Aging of Live Working Tools and Equipment

Part 1: Project Overview

1013891

Aging of Live Working Tools and Equipment

Part 1: Project Overview
1013891
Technical Update, September 2007

EPRI Project Manager

G. Gela

ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE

3420 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304-1338 PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303-0813 USA
800.313.3774 650.855.2121 askepri@epri.com www.epri.com

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This is an EPRI Technical Update report. A Technical Update report is intended as an informal report of
continuing research, a meeting, or a topical study. It is not a final EPRI technical report.

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Copyright 2007 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.

CITATIONS
This document was prepared by
EPRI-Lenox
115 East New Lenox Road
Lenox, MA 01240
Principal Investigators
G. Gela
D. Childs
This document describes research sponsored by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI).
This publication is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following
manner:
Aging of Live Working Tools and Equipment: Part 1: Project Overview. EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 2007. 1013891

iii

PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
Live working tools and equipment are often exposed to harsh conditions during use that cause
aging or deterioration of their inherent integrity. So far, there has been a lack of detailed
knowledge of aging mechanisms and rates as well as the end-of-life criteria of live working tools
and equipment. For this reason, the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) launched a pilot
project to study the issue. This report summarizes the relevant work performed in 2007 and
outlines planned future work.
Results and Findings
Trunnions. Recently, a utility reported a failure of a trunnion while in service. The failure was
attributed to wear or aging of trunnion threads during years of use and the resulting mechanical
fatigue. Fortunately, a secondary stop nut prevented dropping of the conductor supported by the
strain stick and the aged trunnion. Although such incidents are rare in the industry, any field
failure must be investigated in detail to determine the cause of the problem and to derive lessons
learned that help avoid future recurrences.
In 2007, several trunnions were removed from the field, provided to the EPRI-Lenox,
Massachusetts laboratory, and mechanically tested under linearly increasing loading conditions
(that is, no shock load). No threads were ripped out during the tests, and the reported incident
could not be reproduced with linearly increasing load.
Conductive suits. EPRI research in the 1980s and 1990s investigated the design, performance,
and function of conductive suitsparticularly the effect of laundering of suits on their shielding
properties. The research discovered evidence of significant deterioration as a result of
laundering. The EPRI report TR-104640 was reviewed, and sections related to the aging of suits
are summarized in the current report.
Live working rope. In view of 1) significant changes in the performance requirements of rope
used for live working purposes and 2) the resulting market unavailability of live working rope,
EPRI recently launched a significant project to assess service performance requirements and test
procedures for live working rope. The results of this research are contained in EPRI reports
1013603 and 1013897 (the latter is being developed) and appear to support the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) approach to performance requirements and testing of rope.
One section of EPRI report 1013897 is dedicated to rope damage and another to decisions
regarding repair and/or retirement. Excerpts from these sections are also summarized in the
current report.
Challenges and Objectives
Little is known about the aging and deterioration of live working tools and equipment. Few
quantitative guidelines are available for determining the end-of-life of a tool or piece of
equipmentthat is, the point at which the tool and equipment should be retired from serviceor
for removing tools and equipment for re-evaluation.
The objective of this effort is to explore in depth the aging of live working tools and equipment
that results from field use and to develop end-of-life or replacement criteria.

Applications, Value, and Use

Quantitative information on the aging of live working tools and equipment will allow utilities to
improve inspection and repair methods as well as schedules. Definitive end-of-life criteria will
allow utilities to plan the replacement and removal from service of live working tools and
equipment.
EPRI Perspective
The lack of detailed knowledge of aging mechanisms and rates and of the end-of-life criteria of
live working tools and equipment often prevents utilities from optimizing inspection intervals
and repair strategies of tools and equipment. Further, it does not facilitate proper asset
management and replacement of aging or failing tools and equipment.
It is recommended that these issues be explored in depthboth in terms of a detailed analysis of
available (though admittedly limited) literature data and through appropriate testing. Industry
experience should also be collected and documented, especially regarding service histories of
tools and equipment and in terms of any reported incidents that are attributable to the aging of
live working tools and equipment. Research of these issues is planned for 20082009.
Approach
This report summarizes the work performed in 2007 and outlines planned future work. In 2007,
several trunnions were removed from the field, provided to the EPRI-Lenox laboratory, and
tested following a field failure. A previously published report on conductive suits was reviewed,
and findings on the aging of suits were extracted. The report on live working rope (under
preparation) was reviewed with the goal of extracting information on the aging and deterioration
of live working ropes.
Keywords
Live working
Live line maintenance
Live line tools
Live line equipment
Transmission lines

vi

ABSTRACT
Live working tools and equipment are often exposed to harsh conditions during use that cause
aging or deterioration of their inherent integrity. However, little is known about the rate of
aging or deterioration. Few quantitative guidelines are available for determining the end-oflife of a tool or equipment, i.e., the point at which the tool and equipment should be retired from
service, or for removing tools and equipment for re-evaluation.
The lack of detailed knowledge of aging mechanisms and rates, and of the end-of-life criteria of
live working tools and equipment often prevents utilities from optimizing inspection intervals
and repair strategies of tools and equipment, and does not facilitate proper asset management and
replacement of aging or failing tools and equipment. In 2007, EPRI launch a pilot project to
study these issues.
This report summarizes the work performed in 2007 and outlines planned future work.
In 2007, several trunnions were removed from field, provided to the EPRI-Lenox laboratory and
tested mechanically under linearly increasing loading conditions (no shock load). No threads
were ripped out in the tests and the reported incident could not be reproduced with linearly
increasing load.
A previously published EPRI report TR-104640 on conductive suits was reviewed and findings
regarding aging of suits were extracted. The research discovered evidence of significant
deterioration due to laundering.
In view of significant changes in the performance requirements of rope used for live working
purposes, and the resulting market unavailability of live working rope, EPRI recently launched a
significant project to assess service performance requirements and test procedures for live
working rope. The results of this research are contained in EPRI reports 1013603 and 1013897
and they appear to support the IEC approach to performance requirements and testing of rope. A
section of EPRI report 1013897 is dedicated to rope damage and another section to decisions
regarding repair and/or retirement. Excerpts from these sections are summarized.
It is recommended to explore the issue in depth both in terms of a detailed literature search and
through appropriate testing. Industry experience should also be collected and documented,
especially regarding service histories of tools and equipment and in terms of any reported
incidents that are attributable to aging of live working tools and equipment. Research of these
issues is planned for the years 2008 and 2009.

vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
EPRI acknowledges the contributions of the following utilities that provided test data and test
samples for this project:
Georgia Power
PSEG
Western Area Power Administration

ix

CONTENTS
1 AGING AND END-OF-LIFE CRITERIA..................................................................................1-1
Insulating Tools ....................................................................................................................1-1
Trunnions .............................................................................................................................1-2
Conductive Clothing .............................................................................................................1-2
Live Working Rope...............................................................................................................1-2
Need for Research ...............................................................................................................1-2
2 TESTS ON STRAIN STICK TRUNNIONS .............................................................................2-1
Recent Reported Trunnion Failure.......................................................................................2-1
Tension Tests on Used Trunnions .......................................................................................2-3
The MTS Test Equipment ..............................................................................................2-4
The Test Setup...............................................................................................................2-4
Test Procedure...............................................................................................................2-4
Test Results ...................................................................................................................2-5
3 AGING OF CONDUCTIVE CLOTHING..................................................................................3-1
Background ..........................................................................................................................3-1
Replacement or End-of-Life Criteria.....................................................................................3-2
4 LIVE WORKING ROPE ..........................................................................................................4-1
Background ..........................................................................................................................4-1
Types and Effects of Damage..............................................................................................4-1
Excessive Tension/Shock Loading ................................................................................4-1
Cyclic Tension Wear ......................................................................................................4-1
External Abrasion...........................................................................................................4-3
Pulled Strands and Yarns ..............................................................................................4-3
Flex Fatigue Pulleys, Rollers, Chocks, Fairleads, Blocks ...........................................4-4
Sunlight Degradation......................................................................................................4-5
Dirt and Grit....................................................................................................................4-5
Disposition of Live Working Rope ........................................................................................4-6
Repairing the Rope ........................................................................................................4-6
Retiring the Rope ...........................................................................................................4-6
5 CONCLUSIONS AND PLANNED FUTURE WORK ..............................................................5-1
Trunnions .............................................................................................................................5-1
Conductive Suits ..................................................................................................................5-1
Live Working Rope...............................................................................................................5-1
Future Research Plans ........................................................................................................5-1
6 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................6-1

xi

1
AGING AND END-OF-LIFE CRITERIA
Live working tools and equipment are often exposed to harsh conditions during use that cause
aging or deterioration of their inherent integrity. However, little is known about the rate of
aging or deterioration. Few quantitative guidelines are available for determining the end of
life of a tool or equipment, i.e., the point at which the tool and equipment should be retired from
service, or for removing tools and equipment for re-evaluation.
Insulating Tools
For example, IEEE Std 516-2003 Clause 4.5.1.1 contains the following qualitative
recommendations for re-testing of insulating tools [1]:
4.5.1.1 When to perform shop or laboratory testing

Insulating tools should be shop maintained and tested at an interval dependent on their exposure,
manner of use, care they receive, individual company policy, and as field inspection dictates.
Wood tools should be checked more frequently during periods of high humidity or after exposure
to moisture.
The following field observations, if present, should warrant the removal of tools
from service and their return to the laboratory or shop for repair and electrical
testing:
a) A tingling or fuzzy sensation when the tool is in contact with energized
conductor or hardware.
b) Failure to pass the electric test or the moisture-meter test (see 4.4.4 and 4.4.5).
c) Deep cuts, scratches, nicks, gouges, dents, or delamination in the stick surface.
d) A mechanically overstressed tool showing such evidence as damaged, bent,
worn, or cracked components.
e) A loss or deterioration of the glossy surface.
f) A pole inadvertently cleaned with a soap cleaner (see 4.4.3).
g) Improper storage or improper exposure to weather.
h) An electrically overstressed tool showing evidence of electrical tracking, burn
marks, or blisters caused from heat.
Clause 4.5.3 of IEEE Std 516-2003 contains the following recommendation for an end-of-life
criterion of insulating tools [1]:
h) If the current continues to rise after full voltage is reached, the test should be
discontinued, the pole should be cleaned or refinished, and the pole should be

1-1

retested. If the condition is not corrected, the pole should be removed from
service.
Trunnions
Recently, a utility reported a failure of a trunnion while in service. The failure was attributed to
wear or aging of trunnion threads during years of use and the resulting mechanical fatigue.
Fortunately, a secondary stop nut prevented dropping of the conductor supported by the strain
stick and the aged trunnion. While such incidents are rare in the industry, any field failure must
be investigated in detail to determine the cause of the problem and to derive lessons learned
that help avoid future recurrences.
Conductive Clothing
Clause 5.4.5 of IEEE Std 516-2003 recognizes deterioration or aging of conductive clothing and
contains general qualitative criteria regarding repair and re-testing [1]:
5.4.5 Conductive clothing
All conductive clothing should be inspected visually before and after use to check
for rips, brown or burnt marks, punctures, or any damage that can prevent
complete shielding. A defect in the conductive clothing or its bonding apparatus
should be a reason for removing it from service, instituting immediate repairs, if
possible, and testing.
Particular care should be given to removing any dirt or gravel that may be
embedded in conductive shoes.
EPRI research in 1980s and 1990s investigated the effect of laundering of conductive suits on
their shielding properties [2] and discovered evidence of significant deterioration.
Live Working Rope
In view of significant changes in the performance requirements of rope used for live working
purposes, and the resulting market unavailability of live working rope, EPRI recently launched a
significant project to assess service performance requirements and test procedures for live
working rope. The results of this research are contained in EPRI reports 1013603 and 1013897
and they appear to support the IEC approach to performance requirements and testing of rope.
A section of EPRI report 1013897 is dedicated to rope damage and another section to decisions
regarding repair and/or retirement. Excerpts from these sections are included below.
Need for Research
The lack of detailed knowledge of aging mechanisms and rates, and of the end-of-life criteria of
live working tools and equipment prompted EPRI to launch a pilot project to study the issue.
This report summarizes the work performed in 2007 and outlines planned future work.

1-2

2
TESTS ON STRAIN STICK TRUNNIONS
A strain stick is installed between a conductor and a support point on a structure when removing
the insulator string. The stain stick normally includes a long threaded jack screw and a brass nut,
known as the trunnion. After the strain stick is installed, the trunnion is turned with a wrench to
bring the conductor closer to the insulator support point, thus relieving the tension in the
insulator string. The insulator string is then detached and removed, and the train stick, together
with the jack screw and the trunnion, supports the conductor. Figures 2-1 and 2-2 show an
example of the installed strain sticks before and after removal of the suspension I-insulator
string, respectively.

Figure 2-1
Strain sticks and the insulator string before
insulator removal

Figure 2-2
Strain sticks after removal of the insulator
string

Recent Reported Trunnion Failure

Field report indicates that a trunnion threads were stripped completely from a trunnion used to
release tension on a 500 kV dead-end insulators before the insulator was removed. An auxiliary
nut close to the trunnion was used as a backup, and the nut and the insulators string absorbed the
shock load.
While such incidents are rare in the industry, any field failure must be investigated in detail to
determine the cause of the problem and to derive lessons learned that help avoid future
recurrences.
The trunnion, shown in Figure 2-3, was inspected prior to use and tested with the trunnion gauge
of the type shown in Figure 2-4. The trunnion passed the test. The test consists of trying to
screw in the gauge into the trunnion, as shown in Figure 2-5. The threads on the gauge are wider
than those in the trunnion (and on the jack screw). If the trunnion threads are damaged (worn
out), the gauge can usually be screwed in. If the threads are not damaged, the gauge cannot be

2-1

screwed in, as shown in Figure 2-5. Figure 2-6 shows a comparison of the gauge thread and the
jack screw thread.

Figure 2-3
Failed trunnion (model E401-2068)

Figure 2-4
Example of a trunnion thread gauge (AB
Chance T401-2265)

Figure 2-5
Use of the trunnion thread gauge on trunnion
E401-2066

Figure 2-6
Comparison of threads on a trunnion thread
gauge and on a jack screw

No service history is available on the failed trunnion, however, it is thought to be of an older

design since the threaded neck is relatively short. Commercially available trunnions, such as AB
Chance E401-066 or E401-2068 have longer necks.
Figures 2-7 and 2-8 show (from two angles) a comparison of the threads inside the trunnion in
question. Figure 2-9 shows the damaged thread that pulled out of the trunnion, and Figure 2-10
shows the jack screw with damaged thread.

2-2

Figure 2-7
Comparison of the damaged threads inside the
failed trunnion, and undamaged threads in a
healthy trunnion. Note also that the healthy
trunnion has a longer neck.

Figure 2-9
Thread coil that pulled out of
the failed trunnion

Figure 2-8
Another view of the damaged threads inside the
failed trunnion, and undamaged threads in a
healthy trunnion. The difference in neck
lengths of the failed and the healthy trunnions
is clearly visible

Figure 2-10
View of the damaged threads on the jack screw that supported
the failed trunnion

Tension Tests on Used Trunnions

In view of the failure described above, EPRI received used trunnions from two utilities, and also
located some trunnions that were available at the Lenox laboratory. No service history is
available on the trunnions, however, it is reasonable to expect that trunnions provided by utilities
experienced greater use that those available at the Lenox laboratory.

2-3

All trunnions were tested using the gauge prior to tension tests. Only linearly increasing loading
(no shock load) tests were performed in the MTS machine available at the laboratory. Only
trunnion models E401-2066 (see Figure 2-5 for an example) were tested.
The MTS Test Equipment
The MTS machine used for tests consists of:

MTS servo model 760C261A, Manifold model 293.11 A-01 (computer controlled hydraulic
test apparatus used to apply the tension loads)
MTS Test Star II integrated data acquisition system and test controller (test software used to
monitor load, temperature and linear displacement)
MTS load cell rated for 100 kips
Test Ware SX software
The MTS machine is calibrated with accordance with NIST requirements and specifications.
The accuracy of the MTS machine is 1% of the full-scale value.
The Test Setup
The trunnions were placed on (screwed onto) a jack screws and mounted in the test bed, see
Figure 2-11. Two steel plates, one on each side of the trunnion were used to engage on the
trunnion pins, as shown in Figure 2-12.

Figure 2-11
Top view of the jack screw with the trunnion
mounted in the test bed

Figure 2-12
Top view of the attachments to the trunnion
pins

Test Procedure
The test procedure was as follows:
1. Install the trunnion on the jack screw.
2. Install the sample in the MTS machine.
3. Pull to 27,000 lbs.

2-4

4. Remove the sample from the MTS machine.

5. Remove the trunnion from the jack screw.
6. Test the trunnion thread with the gauge.
7. Re-install the trunnion on the jack screw.
8. Pull to failure.
9. Note failure mode (stripped thread, thread pulled out, etc.)
The tension force was increased at a rate of about 200 lbs per second.
Test Results
In all tests to 27,000 lbs, the trunnions withstood the test without apparent damage to the threads,
but suffered bending of the pins that also results in deformation of the strength fins (triangular
wedged between the pin and the trunnion body), see Figure 2-13. Also, all trunnions suffered
binding of the internal bearings so that the nut could no longer rotate inside the trunnion body.
Figure 2-14 shows an example of the MTS test record for a test to 27,000 lbs.
When the trunnions were subjected to tests to failure (i.e., beyond 27,000 lbs with a prospective
maximum force setting of 50,000 lbs), the threads did not rip out, however, the jack screw broke
and could not be un-screwed from the trunnion. Figures 2-15 and 2-16 show the side view and
the bottom view of a trunnion with a section of the broken jack screw that could not be removed.
Only two trunnions were tested beyond 27,000 lbs due to shortage of jack screws. In both tests,
the jack screw failed at about 33,000 lbs, see Figure 2-17. Also, after the second failure test, the
jack screw could not be screwed into a good (untested) trunnion, suggesting that that the jack
screw itself was stretched somewhat. Figure 2-18 shows a comparison of the jack threads with
the trunnion gauge. This point should be investigated further.
In one test, the trunnion was inadvertently installed backwards on the jack screw. This resulted
in the tension force during test to be applied essentially against the retaining C-spring in the
trunnion, rather than against it body. In this case, failure of the C-spring occurred at 11,000 lbs.
Since in this test the steel plates holding the trunnion in the setup (see Figure 2-12) acted against
the fins on the trunnion, the fins exhibited significant damage, see Figure 2-19.
It should be noted that all tests involved only linearly increasing loading conditions (no shock
load) that was increased at a rate of about 200 lbs per second. Dynamic (shock) load tests should
be performed in the future to represent more accurately the situation in which threads were
ripped out of the trunnion in the reported incident. It should also be noted that a similar incident
occurred several decades ago and prompted the development of the trunnion thread gauge. The
effectiveness of the gauge in detecting deterioration of threads should also be investigated.

2-5

Figure 2-13
Figure showing the bending of trunnion pins and deformation of strength fins after a test to 27,000
lbs.

2-6

30000

25000

Force (lbs)

20000

15000

10000

5000

0
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

Time (sec)

Figure 2-14
Typical force-time graph for a test to 27,000 lbs on a trunnion

Figure 2-15
Side view of the trunnion and broken jack
screw

Figure 2-16
Bottom view of the trunnion and broken jack
screw

2-7

40000

35000

30000

Force (lbs)

25000

20000

15000

10000

5000

0
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

Time (sec)

Figure 2-17
Typical force-time graph for a test to failure, in which the jack screw failed (broke) at 33,000 lbs

2-8

Figure 2-18
Comparison of jack screw thread with the gauge thread after the second failure of the jack screw

2-9

Figure 2-19
Damage to strength fins resulting from a test in which the trunnion was installed backwards

2-10

3
AGING OF CONDUCTIVE CLOTHING
Background
Conductive clothing, or suit, is typically worn by workers performing live work on transmission
lines at voltages between 115 kV and 800 kV. The clothing may consists of a jacket, pants,
socks and gloves, or a complete suit with socks and gloves attached. The jacket portion usually
includes a hood and a face mask. A tether attached at the waist is used to bond the suit to
grounded or energized parts.
The conductive suit is intended to provide the wearer with shielding from the electric field, and
to prevent currents from flowing in the wearers body. Conductive suits have been used since
early 1960s and have evolved over the years both in functionality and durability. Modern suits
may also designed to provide shielding from high-frequency fields such as those near PCS
(Personal Communications System) antennas, and may also have FR (Flame Retardant)
properties.
To perform its intended functions of shielding and protecting from flow of currents in the
workers body, a conductive suit must meet certain electrical and mechanical criteria [3, 4]. It
must provide complete coverage of the wearers body, i.e., it must form a complete and
continuous layer over the entire body (no holes, rips, etc.). The electrical resistance of the suit in
service must be small so that potential differences among various parts, developed as result of
currents induced in the suit, does not exceed values that would cause discomfort for the wearer.
The suit resistance must also be small compared to the effective resistance of the wearers body
(even when the worker is perspiring in a hot environment), so that the suit, rather than the
wearers body is the preferred path for the induced currents. The suit fabric must be constructed
with sufficient density of conductive elements (threads of fibers) to provide continuous current
paths and to form an effective barrier against penetration of spark discharges through the fabric
into the wearers body.
During its life cycle, the suit is subjected to hard wear and undergoes many launderings or
drycleanings. It can sustain damage such as tears, burns, loosening of components (fasteners,
bonding lead connections, etc.) and impregnation with substances adverse to its function (oil.
grease, solvents, corrosive liquids, abrasives). The following kinds of damage can occur:

Conductive Material Corrosion: In some older suits that relied on silver-plating or silver
deposit, or suits using copper conductors, the conductive material is quite prone to corrosion
or erosion due to corrosive liquids, corrosive atmospheres or perspiration. This reduces the
amount of conductive material, and hence the suits conductivity, finally leading to complete
failure to provide an adequate current path or adequate shielding. Corrosion of the conductive
fiber surfaces will also increase interstrand resistance leading to increased overall resistance
if the material relies on fiber-to-fiber contact.

3-1

Fiber Breakage: Conductive fibers may fatigue due to repeated flexing or they may be broken
by externally applied forces, leading to a progressive or local increase in suit resistance.
Loosening of Weave: The weave loosens leading to reduction of contact pressure, or
complete loss of contact, between conductive elements both within the weave and in the yarn
itself. Suit resistance will increase, and excessive loosening might reduce the screening
properties of the fabric and possibly permit contact spark penetration through the fabric.
Fastener Damage: Conductive fasteners (press-studs, bonding straps) may lose contact with
conductive elements of the cloth due to fatigue from wear or breakage from excessive force.
Stitching Damage: Stitching loosens or fails leading to increase in resistance between parts.
Fabric Shrinkage: Shrinking of the base fibers and stitching thread, with none occurring in
the conductive fibers, leading to distortions in the yarn, weave and stitching. This could
either increase the resistance due to disruption of fibers or decrease resistance due to
tightening of the weave.
Tearing: Tears or holes in the material will disrupt continuity, result in local loss of shielding
and could allow contact sparks to penetrate the material.
Impregnation of Fabric: The fabric becomes impregnated with non-conductive material
which coats the conductive fibers that rely on contact to provide continuity. Contact
resistance is thereby increased or contact is interrupted leading to increased suit resistance.

Laundering of conductive suits is responsible for much of the suit deterioration with use, which
can be tracked with relative ease as a function of the increase of suit resistance with washing
occurrences. Tests at several utilities point to noticeable deteriorating influence of laundering on
the conductivity of suits with fabric containing stainless steel fibers.
For example, Figure 3-1 shows the resistances (in ) of two suits measured by a utility after each
of 20 successive washings. Figure 3-2 shows the average of 21 suit resistance measurements (in
k) for each of 8 washings. One utility dry-cleaned the suits only to avoid increase in suit
resistance by laundering.
Replacement or End-of-Life Criteria
Use and, in particular, laundering of the suit greatly influences its performance, i.e., comfort to
the wearer. While specific resistance, screening efficiency and shielding efficiency tests can be
performed [3, 4] to monitor the deterioration of a suit, it is difficult to predict when a suit will
become uncomfortable to the wearer. Many variables are involved, including the system
voltage, the particular configuration of the worksite, the size, location and posture of the worker,
the method of bonding of the suit to the energized conductor or grounded structure, the method
of suit-to-body bonding, the value of the suit-to-body contact resistance, the behavior of the suit
material in the strong electric field, the age and condition of the suit, etc.
It is essentially up to the wearer to monitor the comfort level and to decide when a suit should be
re-tested and/or removed from service.

3-2

300

Resistance ()

250

200
Suit A

150

Suit B

100

50

0
0

10

15

20

25

Number of w ashings

Figure 3-1
Increase of suit resistance with number of washings Hood-to-leg measurements
25

Resistance (k)

20

15
Suit C
10

0
0

Number of w ashings

Figure 3-2
Change in suit resistance with number of washing operations

3-3

4
LIVE WORKING ROPE
Background
In view of significant changes in the performance requirements of rope used for live working
purposes [5], and the resulting market unavailability of live working rope, EPRI recently
launched a significant project to assess service performance requirements and test procedures for
live working rope. The results of this research are contained in EPRI reports 1013603 and
1013897 [6, 7], and they appear to support the IEC approach [8] to performance requirements
and testing of rope.
A section of EPRI report 1013897 is dedicated to rope damage and another section to decisions
regarding repair and/or retirement. Excerpts from these sections are included below.
Types and Effects of Damage
Knowing the causes and appearance of damage is essential to a good rope inspection and
essential for determining retirement criteria. Cuts, abrasion, and sunlight exposure on smaller
ropes, due to their reduced bulk, suffer a proportionately greater loss of strength than larger
ropes. Extra attention is recommended when inspecting small diameter ropes.
Excessive Tension/Shock Loading
Overloading or shock loading a rope above the working load limit can cause significant loss of
strength and/or durability. However, the damage may not be detectable by visual or tactile
inspection. The usage history of a rope is the best method to determine if excessive tension or
shock loading has occurred. Overloading and shock loading are difficult to define and the
inspector must take a conservative approach when reviewing the history of the rope. Repeated
overloading will result in similar damage as that caused by cyclic. Shock loading may cause
internal melting of fiber.
Cyclic Tension Wear
Ropes that are cycled for long periods of time within a normal working load range will gradually
lose strength. This loss of strength is accelerated if the rope is unloaded to a slack condition or
near zero tension between load cycles. The subsequent damage is commonly referred to as
fatigue. Although there are various mechanisms for the breakdown of synthetic fibers under
cyclic tension, the most common is fiber to fiber abrasion. Figure 4-1 shows an undamaged rope
(upper rope) and an example where long term loading and unloading has caused a breakdown of
yarns in the outer braid of a double braided rope (lower rope).

4-1

Figure 4-1
Example of an undamaged rope (upper rope) and rope damage due to cyclic tension (lover rope)

Braided ropes develop many broken filaments at the crossover points of strands in the braid due
to fiber-on-fiber abrasion. Occasionally, the broken ends of yarns may appear as if cut square (a
magnifying glass may be necessary to see this). These broken filaments give the rope a fuzzy
appearance on the outside and over the entire length that was under load; this can be so extreme
as to obscure the underlying braid structure. Figures 4-2 shows an extreme example of a braided
rope with excessive damage from frequent loading and unloading.

Figure 4-2
Fiber abrasion from cyclic tensioning alone

For braided ropes, broken filaments within the rope can also mat, entangle and/or leave a
powdery residue. Extreme internal filament breakage will make the rope very hard, lose
flexibility and be noticeably larger in diameter (with a subsequent reduction in length); it may be

4-2

so hard that it is impossible to pry the rope open to examine the interior structure. Melted fiber
and fusion may be observed in the core rope or between core and cover. Figure 4-3 shows an
example of rope damage that resulted in exposing the inside of the structure.

Figure 4-3
Damage that resulted in exposing the inside of the structure

External Abrasion
Most external abrasion is localized. Gouges and strips along one side of the rope are common;
these display cut fibers and are often accompanied by fusion. Damage sufficient to degrade the
rope is usually obvious. External abrasion can be distinguished from cyclic fatigue since the
interior of the rope will not have damage and the damage is rarely uniform as seen in Figure 4-4.

Figure 4-4
Extensive external abrasion

Pulled Strands and Yarns

Strands and rope yarns can be snagged and pulled out of the rope structure, see Figure 4-5. The
level of damage is a function of the percentage of the rope cross section that has been lost.

4-3

Figure 4-5
Pulled strand in new double braid rope

Flex Fatigue Pulleys, Rollers, Chocks, Fairleads, Blocks

Constant bending of any type of rope causes internal and external fiber abrasion. This is
frequently caused by running on pulleys. But, other types of flexing such as frequent bending
over a small radius surface, can also cause fatigue damage. Flexing over fixed surfaces is often
accompanied by surface wear, especially if sliding action is also present. Wear will appear on the
surface of the contact area. The fibers will become matted on the surface and/or glazed from heat
build-up, especially with ropes using polypropylene fibers. Broken filaments and fusion will be
found inside the rope over the bending zone but not elsewhere in the rope, see Figure 4-6.
Strands are fused

Broken filaments

Figure 4-6
External & internal damage running over pulley

4-4

Sunlight Degradation
Ultra-violet (UV) radiation from direct sunlight will cause brittle and weak outer rope yarns. UV
degradation is difficult to inspect visually unless the outer filaments are broken. Flex the rope or
pick at a few outer filaments, to see if they break. Discoloration may be observed in some cases,
as shown in Figure 4-7.

Figure 4-7
UV (sunlight) degradation of polypropylene rope

Dirt and Grit

Dirt and grit cause internal fiber abrasion in ropes that are in regular use. Oil and grease deposits,
of themselves, do not damage most rope materials. However, they trap dirt and grit and may
make the rope difficult or unpleasant to handle. Most ropes can be forced open for internal
inspection. A magnifying glass may be helpful for identification of fine particles, as shown in
Figure 4-8.

Figure 4-8
Dirt and grit (revealed by low level magnification)

4-5

Disposition of Live Working Rope

It is expected that a rope will be left in normal service if no significant damage is identified.
However, when a rope is considered to be damaged, in accordance with the inspection and
evaluation criteria, a decision must be made to repair or retire the rope based on the results of the
inspection. Downgrading should not be allowed due to the difficulty of estimating residual
strength and the danger associated with identification.
Repairing the Rope
If the rope shows local damage but otherwise appears in good condition, it may be possible to
remove the damaged sections and resplice the rope. After completion of new eye splices or endto-end splices, the rope should pre-tensioned or load-cycled to 1.5 times of the WLL (Working
Load Limit) to set the splice, if possible. Splicing should be done by a qualified person.
Washing with water or mild detergent may be appropriate to clean the rope. Strong detergent
solutions or solvents must be avoided as they can remove fiber finishes (lubricants) which can be
essential for abrasion and fatigue resistance.
Caution: Splicing of a heavily used rope may be impossible, or very difficult. In such cases,
there often is a significant strength loss in the splice; consultation with a qualified person may be
appropriate.
Retiring the Rope
Rope must be retired if it is damaged and cannot otherwise be repaired or a use cannot be found
for it in a downgraded condition.
Retired ropes must be disposed of in accordance with any applicable regulations and rendered
unsuitable for future use.

4-6

5
CONCLUSIONS AND PLANNED FUTURE WORK
This pilot project on aging mechanisms and rates, and end-of-life criteria of live working tools
and equipment has identified a significant lack of available information for most live working
tools and equipment.
Trunnions
Recently, a utility reported a failure of a trunnion while in service. The failure was attributed to
wear or aging of trunnion threads during years of use and the resulting mechanical fatigue.
Fortunately, a secondary stop nut prevented dropping of the conductor supported by the strain
stick and the aged trunnion. While such incidents are rare in the industry, any field failure must
be investigated in detail to determine the cause of the problem and to derive lessons learned
that help avoid future recurrences.
In 2007, several trunnions were removed from field, provided to the EPRI-Lenox laboratory and
tested mechanically under linearly increasing loading conditions (no shock load). No threads
were ripped out in the tests and the reported incident could not be reproduced with linearly
increasing load.
Conductive Suits
EPRI research in 1980s and 1990s investigated the design, performance and function of
conductive suits, and especially of effect of laundering of suits on their shielding properties. The
research discovered evidence of significant deterioration due to laundering. The EPRI report
TR-104640 was reviewed and sections related to aging of suits are summarized. Further
research of deterioration of new suit materials is needed.
Live Working Rope
In view of significant changes in the performance requirements of rope used for live working
purposes, and the resulting market unavailability of live working rope, EPRI recently launched a
significant project to assess service performance requirements and test procedures for live
working rope. The results of this research are contained in EPRI reports 1013603 and 1013897
and they appear to support the IEC approach to performance requirements and testing of rope.
A section of EPRI report 1013897 is dedicated to rope damage and another section to decisions
regarding repair and/or retirement. Excerpts from these sections are summarized.
Future Research Plans
It is recommended to explore the issue of aging mechanisms and rates, and end-of-life criteria of
live working tools and equipment in depth both in terms of a detailed analysis of available

5-1

(though admittedly limited) literature data, and through appropriate testing. Industry experience
should also be collected and documented, especially regarding service histories of tools and
equipment and in terms of any reported incidents that are attributable to aging of live working
tools and equipment. Research of these issues is planned for the years 2008 and 2009.

5-2

6
REFERENCES
1. IEEE Std 516-2003, IEEE Guide for Maintenance Methods on Energized Power Lines
2. Electrical Performance of Conductive Suits, Final Report, EPRI, Palo Alto, 1995, TR104640
3. IEEE Std 1067-2005, IEEE Guide for In-Service Use, Care, Maintenance, and Testing
of Conductive Clothing for Use on Voltages up to 765 kV ac and 750 kV dc
4. IEC Publication 60895 Ed 2., Live working conductive clothing for use at nominal
voltage up to 800 kv AC and 600 kv DC, 2002
5. ASTM F1701, Standard Specifications for Unused Polypropylene Rope with Special
Electrical Properties
6. Investigate Use of and Requirements for Live Working Rope. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2006.
1013603
7. Performance and Use of Rope in Live Working. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2006. 1013897
8. IEC Publication 62192, Ed. 1: Live working - Insulating ropes, in preparation.

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