DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

ELECTRIC POWER
Consider the circuit shown in the Figure where a
battery is connected to a resistor R. A positive charge
dq will gain potential energy as it moves from point a
to point b through the battery. The charge loses the
same amount of potential energy as it moves from
point c to point d through the resistor. This amount is
given by
dU = dq
Now P =

a V

R
d

= dqV

dU
dq
=V
= VI
dt
dt

V2
Using the formula V= IR P = IV = I R =
R
2

Example 27.7
You are given an electric heater made of nichrome wire of
resistance 8 . Find the current carried by the wire and the power of the heater if
it is connected to 120 V source.
Solution
I=

V 120
=
= 15A
R 8.0

The power can be found using

P = I 2 R = (15)2 (8.0) = 1.8 KW

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

Consider the circuit shown in the figure. Current will

r b
be established through the resistor R if a potential a
difference is maintained across its ends. If the end b
is at higher potential than the end a, then charge will
I
move through the resistor from b to a. For the current
R
to circulate around a closed circuit, the charge must
jump from a to b. This means that we need a device that capable of pumping
charge from lower potential to higher potential. The function of such a device is
called electromotive force, abbreviated emf, and denoted by the symbol . The
battery and the generator are common emf devices. A source of emf can be
considered as a charge pump that pumps charges in a direction opposite to the
electrostatic force inside the source. It is exactly like a water pump that pushes
water from lower to a higher level opposite to the gravitational force.
The resistance r is called the internal resistance of the battery, and R is
called the load resistor. We shall assume that the connecting wire have no
resistance. Any positive charge moving from a to b will gain a potential as it
passes from the negative terminal to the positive terminal of the battery. However,
it will lose a potential Ir as it passes through the internal resistor, where I is the
current in the circuit. Thus, the terminal voltage of the battery, V = Vb Va , is given
by
V = Ir

28.1

From this Equation it is clear that the emf is equal to the terminal voltage of a
battery in an open circuit, that is when the current is zero. As the connecting wires
have no resistance we conclude that the voltage V must also equal the potential
across the load resistor R, that is
V = IR

From the above two Equations we get

I=

28.2

R+ r

Example 28.1 A battery has an emf 0f 12.0 V and an internal resistance of 0.05
. Its terminals are connected to a load resistance of 3.0 .
a) Find I and the terminal voltage of the battery.
b) Calculate the power delivered to R, r, and by the battery.
Solution: a) I =

R+ r

12.0
= 3.93 A
3.0 + 0.05

V = Ir = 12.0 (3.93 0.05) = 11.8 V

b) PR = I 2 R = (3.93)2 (3.0) = 46.3 W

Pr = I 2 r = (3.93)2 (0.05) = 0.772 W
P = I = 3.93 12.0 = 47.1 W

Note that P = PR + Pr

RESISTORS IN SERIES AND IN PARALLEL

When two resistors are connected together as

shown we said that they are connected in series. As
it is clear from the figure, any charge that flows
through R1 must equal the charge that flows
through R2, that is the current is the same in each
resistor. Since the potential difference between a
and b equals the sum of the potential drop across
each resistor we have

R1

R2

Veq = IR1 + IR2 = I (R1 + R2 )

28.3

where Veq is the potential drop across the equivalent resistor. Therefore we
conclude that
Req = R1 + R2

28.4

The equivalent resistor of more than two resistors connected in series is then
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + L

28.5

R1

Now consider the two resistors connected as shown in

I
the Figure. The potential drops across R1 and R2 are 1
equal and must equal to the potential drop across any a
equivalent resistor connected between a and b, that is

I2

R2
b

Veq = V1 = V2

28.6

If I1 and I2 are the currents passing through R1 and R2,

respectively, then the net current of the circuit is

I = I1 + I 2

28.7

Using Ohms law and Equation 28.6, we get

1
1
1
=
+
Req R1 R2

28.8

In general if more that two resistors are connected in parallel, then we have
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+L
Req R1 R2 R3

28.9

Example 28.4
Four resistors are connected as shown in.
(a) What is the equivalent resistance between points a & c.?
(b) What is the current in each resistor if a potential difference of 42 V is
maintained between a & c.?

8.0 4.0

1.0 A
6.0 V
6.0

a 3.0 A 3.0 Ab
3.0
6.0 V
2.0 A

12
c a 3.0 A
36 V

2.0
b

3.0 A c
6.0 V
14

3.0 A
42 V

Solution: (a) The circuit can be reduced, step by step, to a single equivalent
resistance as shown in the Figure. The 8.0- and the 4.0- are connected in series
, and so they can be replaced by an equivalent resistor of 12 . The 6.0- and the
3.0- are connected in parallel , and so they can be replaced by an equivalent
resistor of 2.0 . The equivalents are connected in series. The equivalent
resistance of the circuit is then
Req = 12 + 2.0 = 14

(b) Since the 12- and the 2.0- are connected in series, they have the same
current Ieq, which must equal to the current of the 14- resistor. Using Ohms law
we get
I eq =

Req
Req

48
= 3.0 A
14

Now the potential difference across the 2.0- is

Vbc = I eq R = 3.0(2.0) = 6.0 V

This potential difference is the same across the 6.0- and the 3.0- resistors due
the parallel connection between them. So, we can find the current I passing
through the 3.0- resistor as
I=

6.0
= 2.0A
3.0

and the current I through the 6.0- resistor as

I=

6.0
= 1.0 A
6.0

The current passing through the 4.0- and the 8.0- is the same as that passing
through the 12- (3.0 A) due the series connection between them.

Example 28.5
shown?

What is equivalent resistance between a and b in the Figure

c
1
a

1
a

1 c,d 1

1
b

d
0.5 0.5
a
c,d
b
0.5
a

Solution
There are no series or parallel connections in the system given. Now
consider a current entering the junction a. Because of the symmetry in the circuit,
the current in branches ac & ad must be equal, and hence the points c & d have the
same potential (Vcd= 0), that is the circuit can be reduced as in the figure.

Example 28.6
Three resistors are
connected in parallel as shown. A
potential difference of 18 V is applied
across points a and b.
a) Find the current in each resistor.
b) Calculate the power delivered to
each resistor and the total power
delivered to the combination.

18 V

Solution: a) Since the resistors are

connected in parallel, the potential
difference across each one is the same
and equal to 18 V. Now
V1 18
= =6A
R1 3
V 18
I2 = 2 = =3A
R2 6
V 18
I3 = 3 = = 2 A
R3 9
I1 =

b) For the power delivered to each resistor we apply

P1 = I12 R1 = (6 )2 (3) =108 W
P2 = I 22 R2 = (3)2 (6) = 54 W
P3 = I 32 R3 = (2 )2 (9 ) = 36 W

2
Peq = I eq
Req = (11)2 (1.64) =198 W

Note that Peq = P1 + P2 + P3

I1

I2

I3

28.3 KIRCHHOFFS RULES

I- The sum of the currents entering any junction must equal the sum of the currents
leaving that junction. (A junction is any point in a circuit where a current can split)
II- The algebraic sum of the potential differences across all the elements around
any loop must be zero.
The first rule is an application of the conservation of charge principle, while the
second rule is an application of the conservation of energy principle.
To apply the second rule we should know the following two remarks:
1- The change in potential through any resistor is negative for a move in the
direction of the current and positive for a move opposite to the direction of the
current. This is because the current through a resistor moves from the end of
higher potential to that of lower potential.
2- The change in potential through an ideal battery is positive for a move from the
negative to the positive terminal of the battery and negative for a move in the
opposite direction.
Strategy for solving problems using Kirchhoffs rules:
1- Draw a circuit diagram and label all quantities, known and unknown.
2- Assign a direction for the current in each part of the circuit. Do not bother if
your guess of current direction is incorrect; the result will have a negative value.
3- Apply the first Kirchhoffs rule to any junction in the circuit. In general this rule
is used one time fewer than the number of junctions in the circuit.
4- Choose any closed loop in the network, and designate a direction (clockwise or
counterclockwise) to traverse the loop.
5- Starting from one point in the loop, go around the loop in the designated
direction. Sum the potential differences across all the elements of the chosen loop
to zero. In doing so you should note the two remarks discussed above, that is, the
potential difference across an emf is + if it is traversed from the negative to the
positive terminal and - if traversed in the opposite direction. The potential

difference across any resistor is -IR if this resistor is traversed in the direction of
the assumed current and +IR if traversed in the opposite direction.
6- Choose another loop and repeat the fifth step to get a different equation relating
the unknown quantities. Continue until you have as many equations as unknowns.
7- Solve these equations simultaneously for the unknowns.
Example 28.8
In the circuit shown, find the current in the circuit and the
power delivered to each resistor and the power delivered by the 12-V battery.

1=6V

I
R1= 8

R2= 10

2=12V
Solution
The directions of the currents are assigned arbitrary as shown in the
Figure. As it clear from the circuit there is one loop with no junctions. Now, we
apply Kirchhoffs second rule to the loop and traverse the loop in the clockwise
direction, obtaining

1 IR1 2 IR2 = 0
6 8 I 12 10 I = 0
6 12 6
I=
=
= 0.33A
8 + 10 18

The minus sign indicates that the direction of I is opposite the assumed direction.
To find the power delivered to each resistor, we use
P1 = I 2 R1 = 0.87 W
P2 = I 2 R2 =1.1 W

And for the power delivered by the battery we have

P = I 2 = 0.33 12 = 4 W
Note that P1 + P2 = 0.87 + 1.1 = 2 W
That is half of the power supplied by the 12V-battery is delivered to the resistors
and the other half is delivered to the 6V-battery
Example 12.4
a) Find the current in
each resistor in the figure shown.
b) Calculate the potential difference Vb Va .

14V

Solution
a) If we apply Kirchhoffs first rule to the
a
junction b we get

I2

4
6

b
I1

I1 + I 2 = I 3

10V

(1)
Now applying Kirchhoffs second rule to the
upper loop traversing it clockwise we get

I3
2

14 + 6 I1 10 4 I 2 = 0

(2)

For the bottom loop traversing it in the clockwise direction gives

10 6 I1 2 I 3 = 0

Substituting for I3 from Eq. (1) into Eq.(3)

10 6 I1 2(I1 + I 2 ) = 0

(3)

10 8 I1 2 I 2 = 0

(4)

Dividing Eq.(2) by 2
12 + 3I1 2 I 2 = 0

Subtracting Eqs. (4) & (5)

22 11I1 = 0

or

I1 = 2.0A

(5)

From Eq. (4) we get

or
I 2 = 3.0A
and from Eq. (1) we get
or
I 3 = 1.0A
The minus sign indicates that I2 & I3 should be reversed
b) Starting at point a, we follow a path toward point b, adding potential differences
across all the elements we encounter. If we follow the path through the middle
battery we obtain
Vb Va = 10 6 I1 = 10 6 2 = 2V

The minus sign here means that Va > Vb. Try to follow another paths from a to b to
verify that they also give the same result.
The RC CIRCUITS
Charging Process
The figure shows a capacitor, initially
uncharged, connected in series with a
resistor. If the switch S is thrown at point 1

at t = 0 , the capacitor will begin to

charge, creating a current in the circuit. Let I be the current in the circuit at some
instant during the charging process, and q be the charge on the capacitor at the
same instant. Applying Kirchhoffs second rule to the circuit, we obtain
IR

q
=0
C

28.10

Substituting for I with I = dq dt , in Equation 28.10, and rearranging we obtain

dq
dt
=
C q RC

28.11

Noting that the charge on the capacitor is initially zero, i.e., q = 0 at t = 0 , we can
integrate both sides of Equation 28.11 as
q

dq

dt

0 C q = 0 RC
t
C q
ln
=
RC
C
t

RC
q = C 1 e

28.12

where e is the base of the natural logarithm. To find the current as a function of
time, we differentiate Equation 28.12 with respect to time to get

I = e RC
t

28.13

The quantity RC is called the time constant, , which defined as the time required
for the current to decrease to 1 e of its initial value. Equations 28.12 and 28.13,
which are plotted in the following Figure, tell the following:
1- At t = 0 , the charge q is zero, as required, and the initial current Io is

Qm

Io

t
(a)

t
(b)

Figure 12.8 (a) The charge versus time in a charging process for RC circuit.
(b) The current versus time in a charging process for the same RC circuit.
Io =

28.14

that is, the capacitor acts as if it were a wire with negligible resistance (short
circuit).
2- As t (after a long time), the charge has its maximum equilibrium value, Qm
Qm = C

28.15

and the current is zero, that is the capacitor acts as it were an open switch (open
circuit).
Discharging Process
Suppose that the capacitor is now fully charged such that its potential difference is
equal to the emf . If the switch is thrown to point 2 at a new time

t = 0 , the

capacitor begin to discharge through the resistor. Let I be the current in the circuit
at some instant during this process, and q be the charge on the capacitor at the
same instant. Applying Kirchhoffs rule to the loop, we get

q
IR = 0
C

28.16

Substituting for I with I = dq dt (explain the negative sign), and rearrange we

obtain
dq
1
dt
=
q
RC

28.17

Using the initial condition, q = Qmat t = 0 we can integrate the last equation to
obtain
1

dq

q
t
Qmax q = RC 0 dt

ln

q
1
=
t
Qm
RC

q = Qme t

RC

28.18

The current is the rate of decrease of the charge on the capacitor, that is
I =

dq
= I o e t
dt

Io =

Q
RC

RC

28.19

where
28.20

Example 28.12 A 8105-k resistor and a 5-F capacitor are connected, in

series, with a 12-V battery as shown. The capacitor is initially uncharged, and the
switch S is closed at t= 0.

a) Find the time constant of the circuit, and the

maximum charge on the capacitor.
b) What is the time required for the current to
drop to half its initial value?
c) After being closed for a long time, the switch
is now opened at t=0, what is the time required
for the charge and for the energy to decrease to
one-fourth their maximum value.

12 V

5 F

Solution a) The time constant is

)(

= RC = 8.0 105 5.0 10 6 = 4.0s

The maximum charge is,

Qm = C = (12) 5.0 10 6 = 60C

And the maximum current is

Io =

12
=
=15 A
R 8 105

b) Now we have
I = Io e

t
RC

To find the time required for the current to drop to half its value, we substitute
I = 12 I o into this equation:
1I
2 o

= Ioe

t
RC

Taking the logarithm of both sides, we have

ln 12 =

or

t
RC

( )

t = RC ln 12 = 2.8 s

c) In the discharging process, the charge varies with time according to

q = Qme t

RC

Substituting for q = 14 Qm , and taking the logarithm of both sides we get

ln 14 =

t
RC

or
t = RC ln 14 = 5.5 s

For the energy we have

q 2 Q 2 2t RC
U=
=
e
= U m e 2t RC
2C 2C
Substituting for U = 14 U m , and taking the logarithm of both sides we get
ln 14 =

2t
RC

or
t =

RC
ln 14 = 2.8 s
2

Example (Extra) In the circuit

shown, the capacitor is initially
empty and the switch S is closed
at t= 0.
a) Find the current in each branch
of the circuit at t=0.
b) Calculate the maximum charge
on the capacitor.

I1

6
I3

I2

12 F
4

32V
S

Solution a) At t= 0, the capacitor is treated as if it were a wire with negligible

resistance. This means that the capacitor makes a short circuit across the 4-
resistor. Therefore, we have
I 2 = 0 and I1 = I 3 =

32
= 5.3 A
6.0

b) The maximum charge is attained after a long time ( t ). At this time the
capacitor is treated as if it were an open switch. So,
I 3 = 0 and I1 = I 2 =

32
= 3.2A .
(6.0 + 4.0)

To calculate the charge on the capacitor, we first want to find the potential
difference across it. Applying Kirchhoffs second rule to right loop we find that the
potential difference V across the capacitor is
V = I 2 R2 = (3.2)(4.0 ) = 12 V

Now the maximum charge is

Q = CV = 12 10 6 (12.8) = 1.5 10 4 C