II.

Characterize Selected Glands

! Hypothalamus
! Pituitary gland
! Growth Hormone

! Thyroid gland
! Parathyroid glands
! Adrenal glands
! Pancreas
! Gonads
! Pineal Gland

! Location
! Anatomy/Histology
! Regulation
!Hormonal, humoral,

nervous
! Hormones
! Functions
!Target cell & actions
on target cells
! Diseases
(homeostatic imbalances)

49

Characterize the
hypothalamus gland:
! Master
endocrine gland
(along w/
pituitary)

! Location
! Functions
! Hypophyseal
portal system

50

Hypothalamus:
Master Controller
of Endocrine
System
! Hypothalamus secretes regulatory (releasing) hormones
that travel through the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal
system to the anterior pituitary and release

! Tropic (stimulating) hormones from the anterior pituitary

that travel in the general circulation to other glands in the

body and stimulate

! The secretion of hormones from those glands.

! Hypothalamus " anterior pituitary " glands in body

Hypothalamus " anterior pituitary " glands in body

Hypothalamus

Regulatory hormones of hypothalamus

Tropic hormones of anterior pituitary

Releasing hormones: TRH, PRH, GnRH, CRH, GHRH

Inhibiting hormones: PIH, GIH
Infundibulum

Anterior pituitary

Posterior pituitary

Muscle
TSH

Thyroid-stimulating hormone
(TSH) stimulates thyroid gland
to release thyroid hormone.

Growth hormone (GH) acts on all

body tissues, especially cartilage,
bone, muscle, and adipose
connective tissue to stimulate growth.

GH

Thyroid

Bone

PRL

Adipose
connective tissue

Mammary gland
Adrenal cortex
Prolactin (PRL) acts on mammary
glands to stimulate milk production.

ACTH
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
acts on the adrenal cortex to cause
release of corticosteroids
(e.g., cortisol).

FSH and LH

Adrenal gland

Fig. 17.14 p. 671

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

and luteinizing hormone (LH) act on
gonads (testes and ovaries) to stimulate
development of gametes (sperm and oocyte).
Testis

Ovary

Names & functions of hormones

produced by the hypothalamus:

Table 17.3 p. 670

53

Characterize the pituitary gland:

! Anatomy
! Infundibulum

! 2 Lobes/3 Sections:
! Anterior pituitary
(adenohypophysis)

! Posterior pituitary
(neurohypophysis)

! Intermedia

54

55

Name & Function of Adenohypophyseal

(Anterior Pituitary) hormones:
! HM of anterior pituitary controlled by releasing or
inhibiting HM produced by hypothalamus

-TSH

Hormone

Function

-PRL
-FSH
-LH
-ACTH
-GH
-MSH

Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)

Table 17.4 p. 672

stimulates synthesis of melanin and distribution of

melanocytes in skin (little effect in humans)

56

Mnemonic Device

Page 672

Discussion of Pituitary Hormone Effects

1. Growth Hormones effects on
multiple organ systems
2. posterior pituitary hormones
(ADH & oxytocin)
3. The effects of other anterior
pituitary hormones will be discussed
with the particular gland they effect.

Nutrient Metabolism is altered by

many hormones, including GH

Effects of anterior pituitary human growth

hormone & insulinlike growth factors:
! GH promotes secretion of Insulinlike Growth
Factors (IGFs)
! Indirect functions of GH via IGFs
!
!
!
!

target cells = liver, skeletal muscle, cartilage & bone

increases cell growth & division
stimulate lipolysis
retard use of glucose for ATP production

61

Metabolic action of GH:

62

Describe the
regulation of GH:
! Antagonistic hypothalamic
HM regulate GH
! GHRH stimulates GH
release
! GIH (aka GHIH) inhibits GH
release

! Hypoglycemia stimulates
release of GHRH from
hypothalamus
! Hyperglycemia & high levels
of GH/IGFs
! Inhibit GHRH & GH release
! Stimulate GIH release

What
Stimulates
GHRH
Secretion?

Growth hormone

Stimulation
Inhibition

STIMULUS
1 Variables that influence the release
of GHRH from the hypothalamus:
Age
Time of day
Nutrient levels in the blood
Stress and exercise

Good
Summary:
Fig. 17.15
on p. 674

Hypothalamus
1
2
RECEPTOR

GH
8 Increased levels of both GH
and IGF inhibit the release
of GHRH from the
hypothalamus; Increased
levels of GH also inhibits
the release of GH from the
anterior pituitary.

3
GHRH

IGF

GH

CONTROL CENTER

2 The hypothalamus
responds to various
stimuli.

3 The hypothalamus releases

growth hormonereleasing
hormone (GHRH) into the
hypothalamo-hypophyseal
portal system.

In response to GHRH, the anterior pituitary

releases growth hormone (GH).

GH stimulates hepatocytes to release

insulin-like growth factor (IGF) into the
blood.

Both GH and IGF stimulate target

cells (effectors).

4 GH
GH

NET EFFECT
7

Liver

Increased protein synthesis,

mitosis, and cell
differentiationespecially in
cartilage, bone, and
muscle; release of stored
nutrients into the blood.

Hepatocytes

IGF

Glycerol
Fatty acids

Glucose
Amino acids

GH

Bone

Muscle

IGF

EFFECTORS: Effectors respond to

GH and/or IGF in the following ways:
All cells

Increased growth
Increased amino acid uptake which results in protein synthesis
Stimulated mitosis

Liver tissue

Adipose connective
tissue

Increased glycogenolysis
and gluconeogenesis

Increased lipolysis

Decreased glycogenesis

Decreased lipogenesis

Cell differentiation

What are the effects of excess

growth hormone?
! Diabetogenic effect of GH

66

Clinical
Applications:

Jyoti Amge Smallest girl in the world

! Hyposecretion hGH
! childhood = Hypopituitary
dwarfism

! Hypersecretion hGH
! childhood = giantism
! adult = acromegaly

67

http://www.chauvet-translation.com/figures/Figure027.jpg

INTEGRATE
CLINICAL VIEW
Disorders of Growth Hormone Secretion

Pituitary dwarfism

Pituitary dwarfism is a
condition that exists at birth
as a result of inadequate
growth hormone production
due to a hypothalamic or
pituitary problem. Growth
retardation is typically not
evident until a child reaches
1 year of age, because the
influence of growth hormone
(GH) is minimal during the
first 6 to 12 months of life. In
addition to short stature,
children
with
pituitary
dwarfism often have periodic
low
blood
sugar
(hypoglycemia). Injections of
growth hormone over a
period of many years can
bring about improvement,
but not a normal
state.
Too much growth
hormone causes excessive
growth
and
leads
to
increased levels of blood
sugar.
Oversecretion
of
growth
hormone
in
childhood causes pituitary
gigantism.
Beyond
extraordinary
height
(sometimes up to 8 feet),
these people have enormous
internal organs, a large and
protruding
tongue,
and
significant problems with
blood glucose management.
If untreated, a pituitary giant
dies at a comparatively early
age,
often
from
complications of diabetes

leads to a protruding jaw (prognathism). Internal organs, especially

the
liver, increase in size, and increased release of glucose lead to the
development of diabetes in virtually everyone with acromegaly.
Acromegaly may result from loss of feedback control of growth
hormone at either the hypothalamic or pituitary level, or it may
develop because of a GH-secreting tumor of the pituitary. Removal
of the pituitary alleviates the effects of acromegaly, but this drastic
treatment results in the loss of all pituitary hormones.

Age 9

Age 16

Age 33

Age 52

or heart failure.
Gigantism

Excessive growth hormone production in an adult results in acromegaly. The

individual does not grow in height, but the bones of the face,
hands, and feet enlarge and widen (appositional growth),
along with growth in cartilage. An increase in mandible size

Acromegaly

Characterize the posterior pituitary gland

(neurohypophysis)
! Hypothalamohypophyseal tract
! Axon terminals of
hypothalamic
neurons

! No hormone
synthesis
! Stores/releases
ADH & oxytocin
69

Characterize
oxytocin:
! Two target tissues:
! Both involved in
neuroendocrine reflexes

! During delivery = uterus

! After delivery = breasts

70

Recall the function of antidiuretic

hormone (ADH) aka vasopressin
! decrease urine
production

! decrease sweating
! increase BP

71

Describe the
regulation of
ADH:
! ADH released when
blood osmotic pressure
is high (dehydration or
blood loss)

! ADH inhibited when

blood osmotic pressure
is low (increased blood
volume)

Clinical Application:
! Central or pituitary diabetes insipidus
! kidneys are unable to conserve water

! Etiology damage to hypothalamus or pituitary

! Sx excessive thirst & urination

74

Characterize the thyroid gland:

! Location
! 2 lobes either side of trachea
! Connected by isthmus

! Functions

75

Describe the
histology of
thyroid gland:
! Consists of follicles
! Follicular cells
! Thyroglobulin
! T3 & T4

! Parafollicular cells
! Calcitonin
76

Functions of T3 & T4
! Increase BMR (basal
!
!
!
!

metabolic rate)
Stimulate protein
synthesis
Increase use of glucose &
fatty acids for ATP
production
Heat production
Regulating tissue growth
# Developing skeletal &
nervous systems

Functions Calcitonin
! Parafollicular cells or C cells produce calcitonin
! peptide HM

! Lowers blood Ca2+ by inhibiting bone

resorption
! Inhibits osteoclast activity (& thus bone

resorption) & release of Ca+2 from bone

matrix
! Stimulates Ca+2 uptake & incorporation into
bone matrix
! Antagonist to parathyroid hormone (PTH)

Know Figure 17.18

Mechanism of
Thyroid
Hormone
Production
1 Low blood levels of T3

T3 & T4 Secretion
Regulation

and T3 or low metabolic

rate stimulate release of

! Hypothalamus secretes
TRH in response to
blood levels of T3 & T4

! TRH # secretion of TSH

Hypothalamus

TRH
TRH, carried
by hypophyseal
portal veins to
anterior pituitary,
stimulates
release of TSH
by thyrotrophs

5 Elevated

T3inhibits
release of
TRH and
TSH
(negative
feedback)

TSH

TSH released into

blood stimulates
thyroid follicular cells

Anterior
pituitary

4
Thyroid
follicle

T3 and T4
released into
blood by
follicular cells

from anterior pituitary

Actions of Thyroid Hormones:

! TSH stimulates
synthesis/secretion of
T3 & T4

Increase basal metabolic rate

Stimulate synthesis of Na+/K+ ATPase
Increase body temperature (calorigenic effect)
Stimulate protein synthesis
Increase the use of glucose and fatty acids for ATP production
Stimulate lipolysis

80
Enhance some actions of catecholamines
Regulate development and growth of nervous tissue and bones

Good
Summary
Figure
17.19

Clinical Application:
Thyroid Gland Disorders
! Hypothyroidism
! Congential # Cretinism
! Adult # Myxedema

82

Clinical Application:
Thyroid Gland Disorders
! Hyperthyroidism
(Graves disease)

! Goiter = enlarged
thyroid (dietary)

83

Page 678

Characterize the parathyroid glands:

! 4 glands embedded in
lobes of thyroid gland
! Chief (Principal) cells
! Oxyphil cells

85

Describe the mechanism of

action of PTH:
! Parathyroid hormone

(PTH) or parathormone
! Major regulator of Ca+2,

Mg, & phosphate ions in

blood
! Increases number &
activity of osteoclasts

! Elevates bone resorption

! Blood Ca+2 level directly

controls secretion of
both calcitonin & PTH
via (-) feedback

86

87

Parathyroid Hormones

Blood Calcium Regulation

Clinical Application:
Hyperparathyroidism
! Parathyroid adenoma #1 cause
! Serum calcium imbalance

90