m1 m2 + m22

Note that the ratio is one (energy stays the same), if R = 1 and is less than one if 0 R < 1.
Bouncing ball under gravity
(a) Without air resistance a ball falls back to same level with the same speed that it left that level; this
is because
1 2
mv + mgy = E (a constant)
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(b) Consider a ball hitting a flat rigid surface with speed s0 . After impact, the speed at which it rises
from the surface is s1 = R s0 . After rising and falling back it returns with speed s1 and bounces with
speed s2 = R s1 = R 2 s0 .
If sn is the speed after the nth impact we have
sn = R sn1 .
(c) Height of rise after nth impact: We have (exercise) v = sn gt (so v = 0 at t = sn /g) and y =
snt 12 gt 2 (so at v = 0, y = 12 s2n /g).
We see that the maximum of y after n impacts is
1
1
yn = s2n /g = R 2 s2n1 /g
2
2
and
yn = R 2 yn1
2

(d) Time of flight after nth impact. This is when v = sn , from above time of flight after n impacts is
tn = 2sn /g = R tn1 .
We can solve each of these to give
sn = R n s0
yn = R 2n y0
tn = R n t0
Do all the collisions happen in a finite interval of time? For that we want

tn

n=0

to be finite. This is a sum of a geometric series which for R < 1.

Recurrence relations and return maps
We have seen that the time evolution of a system can be modelled by either differential equations
(continuous time) or by difference equations, also called recurrence relations where time is a discrete
variable. In population models we saw both. The bouncing ball gives an example of a recurrence
relation in a mechanical system.
Both differential equations x = f (x) and difference equations xn = f (xn1 ) are studied in the mathematical area called dynamical systems. This is a active area of mathematical research and our department at UMIST has a particularly strong dynamical systems group. You can learn mode about this
topic in 361 Dynamical Systems and Chaos.
You may have met difference equations, or recurrence relations in numerical methods for solving
equations such as Newton-Raphson method. To solve F(x) = 0 we might use the recurrence relation
xn = f (xn1 ) = xn1 f (xn1 )/ f 0 (xn1 ).
If it converges to a fixed point where x = f (x) this is a solution of F(x) = 0.
In our bouncing ball example, Newtons equations of motion give us a differential equation governing
the system. We made a discrete time dynamical , or recurrence relation, by looking at the state of the
system each time the solution to the differential equation returned to y = 0. More generally return
maps are discrete time systems which simplify a continuous time systems.
Rockets systems with changing mass
Systems where the mass changes can be understood in terms of momentum. Rockets are a good
example as they eject the products of combustion backwards to propel them forwards.
Example A rocket moving in a straight line ejects a mass m in a small time t at a speed s relative
to the rocket. If the mas of the rocket is m(t) what is the acceleration of the rocket?
At time t: rocket has mass m and velocity v.
At time t + t the mass of the rocket has changed (decreased) to m + m (note m is negative). The
velocity of the rocket is v + v, and the ejected matter with mass m is travelling with velocity v s.
Now we apply conservation of momentum at time t and t + t.
Before mass is ejected, time t, momentum is mv.
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After mass is ejected, time t + t, momentum is m(v s) + (m + m)(v + v).

Momentum is conserved so these are equal. Dividing by t we have
m

v
m mv
+s
+
= 0.
t
t
t

Now we have to assume that v and m are differentiable functions of t. A differentiable function is also
continuous (as will be proved in a later course). So we can take the limit as t 0 and we know that
v 0 and m 0 (this is what continuous means), but the ratios of these small quantities become
derivatives. We have
dv
dm
m +s
=0
dt
dt
We now have acceleration:

dv
s dm
=
dt
m dt

(Question: why is this always positive for a realistic model of a rocket?)

We now need some extra assumptions about m and s to find the acceleration, and hence the motion of
the rocket.
(a) Suppose that at t = 0, m = m0 and v = v0 , with s a constant, find v as a function of m: Integrating
gives
Z
Z
dm
dv = s
m
so
v = s ln m +C
Using v = v0 when m = m0 gives C = v0 + s ln m0 so that (check this)
v = v0 + s ln

m0
.
m

Note as m decreases,v increases. But we still dont know m as a function of time. More assumptions:
(b) If dm/dt is a constant (dm/dt = B, B > 0) find (i) m and v as functions of time (ii) the distance
travelled from time t = 0.
(i) dm/dt = B = m = Bt + D with D = m0 + B 0 so m = m0 Bt and hence
v = v0 + s ln

m0
m0 Bt

(ii)
v = dx/dt = v0 + s ln
so

x = v0t + s
leading to (exercise)

ln

m0
m0 Bt

m0
dt + const
m0 Bt

s
m0 Bt
x = (v0 + s)t + (m0 Bt) ln
B
m0

Reality checks: dimensions ok? Do x and v go the right way as t increases? What happens for large
time when we take the log of a negative number? (x ln x 0 as x 0)
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