mE RANICINI!

CYC1B

31

CHAPTER

TWO
THE RANKINE CYCLE

Fipre 301 Sc:hemaIic flow diagram

d a R8IIkiDe cycle.

diagram of a Rankine cycle. Figure 2-la and b shows ideal Rankine cycles on the (a)
point (CP) 011
both diagrams are the loci of all saturated-liquid points and are the lIlIIIIYIUd-liquid
_.
The regions to the left of these are the lubcooktl-Uquid regions. The curved
lines to the right of CP are the loci of all saturated-vapOr points and are the saturatedvopor lines. The regions to the right of these lines are the luperMot regions. The
regions under the domes represent the two-phtue (licpd and vapor) mixture region,
sometimes called the ~t region.
Cycle 1-2-3-4-8-1 is a saturated Rankine cycle, meaning that saturated vapor
enters the turbine. 1'-2'-3-4-8-1'
is a supeIbcat Rankine cycle, meaning that superheated vapor enters the turbine. The cycles, being reversible, have the following
processes.

P-v and (b) T-I diagrams. 1be curved lines to the left of the critical

2-1 INTRODUcnON
When the Rankioc cycle was devised, it was readily accepted as the standard for
steam powerplants and remains so today. Whereas the ideal diesel cycle (FlI. 1-2) is
.. gas cycle aod the Camot cycle (Fig. 1-11) is a cycle for aU fluids, the Rankine cycle
is a vapor-and-liquid cycle.
The real Rankine cycle used in powerplants is much IJlO!e complex than tbc
original, simple ideal Rankine cycle. It is by far the most widely used cycle for eleclric:power generation today and will most certainly continue to be so in the future. It is
the backbone of much of the work presented in this book.
. This chapter is devoted exclusively to the Rankine cycle, from its simplest ideal
form to its more complex nonideal fonn with modifications and additions that renda'
it one of the most efficient means of generating eleclric:ity today.

2-2 THE IDEAL RANKINE CYCLE

Because Rankine is a vapor-liquid cycle, it is most CODveuient to draw it 011 both the
p~
T-s cfiasrams with ~pect to the saturated-liquid and vapor lines of the working
fIliiarwbich

!
I

I'

CP

II
I
I

usually, but not always, is H:zO. Figure 2-1 shows a simplified flow

Willilm Joim M. RankiDe (lS20-lsn) _ pror_ of civil eaaiDeeriDa u a_lOW UaMnily.

He WII an eoalneer and scicnlilt of maay talenlS which, beaides civileqiDeerina. iDc:Iudcd IbipbuildiDa,
wlfawoIb,liaaiD&. and music compoailioa. He was ODe of Ibe aiaIIII of IbamodyDamica and !be lint to
wri&e formally 011 !be subject.

(II)

(b)

FIpn 302 Ideal Rankine cycles of the (a) P-v and (b) T-, diapmI, 1-2-3+B-l
cycle. 11-21-3+B-11 - IUperbealcd cycle, cp '"' critical poiDt.

- IIIInred

POWBRJILANT

TIICHNOLOOY

THE RANXJNE CYa.B

1-2 or l' -2': adiabatic reversible expansion through the tuTbine. The exhaust vapor
at 2 or 2' is usually in the two-phase region.
2-3 or 2'-3: constant temperature and, being a two-phase mixture process, CODStantpressure beat rejection in the condenser.
3-4: adiabatic reversible compression by the pump of saturated liquid at the c:ondenser
pressure, 3, to subcooled liquid at the steam-generator pressure, 4. Line 3-4 is
vertical on boch the P-V and T -S diagrams because the liquid is essadially incompressible and the pump is adiabatic reversible.
4-1 or 4-1': constant-pressure beat addition in the steam generalOr. Line 4-B-l-l' is
a constant-pressure line on both diagrams: The portion 4-B represents bringing
the subcooled liquid, 4, to saturated liquid at B. The section 4-B in the steam
generator is called an economizer. The portion B-1 represents heating the saturated
liquid to saturated vapor at constant pressure and temperature (being a two-phase
mixture), and section B-1 in the steam generator is called the boiler or evaporator.
Portion 1-1', in the superheat cycle, represents heating the saturated vapor at 1
to 1'. Section I-I' in the steam generator is called a superheater.
The cycles as shown are internally reversible so that the turbine and pump are
adiabatic reversible and hence vertical on the T-S diagram; no pressure losses occur
in the piping so that line 4-B-I-I' is a constant-pressure line.
The analysis of eicher cycle is straightforward. Based on a unit mass of vapor in
the saturated
cle
Heat added qA

hI -

II.

Btullb .. or JIkg

Turbine work WT - hI - hz

BtuIlb", or JIkg

IqRI = hz - h,
Iwpl ... II. - h,

Btullb .. or JIkg

Heat rejected
Pump work
Net work
'1'1. __

UK<UIIU

~WIIII

..

(hI - ~

ffi .

lC1COCY TItb -

~w_

-q-A-

(II. -

h,)

which should be converted to the same units as in Eq. (2-1) by the use of proper
conversion factors. such as multiply by 144 to convert psia (pouods forte per square
inchabsolute) to pounds forte per square foot absolute and divide by n8.16 to convert
foot pounds force to Btu.

Anotber parameter of inteRst in cycle analysis is the work 1YIlio WR. which is
defined uthe ratio of net work to gross work. Far tbe simple Rankine cycle the wodt
ratio is simply ~W"'/WT.
The superheat cycle 1'-2'-3-4-B-l' is analyzed by use ofEqa. (2-1) aod (2.~,
except l' is to be substituted for 1.
7' ~
Because of the information it readily gives regarding the turbine and pump pr0cesses, the T-S diagram is more useful than the P-V diagram and is usually pld'eued
when only one is used. The Mollier. or cochalpy-cntropy, diagram is another useful
diagram. Its utility. however, is restricted to processes involving the turbiDe because
it gives little or no information of the liquid region.

l-3 THE EXTERNALLY IRREVERSmLE

RANKINE CYCLE

Extema1 irreversibility. we are reminded. is primarily the result of the ~

differences between the primary beat soun::e, such as the combustion gases from the
steam generator furnace or the primary coolant from a nuclear reactor. aod the waddog
ftuid; and the temperature di1Jaences between condcasing workiDg ftuid aod the beat
sinlc fluid. usually the condenser cooling water.
In Fig. 2-3. line ab represents the primary coolant in a counter8ow beat excbangc:r
wich the working ftuid 4-B-l in a saturated Rankine cycle. Line cd represents the beat
sinlc fluid (condenser cooling water) in a counterflow or parallel-ftow beat excbangc:r
wich the condensing working ftuid 2-3; boIh types are the same because the latter is
at constant temperature.
As can be seen, the temperature differences between line ab and 4-B-I-l' and

..

Btu/lb .. or Jlkg

(hI - ~ (hI -

33

(II. -

h.)

h,)

For small units where p. is not too large compared with P" II. - h" the pump
, work is negligible compared with the turbine work, and the tbamal efficicDcy may
be simplified with little error to (hI - lJ.J!(hl - h,). This is DOt tlUe for modem steam
powaplants w~
p. is 1000 Iblin2 (about 70 bar) or higher, wbiJe P, is about IIb1
in2 (0.07 bar). The pump work in this case may be obtained by findiaI h, the
saturated enthalpy of liquid at P, from the steam (or otber vapor) tables given in AppI.
A to F. II. is fouNj from subcooled liquid tables at T. and p . T. is nearly equal to
T,. and the latter is usually used in lieu of T which is difficult to obtain (see Sec.
I-S). F'maUy. a good approximation for the pump work may be obtained from the
cban&e in flow work (Example 3. Sec. 1-2). Thus
(2-2):

..

'

34

11IE RANKJNB CYaJ!

POWERPLANT TEOtNOLOOY

between 2-3 and line cd arc not constant. We shall evaluate the effects of these
differences beginning with the upper end. Figure 2-4 shows tcmperature-bea exchanger
padllength diagrams for (a) parallel-flow and (b) countedlow heal exchangers. (~team
generators) and the effect of flow directions in the heat exchanger. Tbe IDIDlIDUID
approach point between the two lines, called the pinch point, represented by ~1 and
e-B, must be finite. Too small a pinch-point temperature difference results m low
overall temperature differences and, bence, lower irreversibilities, but in a large .and
costly steam generator; too large a pinch-point temperature difference results m a
small, ioexpensive steam generator but large overall temperature diff~
~ irreversibilities and, hence, reduction in plant efficiency. Tbe most CCODOIDlcal pinchpoint temperature difference is obtained by optimization that takes into account both
fixed charges (based on capital costs) and operating costs (based on efficiency and,
hence, fuel costs).
Figure 2-4, in addition, clearly shows that the overall temperature differences
between the heat source and the working fluids arc greater in the case of the parallelflow than counterflow heat exchangers; the result is a less efficient plant if parallel
flow is used. Heat-transfer considerations also favor counterflow, resulting in higher
overall heat-transfer coefficients and hence small beat exchanger. 1bus counterftow is
favored over parallel flow from both tbennodynamic and beat-transfer consideratioos.
We will now examine the effect of the type of heat source fluid. Sucb a fluid may
be a gas, sucb as the combustion gases in a fossil-fueled powerplant, theprimary
coolant in a gas-cooled reactor, such as CO2 or He (Sec. 10-11), the water from a
pressurized-water reactor (Sec. 10-2), or the molten sodium from a liquid-metal fastbreeder reactor (Chap. 11). This variety of fluids bas different specific beats and massflow rates. Water from a pressurized-water reactor bas a higher specific heat e" than
gases but also a higher mass-flow rate
because an effort is made to limit the
temperature rise of water through the reactor to maintain nearly even moderation of

35

me"

the neutrons (Sec. 9-8). Thus the product

is greater in the case of water than in
the case of pses.
Assuming that a differential amount of beat dQ exchanged between the two fluids
is .proponi~
to a padllengtb dL and that dQ ..
dT, where dT is the change in
pnmary-fluid temperature in dL, the slope of line ab is then proportional to the reciprocal of
or

me"

me"

dT
-xdL

me"

(primary fluid)

(2-3)

Hcoce the slope of line ab for water is mucb less than tb8t for gases. Liquid sodium
falls in between, though closer to gases than to water. This state of affairs is shown
in .f"tg. loS for a ~unterftow heat exchanger. It can be seen that for a given pinchpomt temperature difference, the overall temperature differences between the primary
and working fluids arc greater in the case of gases than water, in particular in the
boiler section, between ae and B-1.
This brinp us to an important deduction, namely the dctamination of wbctber
or DOt superbeat (and reheat) is advantageous. We note that there are two distinct
regions where the extcrDal irreversibility exists at the higher-temperature end of the
cyc~. ~
are: (1) between the prinwy fluid and the working fluid in the boiler
section, i.e., between ae and B-1, and (2) between the primary fluid and the working
fluid in the economizer section, l.e., between be and 4-B. We shall deal with these
in tum in the next two sections.
There is little that can be done to improve things in the low-temperature end of
the cycle, Le., between 2-3 and cd in the condenser (f"tg. 2-3), short of optimizing
the condenser to obtain the lowest temperature differences between the two lines.
Remember, however, that the lower the temperature of the coofutg water at c, the
lower the condenser steam temperature and the higher the cycle efficiency.

II

II

:V'

LorH

1.... ---,tJI----.t

..1

(6)

(II)

I1pre 2-4 Effect of flow directioo

OD external

irreversibility: (a) panllel flow, (b) counterftow.

Eft"ecc of pimuy ftuid

type 00 exrcmaJ ineversibility:

(a) WIler, (b) pses or liquid

"36

'nIB RANKJNII CYCLB

POWBRJILANT TECHNOLOGY

14 SUPERHEAT

,
I
I

In this section we will deal with the temperature differences between oe and 8-1 (Fig.
2-S). It can be seen that these for a given pinch-point temperature difference AT .... ,
gases (and liquid metals) exhibit larger and increasing temperature differences as the
working fluid boils from B-1 than is the case of water where the slope of line oe is
much lower.
Although the temperature levels are not the same in the two cases, the gases are

I
I

I
(

I
I

I'

I'
!
I

.,

37

usually at bigher temperatuIes, the imversibility in the case of gases can be ICduccd
by the use of superheat (Fig. 2-6) by bringing the two lines back to~'lIIain
at a
and l' and thus reducing 1hc ovenll temperature differeoccs between oe aod B-l-l'
(line 4-B-l-l' is a CODStant-pressure line). Thut superheat would improve the cycle
thermal efficiency. Looking at it another way, superlleat allows heat addition at an
average temperature bigher than using saturated steam only. From the Camot analogy,
this should result in higher cycle efficiency.
In the case of water, superbeat is DOt practical because the differences between
oe IDd B-1 vary little. Actually, if we wae to fix the temperature at I and use supedlcat,
we would need to lower the boiling temperature (and hence pressure) in B-1, as seen
by the dashed line in Fag. 2-&1. This ~
~
than decreases the overall
temperature differeoces and JCSUlts in reducing rather than inc:Ieasing cycle efficiency.
This is the reason wby fossil-fuel IDd gas-cooled and liquid-meta1-cooled nuclear
powerplants employ superheat, while preasurized-water-cooled
reactors do not. (A
boiling-water reactor, Sec. 10-7, produces only saturated steam within the reactor
vessel.)
Supezbeat bas an additional beneficial effect. It results in drier steam at turbine
exhaust 2' as col1lp8red .with 2 for saturated steam (F'ag. 2-2 and Eumple 2-1). A
turbine operating with less mo~
is more efficient and less prone to blade damage.

Psia.

EumpIe 2-1 Consider three Rankine stean:i ~ycles, all exhausting to 1

Cycle
A operates at 2SOO psia and I()()()OF; cycle B operates with lSOO psia'saturated
steam; and cycle C operates with superheated steam at a temperature equal to that
of cycle B but with a pressure of 1000 psia. Calculate the efficiencies and exhaust
steam qualities of the three cycles.

_ 6._, II
.
",14t\.y.: .,.,....,.. A
(;/"r .L~._
"-1"1; ,

w. "".
r--

SoumON Using Eqs. (2-1) aod (2-2), IlIIdJbe steam tables, and refCIriDg to Fig.
2-2, calculatioas for cycle A are 1'~
IA-,. ~
16

()
II

h., - 14S7.S Btullb.

.~

'.' - l.S269-BtulOb.~)

v.

Because the turbine is reversible adiabatic, its expansion line is isentropic, or .,

'2'

FIpre U SupedIeaI wiIb (a)WIler

I

(b)

ftuid. (b) gases or liquid

meW u primary ftuid.
U primIry

=- "." Thus

..

31

I'OWI!RPI.ANT TIICHNOLOOY

". - 69.73

7.46 - 77.19 Btullb. V'

Super
heater

ReIIat.
2

Boiler
3
Economiza"

WR .. Aw_

--_.;.._
w,.

L 597.52 _ 0.9877

r 604.98

Table H lists the results for cycle A and, using a similar procedure," for cycles
j iDd C.. Cycle D is a superbeat-n:beat cycle that will be discussed in Sec. 2-5.
Cycle E is a nonideal cycle that will be discussed in Sec. 2-7.
Note that cycle C is actually less efficient than cycle B, which proves that
supedleat is not beneficial if the upper temperature is limited.

l-5 REHEAT
An additional improvement in cycle efficiency with gaseous primary fluids as in fossilfueled and gas-cooled powerplants is achieved by the use of reheat.
Figun:s 2-7 and 2-8 show simplified flow and T-s diagrams of an intemaUy
n:venible Rankine cycle (i.e., one with adiabatic n:venible turbine and pump and no
pemue drops) that superheats and n:beats the vapor.

larllDooploo 2-1, 2-2, ~

\.5
Da

SIbII'IIeCI

1()()()668.1I

1()()()1000

NoDidtal

2500 "
1000 ./

2500 V
668.11./
1.1
1093.3"-./

1000 .,
668.11 J
I.J
1303.1 '"

2500./'/
1000 .,."
I 0/0/
1457.50/11"

2500
1000
I
1457.5

688.36 ./
404.94 "

83444 oJ
J
468.66 ,

fiCl4.98"
7.46 J
597.52 v
1380.31 .,
0.7555'
43.29 v

7.46 oJ
397.41 J
1061.11 01
(0.59711
." 39.12"

of a IWikiDe cycle with IUperbeat &lid ....

.In the reheat cycle, the vapor at 1 is expanded part of the way in a bip_peaaure
section. o_f file turbine to 2, after ~hich it is retumed back to the steam aeoentor.
wbcft It IS reheated at constant pressure (ideally) to a tcmpcIatIIre near that at 1. Tbe
reheated steam now expands in the low-pre&sUle section of the turbine to the coodcIIIer
pressure.
AB Can be seen reheat allows beat addition twice:"from 6 to 1 and from 2 to 3.
It results in incn:asing the. average tcmpcIatIIre at which beat is added;and bcps the
boiler-superbeat-rebeat portion from 7 to 3 close to the primary fluid line De, which
T

~l"

25OW1000

1457.5 "
8S2.52 of

~~\_L__""

2-3

ctt G2 Gi: ~
1"

I"

2.98

465.68

It)

1230.39'"
0.7381"-

37.8S..t

970.5

.J"

913.02

741.8
"544.41
7.46 ""N
11.52
734.34
532.96
1635.10
1376.25

0.8694 t.", 0.8139

44.91 v.J 38.73

'
~"

1118 RANKINi CYa.B

, 40 POWERPLANT TECHNOLOGY

results in improvement in cycle efficiency. Reheat also results in drier steam at turbine
exhaust (4 instead of 4'), which is beneficial for real cycles.
Modem fossil-fueled powerplants employ superheat and at least one stage of
reheat. Some employ two. More than two stages, however, results in cycle complication
and increased capital costs that are not justified by improvements in efficiency. Gascooled nuclear-reactor powerplants often employ one stage of reheat. Water-cooled
and sodium-cooled
nuclear-reactor powerplants often employ one stage of reheat,
except that the steam to be reheated is not returned to the steam generator. Instead, a
separate heat exchanger that employs a portion of the original ~
at I is used to
reheat the steam at 2. That portion condenses and is sent to a feed water beater (Sec.
2-6). Examples of this will be presented in Chaps. 10 and II.
The analysis of a reheat cycle involves two turbine work terms as well as two
heat addition terms. Referring to Fig. 2-S
Wr

(h3 -

hz)

(h3 - h.) -

h6)

(h3 - hz)

(hi - hll

Iwpl = ~ dw_ = (hi qA = (hi -

lit

+2

:I

E
u

I_/ V

-r-,

r-,

",

%4

<, -,

,.V

of
t'
.s

hs

.........

0.9

100

0.1

600

r-,

0.1

400

200

f.

a -I

110

J!

-3

0.1

(~-

1000

<,

~
~

1.0

-2

h.)

0.2

hs)

The press
P z at which the steam is reheated affects the cycle efficiency. Figure
2-9 shows the change in cycle efficiency d11pen:ent as a furu:ti0Il of the ratio of reheat
pressure to initial pressure Pz/p .. for PI = 2500 psia, TI = lOOO"F, and T3 = lOOO"F.
Pz/P I
1.0 is the case where no reheat is used and hence dl1 - O. A reheat pressure
too close to the initial pressure results in little improvement in cycle efficiency because
only a small portion of additional heat is added at bigh temperature. The efficiency
improves as the reheat pressure Pz is lowered and reaches a peak at a pressure ratio
Pz/PI betweeia 20 and 25 percent. Lowering the reheat pressure further causes tile
temperature differences between the primary and the working fluids to increase and
begin to offset the addition of heat at high temperature, tb)lS causing the efficiency to
decrease again. Too low a reheat pressure, in the above case at a pressure ratio of
about 0.025, actUally results in a negative dl1, i.e., an efficiency below the case of
no reheat. The optimum at a pressure ratio of 0.2 to 0.25, calculated for tile above
conditions, actually holds for most modem powerplants. Figure 2-9 also shows the
value of T2 and x... Note that reheat results in drier exhaust steam. Too Iowa pressure
ratio may even result in superheated exhaust steam, an unfavorable situation for c0ndenser operation.
A super:teat-reheat powerplant is often designated by PIITI1T3 in pounds force
per square inch absolute and degrees Fahrenheit. The above case, for example, is
25001100011000, whereas a double-reheat plant may be designated 24OOI1OOO/l(W/
1050. The following example shows a sample of the calculations conducted for FiI.
2-S, near the optimum pressure ratio.

\ V ........._
I ""'"

+3

41

O~

0.4

0.6

Reheat pressure/inItial

preGJre.

0.1
P 2/P I

Ii

O~

I~

FIpre 2-, Effect of rebeat-to-iDiCial preuure ratio on eftlc:ieocy. biah-praaure lIIIbiDe wt temperature
ud Iow-preaure IIUbiue exit quality. DIll for cycle ofFia. 2-7 with iDitill_1t
2SOO pail ud 1000"P'
ud steam rebeIt fO 1000"P (2SOOfIOOOlIOOO).

Example 2-1 ~culate

the effi~iency and exhaust steam quality of a 2500 psiaI
lOOO"F/lOOO"F JDternally reversIble steam Rankine cycle (cycle D. Table 2-1).
The reheat pressure is sao psia. The condenser pressure is I psia.
SOLun~N
hi

~fore
"

.:...,"

Referring to Fig. 2-8

= 1457.5 BtuIlb",

1.5269

II -

= 12 > I,

at

sao psia

poin~ ~ is in the superheat region. By interpolation.

"

T2 - 547.SOf

At 500 psia and lOOO"F ;'.

h3

Therefore
As in Example
(2-4) gives

,: "

x.. - O.S6942-1. Iwpl = 7.46

~.......

'.

-,

1520.3 BtuIlb","

~',:'!,; :

126S.6 Btu/lb", ' ,

h2 -

13

1.7371

II. - 970.5
Btullb", and ~

Btullb

..
I.

.: .:

"',

'

....

'/'

.:

\.

77.19 Btu/lb . Uling Eql.'

III

wr

191.5

549.8

741.7 Btu/lb,.

dw.... - 741.7 - 7.46 - 734.24 Btullb ..

qA -

1380.3

'+

","

254.7 - 1635.0 BtuIlb",

,
"

'v "

41

'I1UI RANKJNB CYCLE

POWERPLANT 'J1!OINOLOOY

and

7J1h

= 734.24
-1635.0 = 0.4491 = 44.91%

This cycle is compared with the previous cy~les in Table 2-1. It shows the
highest efficiency and driest exhaust steam of all 10 that table.

2-6 REGENERATION
We have so far discussed means of reducing the external irreversibility caused ~y the
beat transfer between the primary fluid and the working fluid beyond the point of
boiling of the latter (point B. Figs. 2-~ .~ 2-4b). ~ examinati~n of ~
fi~
.shows that a great deal of such irreverslblbty occurs pnor to the POlOtof bo~mg, i.e.,
in the economizer section of the steam generator where the temperature diff~
between btl and 4-B arc the greatest of all during the entire process of heat ~tiOD.
The slope of the primary-fluid temperature line is of less concern here ~
10 the
boiler section because it has a relatively minor effect on the temperature differences
in the economizer. Hence, all types of powcrplants, fossil-fuel, liquid-~,
~
?"
water-cooled nuclear-reactor powerplants. suffer nearly equally from this arreverslbil-

Adopting the same procedure to a Rankine cycle. i.e., internal and reversible heat
exchange from the expanding working fluid in the turbine and the fluid in the economizer section, would DCCCSsitateflow and T-s diagrams as shown in Fig. 2-11 for a
saturated Rankine cycle. The compressed liquid at .. would have to be carefully passed
around the turbine to receive heat from the expanding vapor in the turbine reversibly
at aU times (i.e . with zero temperature diffcrenc:e) until it enters the steam generator
at B. The steam generator would have no economizer and the irreversibility during
heat addition to the economizer would be eliminated. The resulting Rankine cycle
would receive and reject heat at constant temperature and, in the absence of other
external irreversibilities. would also have the same efficiency as the Camot cycle
operating between the same temperature limits. Hence the great need for eliminating
or minimizing the economizer irreversibility .
The ideal procedure of Fig. 2-11 is not practically possible. The vapor making
its way through blade passages cannot be made to have adequate heat-transfer surface
between it and the compressed liquid, which by necessity would have to be wrapped
around the external turbine casing. Even if an adequate .surface were possible, the
mass-flow rates arc so large that the effectivenessof such a heat exchanger would be
low. Further. the vapor leaving the turbine would have an unacceptably high moisture
content (low quality}.for ....proper turbine operation and efficiency.
-,

ity. This irreversibility can be eliminated if the liquid is added to the steam generator
at B rather than at 4. This can be done by the process of regeneration, in which
internal heat is exchanged between the expanding fluid in the turbine and the .~pressed fluid before heat addition. A well-known gas cycle ~ uses ~g~ocratlon ~s
the Stirling cycle. shown on the T-s diagram of Fig. 2-10. The lde~ S~
cycle as
composed of heat addition at constant temperature 2-3 and ~t rejCCtion at constant
tcIDperature 4-1. Regeneration or heat exchange occurs reverslbly between the constant
volume processes 3-4 and 1-2. i.e., between portions. of each curve ~t arc at the
same temperature. This heat exchange docs not figure lD the cycle efficlency ~
it is not obtained from an external source. The areas under 3-4 and 1-2 ~nonn~ heat
lost by the expanded fluid and gained by the compressed fluid arc equal ia magmtude.
though not in sign. The ideal Stirling cycle has the same efficiency as the Camot cycle
operating between the same temperature limits. This would not have ~n the case
had heat been added from an external source during 1-2 and 2-3 and rejected to an
external sink between 3-4 and 4-1.
T

Feedwater Heating

.,
\

A compromise that would recJhce rather than eliminate the economizer irreversibility
is accomplished by the use. of feedwater heating (the more general term feed liquid
heating that would apply to fluids other than H20 is seldom used). Feedwatcr heating
involves normal adiabatic (and ideally also reversible) expansion in the turbine. The
compressed liquid at 4 is heated in a number of finite steps, rather than continuously,
by vapor bled from the turbine at selected stages. Heating of the liquid takes place in
heat exchangers called feedwater heaters. Feedwater heating dates back to the early
19208. around the same time that steam temperatures reached about 72SOf . .Modeni

Boiler

L.

F1pre 2-10 T-s diagram of Stirling cycle. Regeneroccurs between 3-4 and 1-2. Arrows indicate beat
---:, ation
exchange.

43

fIaure 2-11 Ideal reieneration

of a Rankine cycle.

..

44

JIOWIIItJILANT TIICHNOLOOY

wP steam

powcrplants USC between five and eight fecdwater beating stages. Nooc
is built witbout fecdwater beating.
Because of the finite number of fecdwatcr beating stages. the liquid coters the
steam generator at a point below B. ncccssitatin& an economizer section. tbou~ one
that is much smaller than if no fecdwatcr heating were used. B~USC o~ thi~. and
becausc the fecdwatcr heaters have irreversibilities of their own. the Ideal situation of
rig. 2-11 is not attained and the Rankine cycle cannot attain a Camot efficiency. A
well-dcsigned Rankine cycle. however. is the closest practical cycle to Camot. and
bence its wide acceptance for most powerplants.
There are duec types of feedwatcr beaters in usc. 1bcsc are:

au

The CDtropy increase in the turbine. unIikc that in a

turbine (Fig. 1-8). does
DOt resuIt in a tempcrabJIe increase if exhaust is to the two-pbaae rqion. the usual

case. Instead it results in an increase in cothalpy. Thus the ideal expansion. if the
turbine w~ adiabatic reversible. is 1-2 but the ictual expansion is 1-2. The ~
versible losses in the turbine are represented by a turbine efficicnc:y '1r. called the
""biM polytropic effickncy (and sometimes the adiabatic or isentropic efficiency).
'Ibis is not to be confused with the cycle thermal efficiency. '1r is given by the ratio
of the turbine actual work to the ideal. adiabatic reversible work. Hence
'1r -

hi - ~

_:)

hl-~
1. Open or diICCt-contac:t type
2. Closed type with drains cascaded backward
3. Closed type with drains pumped forward
1bcsc types will be discussed and analyzed in detail in this chapter beginning with
Sec. 2-8. Their physical design will be described in Chap. 6.

'1.-7THE INTERNALLY IRREVERSIBLE RANKINE CYCLE

Internal irreversibility

is primarily the result of fluid friction. throttling. and mixing.

are the irreversibilities in turbines and pu~ps and pressure
losses in beat exchangers. pipes. bends. valves. etc..
.,
.
In the turbine and pumps. the assumption of adiabatic flow 15 still valid because
the flow rates are so large that the heat losses per unit mass is ne~ble.
Howe~.
they arc DO longer adiabatic reversible. and the entropy. in both. ~.
'Ibis 15
sbown in Fig. 2-12.

The most important of these

'(2-S)

Well-designed turbines have bigh polytropic efficicocies. around 90 pm:ent. '1r usually
increases with turbine,size and suffers from moisture in the steam. '1r as given above
is an overall polytropic efficiency. However. individual turbine stages have different
efficiencies. being bigher for early stages where the steam is drier. There will be more
on turbines in Chap. S.
No pressure losses are encountered in the condenscrprocess 2-3 (Fig. 2-12) because
it is a two-pbaae condensation process.
The pump process. being adiabatic and irreversible. also results in an increase in
cotropy. A single-phase (liquid) process. it results in an increase in temperature and
cothalpy. Thus the 8ctual work h.. - h, is greater than the adiabatic reversible work
h... - h,. In 9thcr words. one pays a penalty for irreversibility: the turbine produces
less work. the pump absorbs more work. The pump irreversibility is also represented
by a pump efficicnc:y "'. also called a pump polytropic ejJiciency (and SOIIlCtimea
adiabatic or isentropic efficiency). '" is given by the ratio of the ideal worlc to the
actual work; the reverse of that for the turbine. Thus
h.., - h,

'" = ". In both Eqs.

p ~t;tv'ol,j

work may

(2-6)'

h.

(2-S) and (2-6). the smaller quantity is in the numcratpr.

be obtained by modifying Eq. (2-6) to

'Ibe.actual pump .

DOW

Iw"". I =

h.t. - h,

'"

v,(P. - P,)

(2-7)

'"

The liquid leaving the pump must be at a bigbel' pressure than at the turbine inlet
because of the friction drops in beat exchangers. fecdwater beaters. pipes. bends.

valves. etc. Thus p. represents the exit pump pressure. PI represents the turbine inlet

pressure. and P, repIescnts the steam-generator exit pressure. The steim leaves the
gcoerator at S and coters the turbine at 1. The path S-1 is the result of the combined
~

2-12 AT_,

diagram of aD

iiuemaIly irreversible supabeat

RankiDe

cycle.

effects of friction and beat losses. Point 5' at pressure PI represents frictional effects
in the pipe, connec:tina steam generator and turbine. including turbine throttle valve.
if any. Heat losses from that pipe cause a decrease in entropy to 1. Pressure losses
between 4 and 1 could be of the ontcr of a few hUDdred pounds force per square inch.

..

46

JIOWIIIlPLANI'TBCHNOLOGY

Rumple 2-3 A superheat steam Ra'fikioe cycle bas tuIbioe inlet CODditiClIIs of
2SOO psia and l000"F. The turbine and pump polyt;ropic efficiencies are 0.9 aod
0.7, respectively. Pressure losses between pump and turbine inlet are 200 psi.
Calculate the turbine exhaust steam quality and cycle efficieacy.
SoLunaN

Refening to Fig. 2-12

hi = 1457.5./
~ - 852.52 Btu/lb .. (as in Example 2-1) V
f1r(hl - hz.) '"' 0.9 x 604.98 - 544.48 Btu/lb.. ./

WT -

Tbelefore
At 1 psia

hz "" hi - Wr = 913.02 Btu/lb..

913.02 - 69.73

+ xz(1036.1)

J
(41)

:. Xz= 0.8139 ""

PI,
Thus

,I

Iw",-

v,(P" - P,)

'lP

PI

+ 200

..

= 2700 psia .;

0.016136(2700
778

- 1) x 144
0.7

./

- 11.52 Btu/lb .. .,
h,. = h,

4w..qA

Tbelefore

+ Iw,.l

Wr -

Iw,.l

hi - h,.'"
1Jrh

69.73

11.52 - 81.25 Btu/lb.. ..J

532.96 Btu/lb..

.J

1376.25 '"

= -4w~ ... 0.3873

qA

= 38.73~'

Thus the internal irrevCISibilities have resulted in reducing the cycle effic:ieacy
to 38.73 percent, but in an increase in exhaust
steam quality from 0.7555 to 0.8139, one beneficial effect of an imperfect turbine .
..,....~--ple
is listed as cycle E in Table 2-1.

from 43.29 percent (Example 2-1)

EN OR DIRECfCONTACf

FEEDWATER HEATERS

the open- or dircct-contact-type of feedwatcr beater the extraction steam is mixed

ctncdy with the incoming subcooled feedwatcr to produce salUrated water at the
extraction steam pressure. Fiaum 2-13a and b shows a schematic flow diagram, and
the conaponding
T -s diagram for a Rankine cycle using, for simplicity of illustration,
two such feedwater heaters, one low-pressure and one high-pressure (normally one
open-type feedwater heater and between four and seven other hestCIS are used in
modem large powerplants). The physical construction of such a feedwater beater is
covezed in Chap. 7. A typical open-type feedwater beater is shown in Fig. 6-15.
The condensate water leaves the condenser saturated at 5 and is pumped to 6 to

(6)

a prasure equal to that of the extraction steam at 3. The now-subcooled water at 6

and wet steam at 3 mix in the low-pressure feedwater beater to produc:e I8bJrated water
at 7. Thus the amount of bled steam '"' is essentially equal to that that would saturate
the subcooled water ~t 6. If it w~ much less, it will result in a much lower temperature
than. that ~ponding
to 6, which would paI1ially negate the advantages of feedwater
beating. If It .were more, it would result in unnecessary 1018of tuIbioe wort and
two-p~
nu:'ture that would be difficult to pump.
m a
.
Line 6-7 m Fig. 2-13b is a constant-pressure line. (In practice some pIaSUl'C drop
IS encountered.) The difference between it and the saturated liquid liDe 5-B is
_
gerated for illustration purposes.
CUI
The pressure at 6-7 can be no higher than the extraction steam prcasure at 3 (or
else reverse flow of condensate water would enter the turbine at 3). A sec:oad pump
must therefore be used to pressurize the saturated Water from 7 to a subcooJed conditioa

...
48 POWEIU'LANT TECHNOLOGY

at 8, which is at the pressure of extraction steam at 2. In the high-pressure fccdwater

heater, superheated steam at 2 mixes with subcooled water at 8 to produce saturated
watu at 9. This now must be pressurized to 10 in order to enter the steam generator
at its pressure.
Because the extracted steam, at 2 or 3, loses a large amount of energy, roughly
equal to its latent heat of vaporization, while water, at 6 or 8, gains sensible heat, the
amount of extracted steam ';'l or m3 is only a small fraction of the steam passing
through the turbine. Note, however, that the mass-flow rate through the turbine is a
variable quantity, highest between I and 2 and lowest between 3 and 4.
It can also be seen that besides the condensate pump S-6, one ac!ditional pump
per open fccdwater heater is required.
Open-type feedwater heaters also double as deaerators because the breakup of
water in the mixing process helps increase the surface area and liberates IlOIlCODdensible
gases (such as air, Ol, Hz, COl) that can be vented to the atmosphere (Sec. 6-7).
Hence they are sometimes called tkaerating Maters, or DA.
In order to analyze the system shown in Fig. 2-13, both a mass balance and an
energy balance must be considered. The mass balance, based on a unit-flow rate (1 .
Ib",lh or kg/s) at throttle (point I) is given, clockwise, by

=1
2 and 9 = m2
2 and 3 = I -

Mass flow between 1 and 2

Mass flow between
Mass flow between

Mass flow between 3 and 7

,Mass flow betwee~

f an/J

=
=

=
1 =

Heat added qA = (hi - hlo)

Turbine work Wr

1 - m2

Mass flow between 9 and

and

m3(h3 -

h7)

=
=

(1 - m2)(~

I.

L.c:

Work ratio WR

mz

(1 - mz) V7(P. - P7)

where

'q"./

Pp)

(2-11)

""'"

- hs)

- m2 - m3)(~

""'"

Vp(PIO

lw,.l

Wr -

= 4wnet
qA

=~
Wr

71p

is the pump efficiency and J

778.16 ft'lb/Btu.

Eumple 2-4 An ideal Rankine cycle operates between 2500 psia and lOOO'F at
throttl~ and 1 pS~ in the condenser. One open-type feedWaler beater is placed at
200 psla. Assummg I Ib",lh flow at turbine throttle and no flow pressure drops
calculate the mass-flow rate in the heater and the pertinent parameters for the
I'
and ~mpare them with those of the cycle in Example 2-1, which bas the ::;
conditions except that no feedwaler heater was used.
Referring to Fig. 2-14.JDd the steam tables

. _hi - 14S7.S BtuIlb",

.\At 200 psia

'{2-9):

where h is the enthalpy per unit mass at the point of interest. Equations (2-9) and
(2-10) show that there are two equations and only two unknowns,
and m3, if
the pressures at which steam is bled from the turbine (Sec. 2-13), and therefore the
enthalpies, are all known. For any number of feedwater heaters there will be as
many equations as there are unknowns, so solutions are always possible. A large number of feedwater heaters would, of course, require the solution of an equal number
of simultaneous linear algebraic equations on a digital computu. The pertineDt
cycle parameters are now obtained, as energy per unit mass-flow rate at turbine inlet
(point 1)

Cycle thermal efficiency."..

(
,I

~......l

\ --:.,.

S2

(2-10)

(1 - m2 - m3)(d,

(1 - m2)(h. - h7)

(hlo - ~) - (1 - m2 - m ) v,(P, - Ps)

Net cycle work 4w;'

SOLUTION

- ha)

- h,)

Iq.l = (1

Heat rejected

where m2 and m3 are small fractions of I. Energy balances are now done on the highand low-pressure feedwater heaters, respectively
m2(h2 - hp)

m3)(~

I - ml - m3

Mass flow between 7 and 9

mz -

- h3)

1&4)

(1 - m2 - m3)(h3 -

(1 -

(2-8)

m3

IIw,1 =

Pump work

+ (1 - ,;,Z) (h2

(hi - hl)

m2

" ..

X2

0\

At l psia.

Sl

.'

Therefore

-,
':,
0

I.S269

' ..

0.981S

h2

If

"

,
~

_ ....
$,

Thus

=
v'

x, .. 0.7SSS

'

S.

", i!",,' 1.

+ x2(1.0016)

lu (

to'

+ 0.9815 (842.8) - 1182.7 BtuIlb", ',

...~'

v.

oj......:.

'I.,
'. (\.

'0

+ x3(l.84SS) ,?'

\t

I.S269 - 0.1326

h, - 69.73

It. = 69.73 Btullb....

".

3SS.S
t

.:
0.5438

"

~.
...

1.S269 BtuI(lb", . "F)

$1"

,.

+ 0.7SSS(l036.1) - 8S2.2 BtuIlb".

0.016136 ftl/lb",

l~ )

'"

V"'"

50

nIB IWOON8 CYCLB

POWERPLANT TECHNOLOGY

51

Aw_
512.07
0468
.....
_--...
--=.
- 46 8t11..
qA
1094.2

.70

WR _ Aw_
MIT

I
I

'\

I'Ipre 2-14 T-, diagram for Ex-

ample

s
I ...

2-4

-.

II, .. 69.73 + 0.016136 x 7~~6-

=
~ =

1) X 144 .. 69.73

+ 0.S9

70.32 Btullb ...

3SS.S Btullb .. -

V6 -

0.01839 fi3llb",

.'.
".,
1"7 \
0' (2S00 - 200) X 144'
h7 = 3SS.S + 0.01839 ~,
._
:= 3SS.5

363.3 Btu/lb",

MIT

=
=

=
355.S) =
:. m2 =

(1 -

riI2X~ - Its) '"

(1 - m2)(355.S

- 70.32)

0.2564 "

+ (1 - mi)(h2 - h,)
(1457.5 - 1182.7) + (1 - 0.2564)(1182.7 - 852.5)
274.77 + 245.57 ... 520.34 Btu/lb",
(hI - hi)

ll':w,1 =
=

I1w... =

(1 -

qA ,.. hI -

IqRI =
=

+ (h7 - ~)
0.2564)(0.S9 + 7.83) = 8.27 Btullb",

(1 - mi)(h,

WT -

.. 0.984

520.34

Compare this with cycle A (Table 2-1), which bad no feedwatcr heater. Note
tbat die turbine work is decrcascd for die same mass-ftow rate at tbrottlc because
of reduced turbine mass-flow rate after bleeding and tbat Ihe pump work is incn:ascd. Note also the greater dcaeasc in beat added, which IIlOIe than makes up
for die loss of oct work, resulting in a marIced improvement in cycle efficicocy.
'Ibis improvement inc:Jcascs as die number of fecdwater beaters is incIeased. Tbc
number of feedwatcr beaters can be as high as seven or eight. An increase beyond
tbat causes little increase in efficiency but adds complications and increased capital
costs and thus diminishes returns. '
As ICCIl above, open feedwater beaters require, in addition to Ihe condensate
pump, as many additional pumps as there arc fecdwater beaters. Bach of these pumps
carries ocarly full flow, or more accurately full ftow minus die bled steam following
it. For example, pump 7-8 (F'18. 2-13) carries (1 - ~ Ib.Jlb .. at throtde. In powcrplants such large ftow pumps arc the soun:e of operational, service, and noise
problems and increase plant complexity and cost. In gcncral only one open-type
feedwatcr heater is used, which doubles up as a dcaerating heater, followed by a pump
called die boiler feed pump. (In some nuclear powcrplants no GpCnfeedwatcr heaters
arc used and degassing is done elscwbcrc.) Other feedwatcr beaters in the system arc
...JIIcleforc of the closed type.

m2(~ - hf)
~(1l82.7

+ 7.83

= 512.07

- kt)

ll':w,1 =
h7

(1 - m2)(h3 582.1 Btu/lb ..

520.34 - 8.27

1457.5 - 363.3

Itt)

= (1 -

512.07 Btu/lb,.

1094.2 Btu/lb,.

0.2564)(852.5 - 69.73)

,ED-TYPE FEEDWATER HEATERS WITH DRAINS

~ADEDBACKW ARB

'Ibis type of feedwatcr beater, though it results in a greater loss of availability than
the open type, is the simplest and most commonly used type in powcrplants. As in
die casc of die closed-type feedwater beater with drains pumped forward (Sec. 2-10),
it too is a sbell-and-tube beat exchanger but differs because of the lack of any moving
equipment.
In a closed-type feedwatcr beater (of either type), fccdwater passes through the
tubes, and the bled steam, on the shell side, transfers its energy to it and condcnscs.
Thus they arc, in essence, small condensers that operate at pressures more elevatccl
than those of the main plant condenser. Because the feedwater goes through the tubes
in successive closcd feedwater heaters, it docs not mix with bled steam and therefore
can be pressurized only once by the first condensate pump, which then doubles as a
boiler feed pump, though often tbcrc is one condcnsatc pump and a boiler feed pump
pI8ced downstream to reduce the pressure rise in each pump. A boiler feed pump is
automatically required and placed after Ihe deaerating beater if one is used in the plant.

n,

52

1118 lWOONI! CYa.B

lICCUJDuIate there and must be removed and fed back to the system. In this type of
fecdwater heater, the .condensate isfed back to the next lower-pressure feedwater
beater. The condenaate of the lowest-pressure feeclwater heater is (though DOt alwaya)
led bact to the main c:ondeoset. One can imaaine,.tbeo, a cucadc from hiJher-pRume
to lower-pressure heaters; henc:e, the name of this type of feedwater heater.
Again starting with the low-pressure fcedwater heater, wet steam at 3 is admitted
and transfers its energy to bigh-pressme subcooled water at 6. The events in that heater
can be represented by the ~leo&th
diqram shown in Fig. 2-16a. The water
exit temperature at 7 cannot reach the inlet bled steam temperature at 3. A diffaeoce
called the terminal temperature difference (lTD, sometimes simply TO) is defined
for all closed feeclwatet heaters as

Figure 2-15 shows a simplified ftow diagram and corresponding T-, diagram of
a nonideai superheat Rankine cycle showing, for simplicity, two fecdwater heaters of
this type. One pump, 5-6, ptesSUrizes the condensate to a pressure sufficient to pass
through the two fecdwater heaters and enter the steam generator at 8. Again the
difference between the high-pressure line 6-B and the satUrated-liquid line 5-B is
exaggerated for illustration purposes.
As the bled steam condenses in each fecdwater

heater, it cannot, of

course,

TID

= lQIUradon temperature

11M,.
(II)

//

(2-12)

-I

3JL
._.....--7T,

V"

TID

LorN
<-)

(6)

twO

Zo.,

LorN
(6)

(c)

TempenlUlHIIIIIa
cIiqnmI of (II) IIId (6) low-pDIIUIe IIId (c) bJab-preawe feed.1ter
of PIa. 2-15. TrD - IemliulIeillpelIIure c1Ift'ereace, OS - cIeIupeIbeIIer, C - COIIdeIIIer,
DC - dIIiD cooler.

J1pn

nonideal superbeal Rankine cycle with

backward.

- exit water temperature

I-

fIpn 2-15 Scbematic flow and T-,diagrams of a

c:IoIed-type feedwatcr beaters with draiDs c:ucaded

of bled .....

The value of ITO varies with heater pressure. In the case' of low-pressure heaters,
which receive wet or it most saturated bled steam, the TID is positive and often of
the order of S"F. 'Ibis differuce is obtained by prQpet beat-transfe:r design of the
beater. Too small a value, although good fOl"plant efficieDcy, would requDe a larger
beater than can be justified economically. Too large a value would hurt cycle efficiency.
In some heaters, the drain at 9 is slightly subcooled. 'Ibis will be shown later.
The drain from the low-pressure heater is DOW led to the condenser and enten it
as a two-pbase mixture at 10. 'Ibis is a tbroUling process from the pressure c0rresponding to 9 to that of the main condenser, and henc:e there is loss of lOme availability,
as alluded to earlier. There is allO some loss of aVailability as a result of heat transfer.
Process 9-10 is a tbrottling process and henc:e is a CODStaDt entbalpy ODe.
A closed fcedwatcr beater that receives saturated 01" wet steam can have a drain
cooler and thus be phyaically composed of a condensing section and a drain cooler
section (Fig. 2-16b).
Retuming to the system of FII. 2-15, the high-pressure fcedwater beater receives
IUpedIeated steam bled from the tUIbiDe at 2 that ftows on the abell side at the rate
ritz and transfers ita energy to subcooled liquid entering the tubes at 7. The events

//

Steam
Fnerator

53

I'()WI!ItPLANI' 1'I!CHNOLOOY

.....

'"

~~2-~=~~~

52 POWEItJ'LAH1' TBCHNOLOOY

ft w dia
and corresponding T -$ diagram of
Sh:wing,s:nSimPliCity,
two fecdwate~ heaters of
a nom __ sUp""5-6
. the condensate to a pressure suffiCIent to pass
this type. One pump,
,pressunzes enter the steam gcocrator at 8. Again the
through the twO fccdwah~gh~'~inc
6-B and the satUrated-liquid line 5-B is
difference betwccn the I -press ......
exaggerated for Ulustration purposes:
..__ .a atcr beater it cannot, of course,
As the bled steam condenses 10 each u;~w
,
.

ICCUIDWate tbcrc and must be removed and fed bact to the system. In this type of
fccdwater heater, the condensate is fed bact to the next lower-pressure fccdwater
beater. The condensate of the lowest-pressure fcedwater beater is (tboup not always)
led back to the main condeoseI'. ODe can iJ:na&ioc,.tben, a c:aacade from bi&bcr-pRame
to lowcr-pre8IUIe beaters; bence, the name of tbis type of feedwatcr beater.
Again starting with the low-pressure fccdwatcr heater, wet steam at 3 is admitted
and Iran8fcra its cucrgy to bigh-preaaurc subcooleci water at 6. Tbe events in that beater
can be JqJmCDted by the teoapcrature..lcogtb diqram shown in FIg. 2-16a. Tbe water
exit tempcratuIe at 7 cannot reach the iD1ct bled steam temperature at 3. A diffcraIce
called the termiIuU temperature difference (TI'D, somctimca simply TO) is defined
for all closed fccdwater beaten u
TID

Mao

temperature

of bled ~

- exit water temperature

(2-12)

The value of TID varies with beater pressure. In the cue of low-pressure beaten,
which receive wet or at most aaturatcd bled steam, the TID is positive and often of
the Older of S"F. 1bis diffaeoce is obtained by proper beat-transfer design of the
beater. Too small a value, although good for plmt efficieocy, would require a larger
beater than can be justified economically. Too Iargc a value would hurt cycle efficiency.
In some beaters, the drain at 9 issligbdy subcooled. 1bis will be shown later.
Tbe drain from the Iow-presaure beater is DOW led to the condenser and cotcrs it
u a two-phase mixture at 10. 1bis is a tbrottling process from the JRSIUIe c0rresponding to 9 to that of the main coodcnser, and bcoce tbcrc is loss of some availability,
u alluded to earlier. There is also some loss of aVailability u a result of beat lran8fer.
Process 9-10 is a tbrotding process and bcnce is a constant cnIhalpy ODe.
A closed fccdwatcr beater that JeCeivcs saturated or wet steam can have a drain
cooler and thus be physically composed of a condensing section and a drain cooler
section (pig. 2-16b).
Returning to the system ofFal. 2-15, the high-pressure fcedwater healer receives
supedIeatecl steam bled from the tUIbine at 2 that flows on the abell side at the rate
1hz and transfers its CIlCIJY to subcooled liquid entering the tubes at 7. The events

Steam
Ffterator

11

= .rtIIrIralion

..

( )

DC

~1--c--,.j1

LorN

C.)
(bl

T-,

,..__I

--11

FIpn 2-15 Schematic flow and

diagrams of a ~
su......c:JoIed.type feedwIlCr beatas with dniDa cascaded blckwlrd.

Rankine cycle with two

(6)

(c)

IIpn Jo16 TempenlUlHlllbalpy diqnma of (,,) IDd (6) Iow-pnuuse IDd (c) bIIb-JlIIUUle feeclWIIIr
......
of PIa. 2-15. TI'D - IamiDal feIIIperIIUIe cIIfrerace. OS - deauperbeIIer, C - coadeaIIr,
DC - draiD cooler.

'"

54 POWERPLANT TBCHNOLOGY
11tII RANJaNI! ev(U

there are shown by the temperature-path length diagram in Fig. 2-16c. NOie heR tbat
because the inlet steam is supcrbeatcd at 2, the exit watec temperature at 8 can be
higher than the saturation temperature of that steam and the4TD, defioecl by Eq. (212), can be oegative. The TID values for high-pressure hcatas, therefore, range
between 0 and -S"P, being more negative the higher the pressure, and hence the
greatec the degree of sUperheat of the entering steam.
Note also that the drain in this heater is slightly subcooled and heocc imparts
more energy to the water and thus reduces the loss of aVailability due to its tbrouling
to the low-pressure heater. The heater is physically composed of a desuperbea1iDg
section, a condensing section, and a drain cooler section (Fig. 2-16c).
Thus there are four physical possibilities of closed fecdwater beaters composed
of the following sections or zones (Sec. 6-5):

and kno~
~ pressures at which steam is bled from the turbine (Sec. 2-13) so that
: enthalplCS 10 Eqs .. (2-14) ~ (2-1.5) are aU known, we again have two equations
two unknowns, IrIz ~ m,. Or: 10 general, we will have as many equations as
there are. unknow~ making a solution possible: The pertinent cycle parameters "are
now obtained, agam as energy per unit mass ftow rate at turbine inlet (point I)

Heat added qA - hi - h.
TuIbine work w,- = (III - liz) +

Iw,l ... ~ - lis _

Pump work

I. Condenser

Heat rejected

condenser,
condenser

(I -

~(hz

- II,)

+ (1 - ~ - m,)(II, - Jr.)

2. Condenser, drain cooler

3. Dcsupcrheater,
4. Dcsupcrbeater,

55

drain cooler

Iq'" -

Net cycle work

V~(P6- P,)

""'"
ritz - '"')(11.. - lis) + (ritz + ,",Xllio - lis)

(1 -

(2-16)

Iw,l

~w_ - w,- -

Cycle tbennaI efficiency 'lib _ ~w ..

The drain at II is now throttled to the low-pressure beater entering it at 12 as a
two-phase mixture where it joins with the steam bled at 3 and thus aids in the beating
of the water in the low-pressure heater. The combined Pt2 + '"' constitutes. the lowpressure heater drain, which is throttled to the main condenser at 10. The high-pressure
beatec exit water at 8 is led into the steam generator. Again, to analyze the system,
both a mass and an energy balance are required. A mass balance, also based on a
unit-flow rate at turbine inlet, point 1, is given, clockwise, by

Mass flow between 1 and 2

Mass flow between 2 and 3

I - ~

'"

I - ~

- '"' ~

Mass flow between 10 and 1

=
=
=

Mass flow between 2 and 12

'"2

Mass flow between

= '"' ..

Mass flow between 3 and 10

3 and 12

Mass flow between 12 and 10 -

,"2(h2 - hll)

and

,",(h,

~)

~(hI2

- ~)

and

III (2-13)

h,

1505.4

II.. +

h2

V4(P, -

1228.6

P4)

II.. - 69.73

II, - 923.31

69.73

+ 2.98 .. 72.71

I(. -

'"2 + '"'

I, -

5 - 327.82 - 5

322.82Of'

Therefore

tI

116

heaters are now given, re-

293.36

10 - 104.72

(by interpolation)

For DC .. lOOP

= ha - h,
= h, - ~

../

(2-14)

./

(2-15)

./

"

I. - I,

Thus II...

82.69

10 -

114.720f'

(by interpolation)

riaill2 - he) - ~ - II,

.
IrIz -

fi:..._..a

by the

UUIIU

II, .. 298.5

corresponding to 104.72Of'

For TID .. SOf'

hlo = ~

COOb

SOLtrnON Referring to Fig. 2-17, the enthalpies aU in Btullb

usual procedure are
"'"

Recalling that a throttling process is a constant enthalpy process so that

hl2 = hll ./

Evnaple 2-5 An ideal Rankine cycle operates with 1000 psia, lOOO"F steam. k
has one closed fecdwater heater with dram casc:aded backward placed at 100 plia
The condenser pressure is I psia. Use TI'D
SOf'. The beater has a drain
resulting in DC (drain cooler temperature difference)
lOOP.

./

1 .-

The energy balances on the high- and low-pressure

spectively, by

qA

Work ratio WR ,. ~w ..
w,-

393.36 - 72.71
1228.6 _ 82.69 .. 0.1926

56

POWBItJILANT

MIT

1118 IlANItINB CYa.B

TIIOINOLOOY

+ (1 - mz)(hz - h,)
(1505.4 - 1228.6) + (I - 0.1926)(1228.6 - 923.31)
(hi - hz)

- 276.8 + 246.49 .. 523.29

qA

= 520.31
= hi - ~ =

Wltl -

'1cyc" WR

1505.4 - 293.36 = 1212.04

+ 2.50

520.31
1212.04

= 4w_
MIT

C
D

(I - mz)(h, - h.)

- 689.18

Cycle

IWI'I = (Its - h.) = 2.98

4w_

Table 2-2 Resalts of example c:aIcuI8Iloas far ....

+ m2(Ir. - ~

G
H

= 691.68

= 0.4293

- 42.93%

"" 520.31 _ 0.9943

RukiDe cydel*

PInicuIm

Aw..

fA

"..

lila!

WR

No auperbeIl; DO fwbt
SuperbeII: DO fwb
SuperbeII: c.- opal fwb
SuperbeIl; c.- c:IoeecI fwb; draiDa
cucadecl; DC
Superba&; c.- cIoIed fwb; draiDa
pumped; DC
SuperbeIl; c.- cloled fwb; draiDa
pumped; DO DC
SupabeaI; I'IIbeII; c.- opea fwb
SupabeII; NbeaI; two cloled fwb;
draiDa cucaded
Supereri~;
double reheat; DO
fwb; 35OOi10001102511050

413.72
579.11
519.3
520.31

1120.19
1432.69
1203.95
1212.04

36.93
40.42
43.13
42.93

706.49
853.58
685.25
691.68

0.9928
0.9949
0.9939
0.9943

529.85

1245.63

42.54

715.73

0.9945

520.59

1210.48

43.01

689.95

0.9943

641.59

609.83

1.... 7.....
1351.0

..... 33
45.14

805.83
727.62

0.9951
0.9952

861.95

1831.92

47.05

969.97

0.9880

All YIIuea ill B""'_ III eumpIca. ucept for c:yc:Ie A wIDell is 1IIIded.1IId
lOOO"F.All at 1 psia c:oadeIIIer pnIIUR.
t fwb - feed ..... heIrc.

523.29

Table 2-2 contains other solutions for ideal Rankine cycles with 1000 psia steam.
The cycle in Example 2-5 is cycle D in that table. Again note the reduction in work
but the improvement in '1111 over the cycle with no feedwater beating. Ar. stated for
the open feedwater beaters, this improvement i.nacases with the number of feedwater
heaters until increases in complexity and capital cost make the addition of fmtber
beaters, beyond about seven or eight, unprofitable.

57

c:yc:Ie I,

Although this type of feedwater heater is the moat common, it causes

of aVailability because of throttling and, to a lesser extent, beat 1nDSfer.

It

1000 pIiII

some lou

2-10 CLOSED-TYPE FEEDWATER HEATERS WITH DRAINS

PUMPED FORWARD

/"

3
I

FIpre 2-17 T-, diagram of Example 2-5.

This second closed-type feedwater beater avoids duottliDg but at the expease of some
added complexity because of the inclusion of a small pump. It aIsoallows some
flexibility to the plant cycle designer who prefers a mix of feedwater heater types that
would be deemed most suitable.
Ar. with the previous closed-type feedwater beater, it is a sbell-aDd-tube beat
exchanger in which the feedwater passes through the tubes and the bled stcani, on the
shell side, transfers its energy to it and condenses. They do not mix and the feedwater
may be pressurized only once, although a deaerating beater followed by boiler feed
pump are usually inserted into the system.
The drain from this type of beater, instead of beina cascaded backward, is pumped
forward into the main feedwater line. Figure 2-18 shows a simplified flow diqrIm
and comsponding T-s diagram for a nooideaI superheat RaDkiDe cycle sbowiDs, for
simplicity, two beaters of this type. Although this system n=quiIa ODe additiODaI pump
per heater, it differs from the system using open-type feedwater beaters in that abe
pumps this time are small and, rather than nearly full feedwater flow I Can')' only
fractional flows COl1'aponding to the bled steam ~ and ria,.

511" POWI!RPLANT TBCHNOLOOY

nil! RANKINE CYCLII

59

Ibe beater at II, is pumped to 12, aDd mixes wilb the feedwater at 9, resulting in full
feedwater flow at 10 which now goes to the steam generator.
A mass balance, based on a unit mass-ftow rate at turbine inlet, point I, is given,
clocltwise, on the T-s diagram by .

Steam

Mass flow between I aDd 2

aenerator

Mass flow between 2 and 12 -

10

mz

Mass flow between 2 and 3

Mass flow between 3 aDd 14

Mass flow between 3 aDd 7

= m,
=I-

Mass flow at 14

m,

Mass flow between 8 and 9

I -

13

(II)

I -

mz
ritz -

m,

(2-17)

ritz

Mass flow at 12

Mass flow between 10 and 1

The energy balanc:es on the high- and low-pressure

mz(hz - hll)

""

- he)

(2-18)

./

ritz - m,)(h, - hrJ

'(2-19)

(I - mz)(~

m,(h, - h13) - (1 -

and

heaters are given, respectively, by

The values of ~ and h, are obtained from the tempera~

t9 and t" which are
equal to the saturation tempera~
of the steam in each heater minus its terminal
~
diffcrcnc:e or

"=

til - TID

hp heater

(2-2OG)

and t, - tt, - TID

Ip heater

(2-2Oh)

hlO, needed for'qA, and he, to be used in Sq. (2-18), are obtained from hll and hl4,
~vely.
The latter are given by

(2-2141)

(6)

Flpre

2-18 Schematic flow and T-s diagrams of nonidealaupcrtaeat Rankine cycle with two
feedwater beaters with drains pumped forward.

closed-type

Starting with the low-~

heater, the drain at 13 is pumped forward to the
main feedwater line, enters it at 14, and mixes with the exit water from that beater at
7, resulting in a mixmre at 8. Point 8 is closer to 7 than 14 on the T-s diagram bec:auae
the main feedwater flow at 7 is greater than the drain Bow
The water at 8 enters the high-press~
beater and is heated to 9. The drain leaves

m,.

and

hl4

1bus

hlo

and

(I -

=
-

mz)h. -

hI,

rilzhlZ

m,h14

PI4 - PI'
VI' ......:;;:.-~

(2-2Ib)

""m~

(2-22a)

+
+

(I (I -

ritz - m,)h,

(2-22b)

The turbine work

"ItT

(hI -

hz)

+ (1 - mz)(hz - h,) +

(l - mz - m,)(h,

h.) (2-23)

.p.
1'HB RANICJNB CYa.B

Pump work

Heat added

l:Iw,.l qA -

mz - m,)(~ - h,)

(1 -

+ ';',(h.4

h.,)

+ mz(h.2

h. - h.o
Wr

1bermal efficiency "'" -

-IIw"l

(h. - hi)

hll)
(2-24)

Wr -

(2-25)

Iw,. -

- 298.5

(PI - P7) x 144

V?
778.13

2.95

298 5
.

276.8

+ 246.77

- ~)

+ ~Aa - Ja.,) ... 2.41 + 0.57

BtuIlb",

h. - h.o (I -

1505.4 - 294.92

mz>(h, - ~)

1210.48 Btullb",

689.95 Btullb",

520.59

= 1210.48 - 0.4301 = 43.01'11

..
0017740

(1000 - 100)
778.17

+ .

WR ... 520.59 .. 0 9943

523.57
.

144

This example is listed as cycle F in Table 2-2.

As indicated earlier, the type of closed feedwater beater that bas draiDs pumped
forward avoids the loss of aVailability due to throttling i.obercnt in the previous closed
feedwater heater with draiDs cascaded backward. This, however, is <loDe at the expeuse
of the complexity of adding a drain pump following each heater. Note, however, that
unlike the opeu feedwater beater the drain pump is a low-capacity ODe because ill
flow is only that of the bled steam being c:oodeased in the beater. It must however
pressurize that condensate to the full feedwater line pressure.
This type of feedwater beater mulll in a s1igbdy better cycle efficiency if used
without a drain cooler because energy transfencd from the beater drain in the drain
cooler lowers the point in the feedwater line at which energy is to be added from the
primary beat source or from a bigber pressure feedwater beater. CoJIII'IR cycle F in
Table 2-2 with cycle E, which is identical except that theIe is a drain cooler with IX

h7) - (1 - ~(~

- 298.5)

- hs)

(1 - mz>(293.36 - 72.71)

:. mz ... 0.1917

m2ha +

h,)

301.4S Btullb ..

mz(h2

", =

Iq.1 =

lis. ~. Ja., are all the same as in

~ (as berore) - 293.36 Btullb ..

mz(I228.6

mv<~ -

4w_ - 520.59 BtuIlb.,.

SoumON Refer to Fig. 2-19. h .. ~, h" ~,

Example 2-5
...

(I - ~(h,

- 2.98

(2-26)

qA

qA -

(I -

- 523.57 BtuIlb",

EumpIe U Repeat Example 2-5 but for one closed-type feedwater heater with
drain pumped forward. TID = 5"F.

.. = h

61

(1 - ~~

- 57.79

+ 237.12

294.91 Btullb",

- IO"F.
One other advantage of pumped draiDs is that, when used as the lowest-pessure
feedwater beater in an otherwise all-cuclded system, or with all-cucadcd feedwater
beaten between 't and an open feedwater beater. it prevents the throuIing of the
combined cascaded flows to the condeaser pessure ~
the energy left in that
combined flow is lost to ,the environment.

2-11 THE CHOICE ~F FEEDWATER HEATERS

FIpre 2-1' T-,

ample 2-6.

diaaram of

Ex-

In general the choice of feedwater hearer type depends upon many factors. including
designer optimizaIion and preference, practical coosiderations, cost, and so on, and
ODe sees a variety of cycle desips. Tbcre are. however, features that are ratber

common.

'.

nIB ItANKINB CYa.B

62 POWI!ItPLANT 'J'I!OINOLOOy

"II

.. ill: N
S :I:C~

J ~!1

119'6111
#609'9LI

"' .....

at

II

IIL'6SI1

e:J

#609'6

tI

~
~

'"a

'"
Q}

Ilto'6BZI
#01'651

'"

--r'l

....
o

#09L'.,61

-..c
"'I"!Uo

-~St

... -~",C5

~
~
on

1I
'S

..... ...
~I..c

~'" s

.....

o _
...

Uo

~I~

..;

UoI..c

5~

#619'1.,'

,,"~
~

i!

I
.1I
I

63

I, One open-type feedwatcr beater, which doubles as a deacrator and is thus called
the OA (deaerating) heater, is used in fossil-fueled powerplants. It is not yet the
practice to use it in watcr-cooled-and-moderatcd
nuclear powerplants because of
the conc:em regarding radioactivity release widr deaeration. 1bis type of beater is
usually placed near the middle of the feedwater system, where the temperature is
most conducive to the release of noncondensables.
2. The closed-type feedwatcr beater with drains cascaded backward is the most common type, used both before and aftec the OA beater. It usually bas integral deauperbeating and drain cooler sections in the high-pressure stages but no superheating
section in the very low-pressure stages because the bled steam is saturated or wet.
A separate drain cooler is IOmetimes used for the lowest-pressure beater.
3. One closed feedwater beater with drains pumped forward is often used as the lowestpressure feedwater beater to pump all accumulating drains back into the feedwater
line, as indicated above. Occasionally one encounters one more feedwater of this
type at a higher-pressure
stage.
Table 2-2 is a c:ompilation of the results of calculations similar to and inc:ludins
those in the previous examples. They all have 1000 psia, lOOO"P steam at twbine
inlet, except for cytle A, which is saturated. Cycles G and H have reheat to lOOO"P.
Cycles A, B, and I have DO feedwater beaten. The rest have one feedwater of various
types except for cycle H, which bas two. All cycles are ideal, meaning that they are
internally reversible with adiabatic reversible tuJbines and pumps.
ComparilOn shows large efficiency increases as a result of superheat, reheat, and
the use of even one feedwater beater. The differencea between different types of
feedwater beaters are small. It is to be noted, howevel', that even a fraction of a percent
differenc::e in efficiency can mean a very large difference in annual fuel costs, eapecially
in a fossil powerplant, where the fuel cycle costs are a large portion of the total coat
of electricity. (Other costs are the fixed cbarges on the capital cost and the operation
and maintenance cost, 0 &: M.) Differences in efficiency also mean differeoc:ea in
plant size (heat exchangers, etc.) for a given plant output and hence ~ereoces in
capital cost. Although the cycles summarized in Table 2-2 are ideal, the trends they
exhibit are applicable to nonideal cycles, 10 one should expect the same relative
standings in both cases.
F'tgure 2-20 shows a flow diagram of an actual S 12-MW powerplant with auperbeat,
reheat, and seven feedwaters: one OA, five closed with drains cascaded backward,
and one, the lowest pressure, closed with drains pumped forward. In such diagrIms,
there are standard notations (not all to be found in Fig. 2-20), such as
AE
BfP
DC
EL
ELEP
h

Available energy or isentropic enthalpy difference, Btullb ..

Boiler feed pump
Drain cooler tcnninal temperature differenc::e (F1I. 2-1611 and c),
op
Exhaust loss, Btullb",
Expansion line end-point enthalpy, Btullb ..
Eothalpy, Btullb ..

62

'.POWBRPLANTTBaINOLOOY

THlIWOONB CYCL8

'II

!
j
at

JJ

II
t

II
~

i
~
~

;:;

1I
'8

"" .,.
...
S
...
...
~ "!

...

..... ....,.
5!

...
q ."

'619'1"'

I
I
I
I

I. One open-type feedwarer beater, which doubles as a deaerator and is thus called
the DA (deaerating) beater, is used in fossil-fueled powerplants. It is not yet the
practice to use it in water-cooled-and-moderated
nuclear powerplants because of
the concern regarding radioactivity release witlr deaeration. This type of beater is
usually placed near the middle of the feedwater system, where the temperature is
most conducive to the release of noncoodeosables.
2. The closed-type feedwatlll" beater with drains cascaded backwud is the most common type, used both before and after the DA beater. It usually bas integral deauperheating and drain cooler sections in the high-pressure stages but no superheating
section in the very low-pressure stages because the bled steam is saturated or wet.
A separate drain cooler is sometimes used for the lowest-pressure beater.
3. One closed feedwater beater with drains pumped forwud is often used aslhe lowestpressure feedwarer beater to pump all accumulating drains back into the feedwater
line, as indicated above. Occasionally one encounters one more feedwater of this
type at a higher-pressure stage.
Table 2-2 is a compilation of the results of calculations similar to and including
chose in the previous examples. They all have 1000 psia, l000"F steam at turbine
inlet, except for cycle A, which is saturated. Cycles G and H have reheat to lOOO"F,
Cycles A, B, and I have DO feedwater beaters. The rest have one feedwater of various
types except for cycle H, which bas two. All cycles are ideal, meaning that Ibey are
intemally reversible with adiabatic reversible turbines and pumps.
Comparison shows large efficiency increases as a result of superbeat, reheat, and
the use of even one feedwater beater. The differences between different types of
feedwarer heaters are small. It is to be noted, however, that even a fraction of a percent
difference in efficiency can mean a very large difference in annual fuel costs, especially
in a fossil powerplant, where the fuel cycle costs are a large portioD of the total coat
of electricity. (Other costs are the fixed charges on the capital coat and the operation
and maintenance cost, 0 &: M.) Differences in efficiency also mean differeoc::es in
plant size (beat exchangers, etc.) for a given plant output and hence ~ereoces in
capital cost. Although the cycles summarized in Table 2-2 are ideal, the trends they
exhibit are applicable to nonideal cycles, so one should expect the same relative
standings in both cases.
F"tgure 2-20 shows a flow diqram of an actual SI2-MW powerp1ant with superbeat,
reheat, and seven feedwaters: one OA, five closed with drains casc:aded backwud,
and one, the lowest pressure, closed with drains pumped forward. In such diqrams,
there are standard notations (not all to be found in Fig. 2-20), such as

AE

~~

DC

i!

EL

63

BFP

ELEP
h

Available energy or isentropic enthalpy difference, Btullb.

Boiler feed pump
Drain cooler terminal temperature difference (F"IJ. 2-1611 and c),
Of
Exhaust loss, Btullb.
Expansion line end-point enthalpy, Btullb.,
Enthalpy, Btu/)b.

11IB RANKINE

'64 POWIIRPLANT 11!CHNOLOGY

RIITR
SOFP

SJAE
SPE
SSR
TDorTTD
UEEP

"

Pressure, psia
Reheater
Steam generator feed pump
Steam-jet air ejector condenser
Steam packing exhaust condenser
Steam seal regulator
Terminal temperature difference (Fig. 2-16), "F
Used energy end point, BtuJlb ..
Mass-ftow rate, lb".lh

2-12 EFFICIENCY AND HEAT RATE

In the thermodynamic analysis of cycles and powerplants, the thermal efficiency and
the power output are of prime importance. The thumal ~ncy
is the ratio of the
net work to the heat added to the cycle or powerplant. The thermal efficiencies of
powerplants are less than those computed for cycles u above because the aaalyaes
above failed to take into account the various auxiliaries used in a powerplant and 1be
various irreversibilities usociated with them. A complete analysis of a powerplant
must take into account all these auxiliaries, the nonidealities in turbines, pumps,
friction, heat transfer, throttling, etc., as well as the differences between full-load and
partial-load operation. Such analyses are quite complex and require 1be use of bighcapacity computers.
The gross efficiency is the one calculated hued on the gross work or power of
the turbine-generator. This is the work or power, MW gross, produced before power
is tapped for the internal functioning of the powerplant, such u that needed to operate
pumps, compressors, fuel-handling equipment, and other auxiliaries, labs, compurers,
heating systems, lighting, etc. (Fig. 2-21). The net eJ!iciency is calculated bued on

CYCLE

65

1be net work or power of 1be plant, i.e., the gross power minus the tapped power,
above, or the power leaving at the station bus bars.
Powerplant designers and operators are interestecl ... efficiency u a measure of
the economy ofthe powerplant because it affeCts capital, fuel, and operating costs.
They use in addition another parameter that more readily reflects 1be fuel economics.
That parameter is called a heat rate (HR). It is the amount of heat added, usually in
Btu, to produc:c a unit 'amount of work, usually in kilowatt hours (kWh). Heat rate
thus bas the units BtulkWh. The HR is inversely proportional to the efficiency, and
hence the lower its value, the better. There are various heat rates comsponding to the
work used in the denominator. For example
Net cycle HR -

Gross cycle HR -

heat added to cycle, Btu

net cycle work leWh
rate of beat idded to cycle. BtuIh
net cycle power, leW
rate of heat added to cycle. BtuIh
turbine power ~lput, leW

.
rate of beat added to steam generator, BtuIh
Net station HR net station power, leW
.
Gross station HR

-=

rate of heat added to steam generator, BtuIh

gross turbine-generator power. leW

and 1bere are as many 1bennal efficiencies u there are heat rates. Because I leWh ...
3412 Btu. 1be beat rate of any kind is related to 1be corresponding thermal efficiency
by
(2-27)

Bum"

2-7 A coal-fired powerplant bas a turbine-generator rated at 1000 MW

gross. The plant requires about 9 pcn:cnt of this power for its internal Operations.
It uses 9800 tons of coal per day. This coal bas a heating value of 11,SOO Btu!
lb., and the steam generator efficiency is 86 pcn:cnt. Calculate the gross station.
net slation, and the net steam cycle heat rates.

Hat
added

To fuel

Rate of coal burned - 9800 x

and

2000

24 =

816.667

lb.,lh

primary

system

Gross
FIpn 2021 Scbemalic of a POWerplaD1 showin, turbine.

aroa UId nee work.

. HR ... 816,667 x U,SOO _ 939167

Station
1000 x 1000
.

BtuIltWh

Station net power output - (1 - 0.9) x 1000 - 910 MW

"

JIOWI!IU'LANl'TECHNOLOGY

Net station HR

816,667 X 11,500
910 X 1000

Heat added to steam generator

Net

steam

The corresponding

cycle HR

10,320.S Btu/kWb
11,500 x 0.86

= 816,667

x 10' BtuIh

8.07683

8.07683 x
09
H.
. 1 x hr

109

= 887S.64

BtulkWb

thermal efficiencies are

.

.
Gross stanon efficiency
Net station efficiency

Net cycle efficiency

3412
= 9391.67

=
=

3412
10,320.5
8:':;.~

'nIB lWIlCINB CYQ.8 "

ImJllO"emenlsdue 10

t@ID

~1I~rallw

reed h".lin,

Double "'heal

I11III Sinale ",heal

20

= 36.33%
~ 33.06%

.:.
i!

..
-8

.!!

~u

..

;;

-!

- 38.44%

Wben the efficiency and heat rate of a powerplant are quoted without specification,
it is usually the net station efficiency and beat rate that are meant. A convenient
numerical value to remember for heat rate is 10,000 BtulkWb. Usually large modem
and efficient powerplants have values less than 10,000, wbile older plants, gas-turbine
plants, and alternative power systems sucb as solar, geothermal, and others, exceed
this value.
Figure 2-22, originally publisbed in 1954 [9], contains a bistory of steam cycles
since 1915 and an interesting prediction of things to come, up to 1980. It gives the
average overall (net) HR range or band as a function of steam conditions, shown above
the band. The beat rates are in tum dependent upon metallurgical constraints and
development. 'The available materials are shown below the band. A landmark station
was the 325-MW Eddystone unit I of the Philadelphia Electric Company, a doublereheat plant designed for operation with superc:ritical steam (Sec. 2-14) at SOOO psigl
l2OO"F/10SO"F/1050"F (about 345 bar, 6S00CI5650C156S"C). Its actual operation was
at 4700 psig and l13O"F rurbine inlet (325 bar, 610"C). Built in 1959, it bad the
highest steam conditions and lowest HR of any plant in the world, and its power output
was equal to the largest commerc:ially available plant at the time.
Figure 2-22 is shown to predict conditions far beyond what has been achieved to
date. The material X needed to raise the pressures and temperatllres to the 7500 psig
and l4OO"F level, for example, remains to be developed. The most common steam
conditions remain at 2400 to 3500 psia (165 to 240 bar) and 1000 to 10SO"F (540 to
S65"C). The 19605 and 1970s saw little improvements because there was no motivation
to lower heat rates with the then-chcap fossil fuels and the advent of nuclear power.
In fact, recent years have seen a rise in heat rates as a result of environmental restrictions
on cooling and the increased use of devices to reduce the environmental impact of
power generation (cooling towers, electrostatic precipitators, desulfurization, ete.),
Figure 2-22, however, correctly predicts advancements such as single and double

:::,:: =-:~':uine-stcam-twbine
IOSO"F (310 bar, 593=S650~
vi..ldi....

.r--. a --

&._.

cycles (Sec. 8-10). An advanced 773-

~=~_~~steamand
'

IKOUCD,

,,-:~500PSli~I'Ioo/1050/
,eaturcs and
~

DOve

rate of 8335 BtulkWb, has recently been proposed [10].

2-13 THE PLACEMENT OF FEEDWATER HEATERS

A natural

.'

/'

no:

question anses as to wbeIe to place the fcedwater beaters (of any Iciod)
the cyc~e. In ~
wo~: What ~ the pressures at which steam is to be bled
~ turbme that w~ result lD the ID&XJIDum increase in efficieucy (or maximum reduction
lD beat rate)? It II expected that the answer to this question can be obtained

:uratel I>: a

com;:::

Y com~lcte ~on
by
of the cycle, a job that entails large,
uai not readily available computer programs.
'
~
II, however, a simple answer based on physical
.
As..
preViously, the role of feedwatcr heaters is to brins the
the f~
as close as possible to that of the steam ............... bcti the ,___,
water
steam -If
.-Ole
&""""water eaters that
.---..
w~ weft to assume first for Simplicity that only one feedWater'
~
(~. type ~ not unportant for this diSCUSSion) is to be used, we may consider
P lDI It lD POSitions I, 2, or 3 with respect to the cycle (Fag. 2-23). In position I
us

tem=:

68

11111ItANKINB CYaJI

POWERPLANT TIICHNOLOGY

"

T
T

1..-------------..3..;,

FIpre 2-23 ODe fcedwater beater

in tIII= possible positions.

we see that heat transfers to the feedwater are caused by ATII-I and ATI-c, where T.
and Te are the boiler and condenser temperatures, respectively. In position 3 the
corresponding heat transfers are the result of Ta - T, and T, - Te It is obv.ious that
in both these cases one of these ATs is very large. 1be one position that would
minimire both temperatwe differences is in the middle, position 2, wilae T. - T2
_ T2 - Te. Thus the optimum, from an efficiency point of view, of the pressrln at
which the one feedwater beater is to be placed is obtained by finding the tempertllllre
that is half way between T. and Te and then obtaining the smuration prelsure corRSponcling to that temperature. Note that the temperature at which steam is actually
bled from the turbine may be in the superheat region at that pressure and thus bigher
than T2
If two feedwater heaters are to be used, the optimum placemeot is at temperatures
that would divide T. - Te into three equal parts. In general. then, for n feedwatcr
beaters (Fig. 2-24), the optimum ~gpatare ri~
would be given by

AT. _ T. - Te,

n+1
Example 2-8 The Rankine c

'.

(2-28)

-24 bas an ideal turbine that

operates between 1000 psia and 1()()(rF, and 1 psia. It bas seven feedwater beaters.
pressure and inlet temperature for the high- and the low-pressure
feedwater beaters.

SownON Referring to Fig. 2-24 and the steam tables

AT.

_ 544.S8 7+1

= 101.74F
101.74 = SS.36"F
Te

II

1.6530

PIpn 2-24 T.., diapm of Example 2-8

The low-pressure beater

T7

Te + AT. = 101.74

SS.36

= IS7.1O"F,

conaponding

to P7

4.422 psia

Because I. at P7 - 1.806 > I" the bled steam to heater 7 is, as expected. in the
two-phase region, for which
17 -

II

1.6530 -

(1/

+ X7Ih)U22

poIa

- 0.2266 + x?(1.6277)

Thus

x.,

and

h., - 125.05

The bigh-pressure

_.1 -= T. -

Fmd the optimum

T. - S44.S8"F

0.876

+ 0.876 x 1003.9 - l004.S Btu/lb",

heater

AT. - 544.S8 - 5S.36

- 489.22"F, c:orresponding to PI

617.04 psia

Because at PI '. - 1.4433 < II, the bled steam to beater 1 is 8~.
The
inlet temperature, found by interpolation from the steam tables, is 850.O"F with
a degree of I1Jpemeat of 360.8"F, corresponding to an en1balpy of 143S.05 Btu!
lb
Heater I, the bigh-pressure beater, receives highly superbeatecl steam aod
thus would be CODSbUCted with a desuperbeater zone, a condcnsins zone, and
most likely, a drain cooler. Its TID is most likely neptive. Heater 7, the lowp!aSUre beater, on the other band, receives wet steam aod will have DO deIupcrheating zone. It will have a condeasing section aod may not have an intepal

71

I'OWI!RPI.ANI'TECHNOLOOY

1118 RANKINB CYCLB

drain cooler. If not, its drain may be cascaded to the condenser either directly or
via a separate drain cooler, or it may be pumped forward into the feedwater line.
The temperatures, pressures, and inlet conditions of the ocher five feedwater beaten
are found in a like manner. They are then used in the appropriate equations for
determining the mass-flow rates in the particular type of beater, or mix of beaten,
and the various cycle parameters. If the turbine ill Example 2-S were not ideal, the
exact turbine expansion line must first be determined in Older to find the bled steam
inlet temperatures and enthalpies. Here the use of the Mollier diagram may be more
useful than the T-s diagram.
It is now instructive to show the effect of vauying I1T between feedwater heaters
from 11T.. on cycle efficiency. Figure 2-25 shows the effect of vauying the total
feedwater temperature rise (above the condenser temperature) for a saturated internally
reversible steam cycle operating between 1000 and I psia, corresponding to saturation
temperatures of S44.SSOP and 101.74OP, respectively. Tbe curve shows the percent
decrease in cycle heat rate (corresponding to increase in cycle efficiency) for I, 2, 3,
4, and 10 feedwater heaters versus the total temperature rise above the condenser
temperature.
It can be seen, as expected, that the curve for a single feedwater heater peaks at
a temperature rise halfway between the above saturation temperatures; i.e., it peaks
at I1T of O.S(S44.SS - 101.74), or about 222OP. For two feedwater beaters~ the peak
occurs at 1(S44.SS - 101.740), or about 29SOP. It can also be seen that the curves
arc relatively ftat about the optimum values, which indicates that small departures
from these optimum values have no serious effect on heat rate. In actual powcrplants,
the feedwater heaters are not positioned necessarily at their optimum positions. Other
considerations may dictate the exact positions. These considerations include the placement of the dcaerating heater for best deaeration and the relative positions of the closed
heaters before and after it, the existence of a convenient point at which steam is bled
such as the crossover between turbine sections or at the steam outlet to the rebeatcr,
the design of the turbine casings, and others.

2-14 THE SUPERCRITICAL.PRESSURE

71

CYCLE

In Fig. 2-26 the feedwater is pressurized at 8 to a pressure beyood the critical pressure
of the vapor (3208 psia for steam). The feedwite:r beating CIUVe shows gradual
change in temperature and density but not in phase to the Iteam temperature at I.
Such beating can be made to be closer to the beat source temperature than subcritical
cycle with the same steam temperatuIe that shows an abtupt change in temperature
within the two-phase region. Looking at it another way, the aupen:ritical-preasure cycle
receives more of its beat at higher temperatures than aubcritical cycle with the same
turbine inlet steam temperature.
Because of the gradual chanse in density, aupen:ritical-preasure cycles use oncethrough steam generators instead of the more common drum-type steam generators
(Chap. 3).
A disadvantage of the supcn:ritical-presaure cycle, however, is that expansion
from point I to the condenser pressure would result in very wet vapor in the latter
stages of the turbine. Hence, IUpemitical-presaure
cycles invariably use rebeat aDd
often double reheat. A popular base design for a supemitical powaplant used 3500
psia aDd initial lOOO"F sam with rdaeaIs to 102S"P aDd 10SO"F (3SOO1100w102S1
10SO). The higher temperatures after reheat were tolerated by the rebeatcr tubes because
of the much lower pressures in them.

lit

~ 12r---i---~~~~j
1
..

.5 1~--4-4
.2

.-..--.1

4~~~--~--~--~

100
~oo 300
400
Tolll reedwaler lemper.lure rise. OF

J.I'Ipre 2-25 Effect of AT between feedwarer beatCIS on cycle heat rate.

....... 2-26 T"'dilaramoflD.iduI

sapen:&iticaI, cIoubJe-n=be.I 3SOO'
,

100011025/1050 Iteam cycle.

11m RANXINB CYa.E

72 PO\VBRPI.ANT 'I1!OINOLOOY

Evmple 2-9 Calculate the net work, beat added, efficiency, and work ratio of
an intcma1ly reversible supcrcritical double-reheat 3SOO11000l102S/IOSO
Reheats occur at 800 and 200 psia. Condensing is at 1 psia.

c:yc:le.

Referring to Fig. 2-26 and the steam tables with h values in BtuIlb",
values in BtuI(lb ... ~)

SOLU110N

and

1422.2

II ""

'2 -

1.4709

~ - 1254.5

hi

h, - 1525.3
I.

I,

1.4709

~
steam (or beat) as well as electricity. Examples are chemical indus~,
paper
mills, and places that use district heating. Cogeneration is DOt usually used by large
utilities whicb teDd to produce electricity only. CogencratiOD is advisable for iodustrica
and municipalities if they can produce electricity cheaper, or more conveniently, than
that brought from a utility.
. From an energy resource point of view, cogeneration is beneficial only if it saves
pnmary energy when compared with separate generation of electricity and steam (or
beat). The cogeneration plant efficiency 7Jco is given by
'leo -

1.69015
where

h. =- 16336.3

.,. 1.69015

X6

1.8603

0.936

~ =

1039.7

heat

energy, or heat energy in proceaa steam

C2A

(enthalpy of steam entering the proceaa)

- (enthalpy of proceaa c:ondcnsatc returning to plant)

,., - 69.73

he

0.016136(3500 - 1)144
778.16

69.73

+ 10.45

SO.18

heat added to plant (in COlI, nuclear fuel, etc.)

For separate generation

of electricity and steam, the beat added per unit total

energy output is

6w... - (1422.20 - 254.5) + (1525.3 - 1336.3)

71,

+ 189 + 515.7 - 10.45

.. 872.4 - 10.45

861.95

Btullb ..

+ (h, - h2l + (h, - h.)

1342.02 + 270.8 + 219.3 = 1831.92 Btullb..

qA -= (hi - hi)

!... +

(1555.4 - 1039.7) - 10.45

167.7

(2-29)

E - electric energy geocrated

1lH. -

_ 69 73

E + 411.
C2A

Is - 1.8603

hs - 1555.4
16 -

73.

where

WR = ~=
872.41

E
(E+IlHJ

.". - electric plant efficiency

7JA - steam (or beat) gcuentor efficieocy
The combined efficiency 1Jc for leparau generation is therefore given by
1Jc

0.4705

71ft

electrical fraction of total energy output ...

Therefore
861.95
".., "" 1831.92

(I-e)

1
(el.".) + [(1 _ e)l~

and cogeneration il beneficial if the efficiency of the cogeneration

exceeds that of separate generation, Eq. (2-30).

(2-30)
plant Eq. (2-29)

0.9880

The efficiency, of course, would be further improved by the addition of feedwatcr

heaters. This example is listed as cycle I in Table 2-2.

Types of Cogeneration
There are two broad categories of cogeneration:

cycu.

2-lS Coaeaeration
Cogeneration is the simultaneOUS generation of electricity and steam (or beat) in a
lingle powerplant. It bas long been used by industries and municipalities that need

1. The lopping
in which primary heat at the higher leanperatuie end of the
Rankine cycle is used to genetate high-pressure and -temperature steam and electricity in the usual DUIJIDCI'. Depeoc:Iog on process requirements, process steam at
low-pressure and temperature is either (a) extracted from the turbine at an intermediate stage, much as for feedwatcr heating, or (b) taken at the turbine exbaUat,

 74

11111RANXINB CYa.E

POWIIRJ'LANI'TBCHNOLOGY

75

!
in whicb case it is called a back pressure turbine. Process steam pressure requirements vary widely. between 0.5 and 40 bar.
2. The bottoming cycle, in which primary beat is used at high tcmperatuIe directly
for process ~uirements.
An example is the high-temperature cement Idln. The
process low-grade (low temperature and availability) waste beat is then used to
geacrate electricity. obviously at low efficiency. The bottoming cycle thus bas a
combined efficiency that most certainly lies below tbat given by Eq. (2-30). and
therefore is of little tbemlodynamic or economic intelest.
Only the topping cycle. therefore, can provide uue savings in primary energy.
In addition. most process applications require low grade (temperature, availability)
steam. Such steam is conveniently produced in a topping cycle. 1'bcre are several
arrangements for cogeneration in a topping cycle. Some are:
(a) Steam-electric powerplant with a back-pressure turbine.
(b) Steam-electric powerplant with steam extraction from a condensing turbine
(Fig. 2-27).
(c) Gas-turbine powerplant with a heat-recovery boiler (using the gas turbine exhaust to generate steam).
(d) Combined steam-gas-turbine cycle powerplant (Sees. 8-8 and 8-9). 1be steam
turbine is either of the back-pressure type (a) or of the extractioo-condeosing
type (b). above.
The most suitable electric-to-heat generation ratios vary from type to type. The
back-pressure steam turbine plant (a) is most suitable only when the electric demand
is low compared with the beat demand. The combined-cycle plant (d) is most suitable
only when tbe electric demand is bigh, about comparable to the beat demand or higher.
though its range is wider with an extraction-condeosing steam turbine than with a
back-pressure turbine. The gas-turbine cycle (c) lies in between. Only tbe extractioncondensing plant (b) is suitable over a wide range of ratios.

Economics of Cogeneration
A ~vately or municipally owned cogeneration plant is advisable from an cc:onomic
~~t of view ~ ~.cost of electricity geo~
by it is less than if purchased from a .
utility. ~ a utility IS DOt available, cogeneration becomes necessary, imspective of
ecooooucs.) In general, very low fractions of electric to total energy are DOt ~
ecooomical for cogeneration.
Since ~ main incentive of cogencratioo is process steam (or beat), the economics
of cogeneration are sharply influenced by the additional cost of generating electricity.
Powerplant costs are of two kinds: capital costs and production costs. CapiIDJ
costs ~ given in total dollars or as llllit ctlpital costs in dollars per ldlowatt net.
~ctiOD.
costs are calculated annually, or more hqucotly if desired, and given in
mills per kilowatt hour. A mill is one one-thousandth of a United States dollar. Capital
costs determine whether a given utility or industry is sound enough to obtain financing
and thus able to pay the fixed charges against these costs. Protbu:tion costs are the
true measure of the cost of power generated. They are composed of:

a. The fixed charges against

the capital
b. The fuel costs
c. Operation and maintenance costs

costs

all in mills per ldlowatt hour. They are therefore given by:
Production costs

(a+b+c) S spent per period x 1()3

KWh (net) generated during same period

total

(2-31)

where tbe period is usually taken as one year.

~~ a congeneration plant, it is important to calculate the production costs of
el~lty
as an excess. ~ver the generating cost of steam alone, and to compare it
~Ith the cost of electricity when purchased from a utility. It is now necessary to
mtroduce the plant operating factor POF. defined for all plants as
POF

total net energy generated by plant during a peri~ of time

rated net energy capacity of plant during same period

(2-32)

where the period is again usually taken as one year. For estimation purposes. it is
~
to take POF = 0.80. A plant operating with POF - 0.8 is the same as if
It operated only at rated capacity for 80 percent of the time or for 0.8(365 x 24)
7008 bIyr, which is usually rounded out to 7000 bIyr.
The excess cost of electricity for a cogeneration plant may DOW be obtained from

EJcdric: cost - [(C...-C.)r

+ (OM..,-OM,J
+ (F...-FIII)

7:

P millslkWb

C - capital costs, S

fI&ure

2-27 Scbematic of basic

COgenemiOD

plant with exttaction-coodensin&

turbine.

r - annual fixed charges against the capital cost. fraction of C

(2-33)

nIB ltANKINII CYCLB 77

76

POWIIIU'LANT TECHNOLOOY

annual fuel costs, Slyr

electric plant net power rating, leW

receives bled steam at !be ....

pnasure. 1be bI&b- aDd low1JllUUle
IIIIbiae secca. bave polytropic efIicieacies of 92 IIId 90 pen:al, respectively. 1be pIIIIp ... a poIyInIpic
efIcieacy 0.75. CalcuJate (II) !be mass flow nre saeam at tudIiDe iaIet in kilopams per"'-',
(b)
!be cyc1e efBcieDcy, IDII (c) !be cyc1e work ratio. U. TDD - - urc.
2-11 All ideal RaIIkine cyc1e operates with tudIiDe iaIet aieam at 90 bar IIId 500"C, aDd a CCIIIIlea.IIIIIpenIIIre of 4O"C. CalcuJate !be efIicieDcy aDd work ratio of Ibis cyc1e for !be followiDa _
(II) 110
feedwater bealiD&. (b) 0lIl open-type feedwater heater, (c) one closed-type feedWller beater with drains
cucaded back 10 the coadeuer, aDd (II) 0lIl closed fecdwater beater with drains pumped forwud. III each
case !be fecdwater beater II optimally placed. U. TDD - 2.S-C.
2-12 A superbeated DDDideal saeam cycJe operates with iD1et IIieaID at 2400 pIia IJId lOOO"PaDd COIIdcusea
J pIia. It bas ave feedwater beaters. all optimally placed. AIIwne the polytnlpic: efBdeacieI of !be
turbiDe secca. befoR. betweeo, and after the bleed points to be all the same IDII equal to 0.90. CalcuJate
(II) the specilic: adlIaIpieI of !be extnclioa steam 10 each feedwater beater, in BIUI per pound _1JId (b)
!be tudIiDe ovcra1l polytropic efBcieDcy; aDd (c) acimate the termiual temperaIure cliffamce for each
feedwater beater.
2-13 All S50-MW RaDkiae cyc1e operates with turbine iD1et IIeIm at 1200 pala IJId lOOO"PIJId coadeuser
presaure at J psia. There are three feedwater beaten pIIICed optimally as followl: (II) !be hiah-presaure
beater is of !be closed type with drains cUCIded backward; (b) !be inlenDediate-pnuure heater is of !be
opeu type; (c) the low-pnuure beater is of the closed type with draiDI pumped forwmI. Each of !be turbine
secca. have !be same po1ytnIpic eflicieDcy of 90 pen:eIII. 1be pumpI bave polytropic efIIcieDcies of 80
pen:eIII. Calc:ulate (II) !be mass flow rate at the turbine iaIet in pouDd mass per bour, (b) the _
Bow rail:
10 the coadeuer, (c) the _
Bow rate of !be coadeDIer cooIiDa water. ill pouad mass per bour. if It
lIIIdaJoes a 2S"F tempcnIIIIe rise, (II) the cycJe effic:ieDcy, aDd (e) the cycJe bell rare, in BIUI per kiIowaU
hour.
2-14 If the RaDkiae cyc1e is to be used in outer spe, beatmjectioa can be done only by tbermal radiatioII
10 apace whicb bas aD effeccive temperature of 0 absolute. To reduce the size aDd mass aad beace liftina
weipt of the coadeuer, coaden .. tion bas 10 be at temperatures much hi&bcr tbaa those used ill laad-basecl
RaDkiae cyc1es. CondenaiDl temperaIureI of 1000 to I5OO"F are considered. These are hi&bcr thaD the
c:ridcal temperature of WIler. This a1so _
a much hi&bcr IIIIbiae iDIet temperaIure. Tbua a liquid mecal
such .. sodium IIIIIIt be used !be workiD& ftuid. Coasider a JOO-ItW (tbermal) RaDkiae cyc1e IIIiDa
IOdiam, openIiD& with 24.692 pIia aad 24OO"R mum VIIpOf turbiDe iaIet IIId c:ondenUDI at J5OO"R.
1be tudIiDe IIId pump poJytnJpic efIIcieDcies are 0.85 aDd 0.65. respectively. For 110 feed beaters IIId
1pariDa pnuure cInIpI, c:ak:ulaIe (a) the cyc1e eftIcleacy IDd (6) the beat trIIIIfer ..
of the coadetIIerndiator if It ... aD ovcra1l beat IIUIfer coefIIcieat of 5 Btu1ft2 b "F.
2-15 CalcuJate the posa beat rate. in BIUI per kilowatt bour, aDd the poll etIIciency of !be POwelJllaat
abown in FIJ. 2-20.
2-1' A JOO-MW (thermal) binuy-vapClr cycle uses .. turated metQIry vapor at J6OO"R.at the top turbine
iaIet.1'be tDeICUI"y COIIdcusea at lOOO"R in a men:ury-coodenser-tfeailcr
ill which saturaIed IIeIm II
pnenred 400 pIia. It is furtber superbeated to II6O"R in !be men:ury-boiler-lfellll IUperbealer. 1be
steam COIIdcusea at 1 pIia. Aasume both men:ury aDd steam cyc1es 10 be ideal. IDII iporiDa the pump work
(a) draw flow aDd T-s cIia&rama of the binary cyc1e IIUIIIberiDa poiDU COlI'espc""tlnaly, (b) c:ak:ulaIe the
...
IIow raIeI of men:ury aDd 1IeaIII, aDd (c) c:aJcuIUe !be boat added aDd belt JWjec:Ied, ill BIUI per bour.
CIICIIdcd back 10 !be ~

OM - annual operation and maintenance costs, Slyr

and proc:eaa heat plants, respectively.

Cogeneration plants, built mosdy by industries or munici~ities,
~ s~er
than
utility electric-generating
plants and therefore tend to have higher umt caPital and
operating costs. They have not usually been cons~~
for. operation with. coal or
nuclear energy as a primal)' heat source, though this pICture 11 slowly changing.

and the subscripts co and h indicate cogeneration

PROBLEMS
2-1 A limple ideal IIlU1'ated RaDkine cycle turbine receives 12S tws of ste~ at 3OO"C and c:ondenIes al
4O"C. Calcu1alC (II) the net cycle power, in meaawatts, and (b) the cycle effiaency.
2-2 A IimpIe aonicIeaIlIlU1'ated Rankine cycle turbine receives 12S twa of steam at. 300"C. aacI. condeIIses
at 4O"C (same coaditioas as frob. 2-1). This cyc1e bas turbine and pump polylrOplC effic:icDcies of 0.88
aad 0.75, mpeclively, II1II a toCal pressure drop in the feedWller line aad steam paerator of JO bIr.
Calculate (II) !be net cyc1e power, in mepwatts, II1II (b) !be cycle dIicieoey.
2-3 Analyze the Ideal Rankine cycle C in Table 2-2 if !be fcedwater heater is piKed at 100 psia.
2-4 eomp.re the iaIet steam mass II1II volume flow rates in pound mass per secoad aad ~
feet per
aeconcl of (II) a roail-fuel powerplanl turbine havilll a polytrOpic efIicicIIcy of 0.90 II1II -VIllI steam
at 2400 plia II1II JOOO"F and (b) a noclelr POwelJllant turbine havina a polytrOpic efficiency of O.~ aad
receiviDa saturated steam at 1000 psia. Each turbine produces 1000 mepwatts, aad exbausts to I pili.
2-5 To reduce the volume Row rate II1II beace turbine physical size. powerplaDts tbat operate with low
iDitia11e111pe111U1e WIler as abeatllOUlCe, locb as _
types ofpothermal (ClIp. 12)
teIIIpCIIIUIe
-u coavenioa, OTEC (Chap. 15), powerp1aats, use wortina ftuidI ocher thaD saeam, such .. ~
12, 1IIIIIIOIIia, aad 1JIOPIDe. CompIre the mass Row rates, pound mass per hour, volume IIow raIeI, cubic
feet per aeconcl, IIIdboiler and c:oocIenser pnssures of (II) F_J2, (b) 1JIOPIDe, aDd (c) 1IeaIII, if all
cyc1es operate with adiabatic reversible turbiaeI tbat receive saturIIeCl vapor at 2OO'F aDd coodeIIIe at 7O"F.
aDd each produces JOOtW.
U In frob. 25, why do !be cycles operate with .. turated vapor?
2-7 Conalder three ~deaI
.. turated Rankine cycles operatina between 200 and 7O"F usina Freon-12,
1JIOPIDe, ancIaream II workina fluids. Each has turbine and pump polytropic eflic:ieoc:iesof 85 and 65
pen:ent, mpeclively, and produces net work of 100 tW. Calculate (II) !be mass flow rate in pound mass
per hour, (b) the volume Bow rate in cubic feet per sec:ond, (c) !be bell added, in BIUI per hour, aDd (II)
!be cyc1e efficieDcy.
U Consider an Ideal saturated steam Rankine cycle with perfect reaeneration (FIJ 2-1 J) operaIina betweeII
1000 aDd 1.0 pIia. Neslcctins pump wort, calculate (II) !be quality of !be turbine exhaust scam, (~) the
turbine work In Btus per pound mass, (c) the beat added in BtUI per pound mass,lJId (II) the cycle e~.
Compile thai efficiency to that of a limilar cycle but without reaeneration, and a Carnot cycle, all operatlllS
between the same temperature limits.
2-9 Compere the net works, in BtUi per pound mill, and efficiencies of two ideal .. turated Rankine cycles
usiD& Freon- J2 II a workiOS fluid and operatina between 200 IJId 72"F. One cycle has 110 feed beaten aad
the ocher bas one opeo-type feed heater pIIICed optimally. Wby is feed bealiaa not usually resorted to ill
IUCb cycles?
2-1. A RaakiDe cyc1e with iaIet steam at 90 bar IJId 50IrC IJId c:ondensatim. 4O"C produces 500 MW.
It ... 0lIl IIIap of rebeal, optimally pIIICed, back to 500"C. One fecdwater of !be closed type with drains

_OCCIII

aDd the cycle etIIc:ieDcy.

2-17 All Idvanc:ed-type supercritical pOwerpIaat has turbine iaIet aream at 7000 pIia aDd J4OO"F, double
reheat at J600 psia aDd 400 pala, both to 12OO"F, and COIICIenser at I pIia. The three turbine ICCIioaa have
polytropic eflicieaciel of 0.93, 0.91, and 0.89 ill order of clelcelldiDa presaum. The pump has. polyttOpic
etIIcieacy of 0.75. 1be plaat receives one unit trIia of coal claily, which II composed of 100 cars curyiDa
JlO IIbort toaI each. 1be coal bas a bealiD& value of J1 ,000 Bllllllb.. 1be turbiDe-paerator combiDed
mec:baaicalllld
e1ectrical efIic:ieocy II 0.90. 1be
efIicieDcy is 0.87. 8 pen:ent of the poll
0UIpIt is used to IUD pilat auxiliaries. 1poriDa, for limplicity. a11 ........
1ine pnuure cIropI aDd all feedwater
beaIIen, caJcuJate (II) the pIIIII poll aDd Del OUIpUtI, ill mepwatts, (b) the pIaat cycle, poll aDd Del
etIIc:icacies, aad (c) the cyc1e, aDd IIatioa poll aDd net beat rates, ia BIUI per kIIowaIl hour.

steam-aeneraror