Magnetostatics

Like static electric fields are characterized by E or D, static magnetic fields are characterized
by H or B.
similarities and dissimilarities between electric and magnetic fields
As E and D are related according to D = E for linear material space, H and B are related
according to B = H.

Term
Basic laws

Force law
Source element
Field intensity
Flux density
Relationship between fields
Potentials

Electric

Magnetic

Term
Flux

Energy density

Poisson's equation

Electric

Magnetic

Two major laws governing magnetostatic fields:

(1) Biot-Savart's law. Like Coulomb's law, it is the general law of magnetostatics.
(2) Ampere's circuit law. Just as Gauss's law is a special case of Coulomb's law, Ampere's
law is a special case of Biot-Savart's law and is easily applied in problems involving
symmetrical current distribution.

Biot-Savart Law
magnetic field intensity dH produced at a point P, by the differential current clement dl is
proportional to the product dl and the sine of the angle a between the element and the line
joining P to the element and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance R
between P and the element.

In SI units,

So

From the definition of cross product

above equation in vector form is

where
direction of dH can be determined by the right hand rule with the right-hand
thumb pointing in the direction of the current, the right-hand fingers encircling the
wire in the direction of dH
Customary to represent the direction of the magnetic field
intensity H (or current )

current distributions

Line current

Surface current

Volume current

Do it yourself

field due to a straight current carrying filamentary conductor of

finite length AB

Special case:
when the conductor is infinite (with respect to
P) so that point A is now at O(0, 0, -) while B
is at (0, 0,);

AMPERE'S CIRCUIT LAWMAXWELL'S EQUATION

Line integral of the tangential component of H around a dosed path is the
same as the net current enc enclosed by the path

similar to Gauss's law and it is easily applied to determine H when the current distribution
is symmetrical.
Above equation always holds whether the current distribution is symmetrical or not
but we can only use the equation to determine H when symmetrical current
distribution exists.
Ampere's law is a special case of Biot-Savart's law; the former may be derived from the
latter.

By applying Stoke's theorem to the left-hand side

But
Comparing,

3rd Maxwell's equation

Ampere's law in differential form

Observation:

magnetostatic field is not conservative

APPLICATIONS OF AMPERE'S LAW

Infinite Line Current
To determine H at an observation point P,
draw a closed path pass through P
Amperian path
Since this path encloses the whole current ,
according to Ampere's law

Infinite Sheet of Current

It cannot have x and z components.
Why?
B is perpendicular to K

Applying Ampere's law,

one Bl comes from the top segment, and the other from the bottom

Notice that the field is independent of the distance from the plane, just like the electric
field of a uniform surface charge

Toroid
A toroid whose dimensions are shown in Figure has N turns and carries current .
Determine H inside and outside the toroid.

Ans:
inside:

Outside is zero

Solenoid
Find the magnetic field of a very long solenoid, consisting of n closely wound turns per unit
length on a cylinder of radius R and carrying a steady current I

Ans:

inside
outside

MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY BMAXWELL'S EQUATION

similar to the electric flux density D i.e.
Units: Webers/m2 (or) Tesla

magnetic flux through a surface S is given by

total flux through a closed surface in a magnetic field
Gauss's law for magnetostatic fields
(or) Nonexistence of magnetic monopole
since an isolated magnetic charge does not exist.
To get above equation in differential form, apply the divergence theorem

fourth Maxwell's equation

Putting Maxwell equations for static EM fields, we get

Differential form

Integral Form

Remarks

Gauss's law

Nonexistence of magnetic monopole

Conservativeness of electrostatic field

Ampere's law

MAGNETIC SCALAR AND VECTOR POTENTIALS

Recall that some electrostatic field problems were simplified by relating the electric
potential V to the electric field intensity E (E = V).
Similarly, we can define a potential associated with magnetostatic field B.
Magnetic potential could be scalar Vm or vector A.
Recall two important identities
which must always hold for any scalar field V and vector field A

if J = 0
This satisfies Poissons equation
From Helmholtz theorem

Like we defined for electrostatic potential V

Line current

Surface current

Volume current

Can you derive it yourself?

Proof of Magnetic Vector Potential

Illustration of the source point (x', y', z') and

the field point (x, y, z)
where the differentiation is with respect to x, y, and z

Substituting this in
Use

we get
where

Why?
So,
reduces to

Now, the equation

Comparing with

So, flux can be found either by using

we get

(or)

Problem
Given

Wb/m, calculate the total magnetic flux crossing the surface

Answer: 3.75 Wb

Summary of Magnetostatics

Forces due to magnetic fields

considered the basic laws and techniques commonly used in calculating magnetic
field B due to current-carrying elements
Let us study the force a magnetic field exerts on charged particles, current elements, and
loops
important to problems on electrical devices such as ammeters, voltmeters,
galvanometers, cyclotrons, plasmas, motors, etc.
3 ways in which force due to magnetic fields can be experienced. The force can be
(a) due to a moving charged particle in a B field,
(b) on a current element in an external B field
(c) between two current elements.

Electric force Fe on a stationary or moving electric charge Q in an electric field is

Fe and E have the same direction
A magnetic field can exert force only on a moving charge
magnetic force Fm experienced by a charge Q moving with a velocity u in a magnetic field
B is
Fm is perpendicular to both u and B.
Comparison:
Fe independent of the velocity of the charge and can perform work on the charge and
change its kinetic energy.
Fm depends on the charge velocity and is normal to it
and does not cause an increase in kinetic energy of the charge.
magnitude of Fm is generally small compared to Fe except at high velocities.
For a moving charge Q in the presence of both fields,
Lorentz force equation

relates mechanical force to electrical force.

Solution to this equation is important in determining the motion of charged particles in
E and B fields.
Remember that in such fields, energy transfer can be only by means of the electric field.

Force on a Current Element

Using

and

we get

Alternatively,

i.e. an elemental charge dQ moving with velocity u (thereby producing convection current
element dQ u) is equivalent to a conduction current element dl

B is defined as the force per

unit current element

Remember:
Magnetic field produced by the current element dl does not exert force on the element
itself just as a point charge does not exert force on itself.
The B field that exerts force on dl must be due to another element.

Force between current elements

force d(dF1) on element 1 dl1 due to the field dB2 produced by element 2 dl2

From Biot-Savart's law

So,

total force F, on current loop 1 due to current loop 2

Problem
A charged particle of mass 2 kg and charge 3 C starts at point (1, 2 , 0) with velocity
4ax + 3az m/s in an electric field 12ax + 10ay, V/m. At time t = 1 s, determine
(a) The acceleration of the particle
b) Its velocity Ans:
(c) Its kinetic energy
(d) Its position

Ans: 18 ax + 15 ay m/s2
: 22 ax + 15 ay + 3az m/s
: 718 J
: (14, 5.5, 3)

A charged particle moves with a uniform velocity 4ax m/s in a region where E = 20 ay V/m
and B = B0 az Wb/m2. Determine B0 such that the velocity of the particle remains constant.

MAGNETIC TORQUE AND MOMENT

After discussing about the force on a current loop in a magnetic field, we can determine
the torque on it.
Important to understand the behavior of orbiting charged particles, d.c. motors, and
generators.
If the loop is placed parallel to a magnetic field, it experiences a force that tends to
rotate it.
The torque T (or mechanical moment of force) on the loop is the vector product of
the force F and the moment arm r.
Units: Newtons- meters

Apply this to a rectangular loop. From this figure, we notice that dl is parallel to
B along sides 12 and 34 of the loop and no force is exerted on those sides. Thus

where

because B is uniform

Thus, no force is exerted on the loop as a whole

Fo and Fo act at different points on the loop, thereby
creating a couple.
If the normal to the plane of the loop makes an angle
with B, as shown in the cross-sectional view of Figure,
the torque on the loop is


But

the area of the loop

where
magnetic dipole moment (in A. m2) of the loop.

The magnetic dipole moment is the product of current and area of the loop; its direction
is normal to the loop.
Direction of torque is axis of rotation (the z-axis in this case)
generally applicable in determining the torque on a planar loop of any arbitrary shape.,
provided magnetic field must be uniform.

A MAGNETIC DIPOLE
A bar magnet (or) a small filamentary current loop
Let us find B at an observation point P due to a circular
loop carrying current .
The magnetic vector potential A at P is

At far field (r >> a), the loop appears small at P. So A has only -component i.e.

where

Is moment of the loop, and

Electric
Monopole (point charge)

Dipole (two point charge)

Magnetic
Does not exist

B lines due to magnetic dipoles

Small current loop with m = S

bar magnet with

B lines due to both dipoles are similar

When a short permanent magnetic bar is in a uniform magnetic field B, it experiences a

torque given by

Qm i.e. pole strength does not exist without an

associated Qm

The torque tends to align the bar with the external magnetic field.
force acting on the magnetic charge is given by
Since both a small current loop and a bar magnet produce magnetic dipoles, they are
equivalent if they produce the same torque in a given B field i.e. when

showing that they must have the same dipole moment.

Problem
A small current loop L1, with magnetic moment 5 az A . m2 is located at the origin while
another small loop current L2 with magnetic moment 3 ay A . m2 is located at (4, 3, 10).
Determine the torque on L2.
torque T2 on the loop L2 is due to the field B1 produced by loop L1
Since m1 for loop L1 is along az,
Transform m2 from Cartesian to spherical coordinates i.e.

At (4, 3, 10)

Problem
Determine the magnetic moment of an electric circuit formed by the triangular loop
Ans: 10 (ax + ay + az ) A m2

MAGNETIZATION IN MATERIALS Similar to polarization of materials in an electric field

Internal magnetic field is produced by
electrons orbiting around the nucleus (or)
electrons spinning

b is the bound current (bound to the atom).

Magnetic dipole moment in a volume v

Magnetization M (amperes/meter) is the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume.

If there are N atoms in a given volume v and the kth atom has a magnetic moment mk,

A medium for which M is not zero everywhere is said to be magnetized

Vector magnetic potential due to m is

Comparing this with

and

we get

Potential (and hence also the field) of a magnetized object is the same as that produced by a
bound volume current density Jb = x M plus a bound surface current density Kb = M x an

In free space, M = 0
Jf is the free current volume density
For M 0

holds for all materials whether they are linear or not

For linear materials, M (in A/m) depends linearly on H such that
Magnetic susceptibility

permeability of the material measured in henry/meter

Problem

Since z = 0 is the lower side of the slab, an = az

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

nonmagnetic if m = 0 (or r =1)

Ex: Free space, air

Relative Permeability of Some Materials

for most practical purposes we may assume
that r =1 for diamagnetic and paramagnetic
materials. Thus, we may regard diamagnetic
and paramagnetic materials as linear and
nonmagnetic
Ferromagnetic materials are always nonlinear
and magnetic except when their temperatures
are above curie temperature

diamagnetism

Ex: bismuth, lead, copper, silicon, diamond, sodium chloride

magnetic fields due to electronic motions of orbiting and spinning completely cancel each other.
permanent (or intrinsic) magnetic moment of each atom is zero and the materials are weakly
affected by a magnetic field.
m = 10-5
Except for superconductors, diamagnetic materials are seldom used in practice

Paramagnetism

Ex: air, platinum, tungsten, potassium

Paramagnetism occurs in materials where the magnetic fields produced by orbital and
spinning electrons do not cancel completely
m = 10-5 to 10-3
Unlike diamagnetism, paramagnetism is temperature dependent.
Materials whose atoms have nonzero permanent magnetic moment may be paramagnetic
or ferromagnetic

Ferromagnetism Ex: Iron, cobalt, nickel, and their alloys

occurs in materials whose atoms have relatively large permanent magnetic moment
They are nonlinear
does not hold for ferromagnetic materials because r depends on B
and cannot be represented by a single value

typical B-H curve

existence of Br is the cause of having permanent magnets

Hc: coercive field intensity

Problem

MAGNETIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

conditions that H (or B) field must satisfy at the boundary between two different media.
Use Gauss law for magnetic fields and Ampere law

and

Applying to the pillbox (Gaussian surface) and

allowing h ! 0

(or)
normal component of B is continuous at the
boundary. It also shows that the normal
component of H is discontinuous at the
boundary; H undergoes some change at the
interface

Apply Ampere law to the closed path

abcda where surface current K on the
boundary is assumed normal to the path

As

tangential component of H is also discontinuous

If the boundary is free of current (or) the media are not conductors (for K is free
current density), K = 0

(or)
tangential component of H is continuous while that of B is discontinuous at the boundary.
If the fields make an angle with the normal to the interface,
gives

gives

Dividing each other

Law of refraction for magnetic flux lines at a

boundary with no surface current

INDUCTORS, MAGNETIC ENERGY

If the circuit has N identical turns, flux linkage is
where
if the medium surrounding the circuit is linear, the flux
linkage is proportional to the current producing it

L is a constant of proportionality inductance of the circuit

A circuit or part of a circuit that has inductance is called an inductor
Units: Henry
Like capacitances, we may regard inductance as a measure of how much magnetic energy is
stored in an inductor
i.e. an inductor is a conductor arranged in a shape appropriate to store magnetic energy.
Ex: toroids, solenoids, coaxial transmission lines, and parallel-wire transmission lines.
Magnetic energy (in joules) stored in an inductor is

Thus the self-inductance of a circuit can be

calculated from energy considerations.
If there are two circuits carrying current 1 and 2

self-inductance of circuits 1 and 2 are

and
total energy in the magnetic field is the sum of the energies due to L1, L2, andMI2 (or M21);

positive sign is taken if 1 and 2 flow such that the magnetic fields of the two circuits
strengthen each other

For a given inductor, we find the self-inductance L by taking these steps:

1. Choose a suitable coordinate system
2. Let the inductor carry current /.
3. Determine B from Biot-Savart's law (or from Ampere's law if symmetry exists)
and calculate
4. Finally find L from

Problem

Calculate the self-inductance per unit length of an infinitely long solenoid.

Here, number of turns per unit length

If S is the cross-sectional area of the solenoid, the total flux through the cross section is

Since this flux is only for a unit length of the solenoid, the linkage per unit length is

and thus the inductance per unit length is

H/m

Just like we derived,

One can derive similar expression for magnetic energy

MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
Concept is based on solving some magnetic field problems using circuit approach.
Ex: Magnetic devices such as toroids, transformers, motors, generators, and relays may
be considered as magnetic circuits
Make it simple by exploiting the analogy between magnetic circuits and electric c.

Magnetomotive force (mmf)

(in ampere-turns)

source of mmf in magnetic circuits is usually a coil carrying current

define reluctance as

reciprocal of reluctance is permeance

basic relationship for circuit elements is Ohm's law (V = IR):

Based on this, Kirchhoff's current and voltage laws can be applied to nodes and loops of a
given magnetic circuit just as in an electric circuit.

FORCE ON MAGNETIC MATERIALS

practical interest to determine the force that a magnetic field exerts on a piece of
magnetic material in the field.
useful in electromechanical systems such as electromagnets, relays, rotating machines,
and magnetic levitation
The coil has N turns and carries a current .
ignore fringing, the magnetic field in the air
gap is the same as that in iron i.e. B1n = B2n
To find the force between the two pieces of
iron, we calculate the change in the total
energy that would result were the two pieces
of the magnetic circuit separated by a
differential displacement dl.
Work required to create the displacement is equal to the change in stored energy in the air gap

factor 2 accounts for the two air gaps, and the negative sign indicates that the force acts to
reduce the air gap

Remember, force is exerted on the lower piece and not on the current-carrying upper
piece giving rise to the field.
The tractive force across a single gap
tractive pressure (in N/m2) in a magnetized surface is

Problem
The toroidal core has o = 10 cm and a circular cross section with a = 1 cm. If the core is
made of steel ( = 1000 o) and has a coil with 200 turns, calculate the amount of
current that will produce a flux of 0.5 mWb in the core.

can be solved in two different ways: using the magnetic field approach (direct), (or) using
the electric circuit analog (indirect).

Method 1:

Method 2:

Since o is large compared with a,

Problem
In the magnetic circuit, calculate the current in the coil that will produce a magnetic flux
density of 1.5 Wb/m2 in the air gap assuming that = 5o and that all branches have the
same cross-sectional area of 10 cm2.
Ans: 44.16 A