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org/ at University of the West Indies on February 1, 2015

Hydrocarbons in crystalline rocks: an introduction

NICK PETFORD 1 & KEN McCAFFREY 2

1Centre for Earth and Environmental Science Research, Kingston University,

Kingston, KT1 2EE, UK
2Department o f Geological Sciences, University of Durham, Durham DH1 3LE, UK
Commercial oil deposits in basement rocks are not geological 'accidents' but are oil accumulations which obey all the rules ofoil sourcing migration and entrapment; therefore in areas
of not too deep basement, oil deposits within basement rocks should be explored with the
same professional skill and zeal as accumulations in the overlying sediments. Landes et aL
(1960), American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin

Oil and gas fields in crystalline basement are

discovered mostly by accident, usually when the
welt operator notices hydrocarbon shows and
tests the welt. However, as shown in this book,
such reservoirs can be very prolific, especially if
the basement rock is highly faulted or fractured
(the Bach-Ho fractured granite reservoir, Vietnam, produced some 130,000BOPD). The
standard definition of crystalline basement by
petroleum geologists is any metamorphic or
igneous rock unconformably overJain by a sedimentary sequence. However, crystalline rocks
need not be metamorphosed, nor significantly
older than their sedimentary cover. Perhaps for
a more appropriate definition of crystalline basemerit, we must again look to Lartdes et al. (t 960):
'the only major difference between basement
rock and the overlying sedimentary rock oil
deposits is that in the former case the original
oil-yielding formation (source rock) cannot
underlie the reservoir'. As such, further expMration involving geological, geochemical and geophysical studies may lead to a sign~cant
revision of the defirfifion and nataare of basement
rocks in a particular area, with the possibility of
discovering hydrocarbon source rocks located
stratigraphically
within
rocks
previously
regarded as basement. Examples of where
hydrocarbons have migrated into older porous
metamorphic or igneous rocks to form a basement reservoir include the volcanic reservoirs of
Japan, the oil fields of Mexico and the Maracaibo Basin of Venezuela (see Sehutter 2003).
Although still often dismissed as exotic curios,
this may be a mistake. A case m point (discussed
in Koning 2003) is the Suban field, southern
Sumatra. Prior to its discovery, the search for
oil was confined to structural highs in Tertiary
sediments. While a number of wells were drilled
into basement in order to tie the top of basement
into seismic data, it was presumably not thought
worthwhile to investigate the basement itself for
hydrocarbons, it was not until 1999 that Gulf

penetrated sufficiently deeply to discover the

giant Suban gas field where hydrocarbons were
found in the basement rocks. Transient heat
from igneous rocks can also contribute to the
maturation process in sediments that have been
heated rapidly by magmatic intrusion (e.g.
Saxby & Stephenson 1987; Stagpoole & FunnelI
200I; Schutter 2003), making excellent cap rocks
(Chert et at. 1999).
The moral here must be that the explorationisfs definition of basement rock needs to be
less narrow and more responsive to new geological ideas and data (e.g. Lamb I997).
Indeed, under the right conditions, igneous
rocks, either as volcanic extrusive, or high-level
intrusions, come as a package of heat source
and reservoir rock combined. It is for these
reasons that we believe crystalline basement
comprising igneous rocks, and their potential
for hydrocarbon reservoirs, is deserving of indepth study. The purpose of this book is to
encourage further work in this ,4Jrection.
Crystalline basement and inorganic
hydrocarbons
While the majority of natural hydrocarbons form
through thermal decomposition of orgamc
material and associated microbial processes,
some authors have argued that their presence in
crystalline rocks is proof that all hydrocarbons
are non-biogenic in origin (e.g. Gold 1998).
AdmittedIy, the idea that abiogenic hydrocarbons contribute significantly to global hydro.
carbon reservoirs has proved hard to challenge,
due to uncertainties in carbon isotopic signatures
between both groups. However, a recent study
by Sherwood Lollar et al. (2002) has shown
conclusively that (abiogenic) hydrocarbons in
crystalline rocks from the Canadian Shield
differ significantly in isotopic composition from
therrnogenic hydrocarbons, effectively ruling

From: PEa'I~RD,N. & MCCAF~.EY, K. J. W. (eds) 2003. Hydrocarbons in Crystalline Rocks. Geological Society,
London, Specia~ Publications, 214, t-5. 0305-8719/03/$15 9 The Geological Society of London.

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N. PETFORD & K. McCAFFREY

out abiogenic hydrocarbons as a major source of

oil and gas. Hydrocarbons do form inorganically
via Fischer-Tropsch reactions (Anderson 1984),
but only in relatively small amounts. However,
the geological conditions required to promote
such reactions (cooling of magma and hydrothermal systems) can result in significant alteration
(e.g. serpentinization) of the host rocks, leading
to the formation of a secondary porosity that
may provide important migration pathways.
Further detailed study of these processes may
also help improve our understanding of the relationship between metals (notably U, Pb-Zn, Au,
Hg and Mo) and hydrocarbons.

Thermogenic/organic hydrocarbons in
igneous rocks
Hydrocarbons have been discovered in association with many different types of igneous rocks
(e.g. Powers 1932). Figure 1 shows a breakdown
of lithologies in which hydrocarbon deposits
have been described from around the world,
based on the compilation provided by Schutter
(2003). While not all are of economic value, the

data reveal that volcanic rocks (basalts, andesites

and rhyolites) appear most closely associated
with hydrocarbons, despite the fact that most
large scale production is currently from granitic
and associated plutonic rocks. Unfortunately,
there are still insufficient data to be able to
conclude whether hydrocarbons occur in some
igneous rocks simply because of post-emplacement migration, or if there is something inherent
in magma composition that results in preferential
accumulation.
Since most hydrocarbon systems begin outside
crystalline rock, this requires hydrocarbons in
the adjacent sediments. Any distinction between
hydrocarbons around, as well as within, igneous
rocks is thus arbitrary, and exploration for
hydrocarbons in igneous rocks may well create
opportunities in the adjacent sediments. A case
in point is the Athabasca tar sands, Canada,
where the operator Uranium Power Corporation
plans to re-enter a c. 1,770 m well on the western
outskirts of Fort McMurray. Drilled originally
in 1994 and considered the first North American
well to target Precambrian granite as a potential
hydrocarbon reservoir, the original effort stalled
due to lack of funds. Oil is currently believed to

Fig. 1. The distribution of hydrocarbons in and around igneous rocks according to lithology (from Schutter
2003, Table 1). The highest reported occurrences are in basalts, followed by andesite and rhyolite tufts and
lavas. Although volcanic rocks in this survey constitute close to three-quarters of all hydrocarbon-bearing
lithotypes, the majority of production and global reserves appears to be confined predominantly to fractured
and weathered granitic rocks. A compilation of hydrocarbon production from fractured basement reservoirs
can also be found at http://www.geoscience.co.uk/.

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INTRODUCTION
be trapped in fractures in the granite (Oil & Gas
Journal Online 2002). More exotically, impact
structures in basement (and sedimentary) cover
may hold giant field potential. Of the 17 confirmed impact structures occurring in petroliferous areas of North America, nine are being
exploited for commercial hydrocarbons. Production comes from impact-affected granites, as well
as carbonate rocks and sandstones, yielding
between 30 b/d to over 2 million b/d of oil and
over 1.4 bcfd of gas. In some basins, the hydrocarbon systems occur beneath volcanic cover,
and as well as acting as reservoirs, the igneous
rocks may also provide the principal seals. For
example, in the Paran/t Basin of Brazil, one of
the principal potential trap systems are the laccoliths and sills beneath the flood basalts. Although
sub-basalt seismic imaging currently poses a
technical problem, fractured sills here have produced gas, and igneous activity played an important role in the maturation process. In another
example (the Phetchebun Basin, Thailand),
thermal maturation of lacustrine sediments has
resulted in a good sized (10 to c. 30 million
barrel) oil field, reservoired in dolerite and
sealed by lacustrine sediments, which were
preferentially intruded by the rising magma.
The laccolithic structure of the intrusion provides 'closure'. This is an excellent example of
ways in which crystalline rocks can contribute
significantly to hydrocarbon formation and
accumulation.

This volume
The 12 papers in this volume cover a diverse
range of topics related broadly to the theme of
hydrocarbons in crystalline rocks.
The first set of papers are reviews that help to
set the scene for some of the more processoriented studies that follow. Schutter provides
two timely and extremely thorough contributions on hydrocarbons in igneous rocks. His
primary objective is to show that hydrocarbons
in and around igneous rocks are not isolated
anomalies, but rather are sufficiently common
and orderly that exploration can be done systematically, and included in a regional exploration
plan. The problem often is trying to convince
those who control the finances to be less riskadverse. A companion paper provides a broad
data base identifying many of the known occurrences of hydrocarbons in and around igneous
rocks. There may be more than you think! in a
short contribution, Magara reviews the main
Japanese oil producing areas that lie on the
Japan Sea side of Honshu island. Although the

total reserve here is small and production supplies only three-tenths of a percent of total
Japanese oil consumption, the main reservoir
rocks are volcanic and primary oil and gas
migration seems to have taken place downward
from the overlying source rocks. Marine volcanic
activity since 15 Ma formed the main reservoir
sections along with significant secondary porosity development. Thick and continuous deposition of organic-rich shales and mudstones
followed and lower parts of these fine-grained
rocks became the main source rocks. Koning continues in a similar vein, showing that basement
rocks are important oil and gas reservoirs in
various areas around the world. Such reservoirs
include fractured or weathered granites, quartzites and other metamorphic rocks. In the
USA, basement-derived oil production occurs
in a number of areas, including California (Wilmington and Edison fields), Kansas (El Dorado
and Orth fields) and Texas (Apco field). In SE
Asia, basement reservoirs are the main contributor of oil production in Vietnam. Although
in Indonesia, hydrocarbon production from
basement rocks to date has been minimal, the
recent large gas discovery in pre-Tertiary fractured granites in southern Sumatra has led to a
focusing of exploration in basement reservoirs.
Major oil production has also been obtained
from basement reservoirs in the La Paz and
Mara oil fields in Venezuela. He ends by summarizing some of the lessons learnt by companies
operating in crystalline basement.
Petford reviews some of the processes contributing to the development of primary porosity
in igneous rocks due to the cooling and crystallization of magma. A distinction is made between
volcanic and plutonic rocks, and crystalline and
granular volcanic material. The porosity in each
rock type is classified according to a proposed
effective length scale and geometry into diffusive
(Class D) and macroscopic flow (Class F) features. Some types of primary poromty m igneous
rocks are strongly time- and scale-dependent due
to thermal effects associated with the emplacement of magmas. Tectonic reworking of the
primary petrophysical properties of basementforming igneous rocks may be significant in the
development of regions of anisotropy and
enhanced permeability. McCaffrey et al. provide
a quantitative description of fracture attributes
from one-dimensional samples across exposures
of typical crystalline rocks. Vein thickness and
fracture aperture data show predominantly
power-law distributions, while vein and fracture
spacing data are best described by exponential
distributions with negative slopes, and appear
to vary with composition in intrusive rocks. The

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N. PETFORD & K. McCAFFREY

fracture systems exhibit a range of anfi-e|ustered

to clustered patterns and densities are an order of
magnitude higher for joints compared to veins.
They show that thermal stress-related joint patterns are distinguishable from tectonic-related
fractures in platonic rocks, and that fracture
density and clustering increases towards a major
reactivated basement fault. Ogilvie ~ a/, provide
a charaetefi~tion of the rough surfaces of frarctures and their resulting apertures as a n important step toward an improved understanding of
the factors controlling fluid flow in crystalline
rocks. Significantly, their tests have allowed the
standard deviation of surface asperity heights,
the fractal dimension and the matching parameters to be related to the resulting aperture of
the fractures.
Kaenders & Petford present the results of an
analytical study of the mechanical effects associated with the emplacement and cooling of a
magma body in the continental crust. The
temperature and subsequent strain fields as a
function of both position and time are calculated,
with the latter providing information on the
primary (cooling-related) fracture formation
pattern and direction within and immediately
surrounding the intrusion. Large strain jumps
across the intrusion-country rock contact suggest
that fracture formation will be maximized at the
edges and comers of the intrusion. Low predicted
,strains and assumed low fracture connectivity in
the centre of the intrusion imply that deformation
associated with emplacement, or later tectonic
motions, may be important in improving reservoir quality by providing enhanced fracture
connectivity within the rock mass.
Potter & Kommeru~Madsen discuss the presence of hydrocarbons in igneous rocks, showing
that while most occurrences are due to the incorporation of organic material into the magmatic
system, hydrocarbons formed by inorganic processes may not be as rare as previously thought
and may have implications for natural gas
resources in the future. This paper reviews these
occurrences and the models proposed for the
generation of these hydrocarbons, concluding
that the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis of hydrocarbons in igneous rocks seems to be a more
applicable model for a wide variety of igneous
rock types. While not dealing explicitly with
hydrocarbons in crystalline rocks, the paper by
PsyrHios et al, explores the important relationship between fluid flow, regional tectonics and
hydrothermat alteration in granitic rocks, and
complements similar studies of hydrocarbon
migration in granitoid basement. They propose
a new genetic model for the formation of the St
Austell kaolin deposits in southwestern England,

showing from fluid inclusion evidence that the

kaotinizafion is a low-temperature hydrothermal
event (50-100 ~ coincident with the oil generation window. The kaolinization appears contemporary with a major period of uplift that
affected the Cornubian Massif as a consequence
of offshore rifting. The most plausible fluid
types for the kaolinization are either basinal
brines expelled from Permo-Triassic sediments,
or highly evolved meteoric w a t e r s that circulated
through the sediments enclosing the pluton. The
kaolinization process converted large volumes
of fractured granite to a porous quartz-kaolin
rock matrix. Degtma e~ aL provide an important
crossover into the hydrogeology of lowpermeability, fractured rocks. For over 20
years, intensive efforts have been underway in a
number of countries to find suitable locations
for underground repositories for the disposal of
radioactive wastes. Such investigations have
concentrated on characterizing fluid flow in
low-permeability rocks, and the potential for
developing and applying a breakcross-industry
understanding is clear. The article summarizes
the results of an eight-year study by Nirex on
the detailed groundwater flow properties of a
rock volume near Sellafield, northwestern England, as part of a site characterization programme
to determine whether the site was suitab|e as
a deep repository for radioactive wastes, The
investigations showed that groundwater flow
occurred predominantly through a limited
subset of fractures, parts of which formed networks of connected channels referred to collectively as Potential Flowing Features 0PFEs).
These authors show how the detailed information
about the geometrical and hydrogeological
properties of the PFFs was used to calculate the
upscaled effective parameters that are required
for regional-scale flow calculations and to determine the uncertainties associated with the
upscated parameters.
Finally, Saaders et aL use observations :from an
extensional basin in Vietnam to simulate and
analyse fracture systems typical of crystalline
basement in such structural settings. Information
from field observations, seismic surveys and
three-dimensional structural modelling were
integrated and used to build geologically realistic
three-dimensional fracture networks. Their
results suggest that during flexural uplift, the
hanging wall is deformed significantly, containing fracture populations related to kinematic
hanging wall deformation, flexural isostatic
uplift and primary (cooling-related) fractures.
In contrast, the footwatl blocks will probably
only host primary fractures. Their study brings
together many important aspects set out in

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INTRODUCTION
previous chapters (fracture density studies, surface roughness~ fluid flow a n d knowledge o f primary joint setsL and highlights the importance
o f a multidisciplinary a p p r o a c h where a p r o p e r
characterization o f f r a c t u r e d basement is needed.
We would like to thank S. Sehutter, T. Koning, S.
Bergman and P. Degnan fNIREX) for helpful
correspondence and guidance regarding the industry
perspective on hydrocarbon exploration in crystalline
rocks. R. Swat'brick and J. Turner are thanked for a
careful reading of the manuscript.

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