SacredJourneys,DiasporicLives:SocialityandtheReligiousImagination

amongFilipinosintheMiddleEast.
MarkJohnson,ClaudiaLiebelt,DeirdreMcKay,AliciaPingolandPninaWerbner
ThePhilippinesisoneoftheleadinglabourexportingcountriesintheworld,andFilipino
migrantworkershavebeenwidelydispersedtolocalitiesintheMiddleEast,Europe,East
andSoutheastAsiaandNorthAmerica.Thereisnowasubstantialbodyofworkonthisvast
migratorymovement,muchofitfocusedonandcontributingtounderstandingthe
predicamentoffemaledomesticworkers(Constable2007,Parreas2001,Stasiulisand
Bakan2005,Tyner2004).Thisessaymovesbeyondthefocusoninequalitiesassociated
withFilipinomigrantlabour,toattendtothewaysthatthosemigrantstranscendtheir
isolationinworkcontextsbyseekingsocialitywithfellowFilipinosinreligious
congregations.Weask:howdoesreligionfigureinthesociallifeandimaginingsofdiasporic
Filipinos,theirmoralimaginingsandinscriptionsoffaithonsacredlandscapes?Thisis
particularlysignificantforChristianorMuslimmigrantsmovingtocountriesthatarealso
historicallyplacesofpilgrimageholytoChristianityorIslam.Hence,ourresearchfocused
onthesemigrantsexperiencesintheHolyLand,thebirthplaceofChristianity,andSaudi
Arabia,thebirthplaceofIslam.
FilipinosareoneofthelargestgroupsofmigrantsintheMiddleEast(numberingsome1.5
million),makingtheregionhometothelargestpopulationofoverseasFilipinosoutsideof
NorthAmerica.Whilethereismuchthatmightbesaidaboutthedifferencesamong
FilipinosandtheirvariedexperienceslivingandworkingindifferentMiddleEastcountries,
ouraimistohighlighthowattentiontoreligionandsocialityenablesustoreconceptualize
theexperiencesandagencyofloneFilipinowomen(andmen)withinthisdiaspora.1
OverseasFilipinoWorkersandtransnationalrelationsofreproduction
Filipinomigrants,womeninparticular,havepopularlyfiguredasmaidstoorder:people
wholeavethepovertyoftheirhomecountrytoworkasdomesticservantsinanother
countryinpursuitofabetterstandardoflivingforthemselvesandtheirfamilies.The

FirsthandempiricalresearchamongFilipinoslivingandworkingintheMiddleEastis

scarce.ResearchforthisprojectwasfundedbytheAHRC(UK)Diaspora,Migrationand
IdentityprogrammeandwascarriedoutbyateamofresearchersbasedattheUniversities
ofKeeleandHullunderthedirectionofPninaWerbnerandMarkJohnson.Themajorityof
theethnographicresearchwascarriedoutbytheprojectspostdoctoralfellows:Claudia
Liebelt(Keele)amongChristianFilipinomigrantsandtheirfamiliesinIsraelandthe
Philippines,andAliciaPingol(Hull)amongMuslimFilipinomigrantsandtheirfamiliesin
SaudiArabiaandthePhilippines.MarkJohnson(Hull)carriedoutadditionalethnographic
researchonMuslimFilipinomigrantswhohaveworkedintheMiddleEastwhileDeirdre
McKay(Keele)isconductingresearchwithChristianFilipinocareworkerswhohavemoved
onfromtheMiddleEasttoworkintheUK.

substantialbodyofresearchonthistopiccontextualizesandcomplicatesthatpopular
stereotypedescribingandtheorizingkeyfeaturesofthismajorformofpopulation
movementinthelate20thandearly21stcenturies.First,thisliteraturesituatesFilipino
migrantswithincapitalistdominatedlabourflowsanddistributionsofglobaleconomic
power.TheanalysishighlightsthegrowingdependenceofthePhilippines(andother
developingSouthernStates)onmigrantsremittances,arguingthatthestatecreatesand
thensuperexploitsafeminisedandunskilledmigrantworkforce(Parreas2001,Pertierra
1992,StasiulisandBakan2005,Weekly2004,c.f.Gibson,LawandMcKay2001).Second,it
explorescriticallythecomplexbureaucraticstructuresanddiscursivepracticesthathave
evolvedwithinandacrosssendingandreceivingstatestoensuretheproductionofsuch
compliantandselfdiscipliningsubjects.Bydocumentingtheassemblageofdiscoursesand
bureaucraciesgoverningdomesticworkermigration,thisliteraturehasexplainedhowthe
circumstancesoftheirlabourmigrationtendtonegateworkersindividualrightsandcurtail
theircapacitytoactcollectivelytochangetheirworkingconditions.Thoughattentivetothe
waythatFilipinosresisttheiroppressionthroughhiddentranscripts,theseFoucault
inspiredFeministcritiquesalsoemphasizethewaythateverydayactsofresistanceare
nonethelesscircumscribedbytheinternalizationoftheregulatoryidealsofthegood
foreign/nationalworker(Constable2007,Parreas2001,Tyner2004).Third,this
literaturedescribeshowbroaderstructuresofrace,genderandclassarereproducedin
everydayworkingpracticesandintimatespacesoftheemployershousehold.Itexplores
howtheincorporationofFilipinodomesticworkersintoaglobalsystemofreproductive
labourandcareworkcausesmigrantwomenfromrelativelypoorcountriestoassumethe
domesticandemotionallabourofmiddleclasswomeninmoreaffluentcountries.Migrants
ownchildren,inturn,areleftinthecareofhusbands,grandmothersandotherrelativesat
home,inthePhilippines,apatternoftenreproducedfromonegenerationtoanother,with
daughtersfollowingtheirmothersintooverseasmigration(Bakan1995,BakanandStasiulis
1997,Barber1997,Constable2007,Parreas2005,Pingol2001;forarecentcritiqueofthe
carechainliteraturefromtheperspectiveofFilipinomigrantsseeMcKay2007).
Thisdominantfocusonworkandlabourisundoubtedlyusefulforanunderstanding
ofFilipinomigrantsasalabourdiaspora,butitisfarfromsufficientasafullaccountof
Filipinomigrantlives.ArichlytexturedethnographicanalysisofaFilipinodiasporathat
givesvoicetomigrantcreativityandsocialitybeyondtheworkplacewithoutignoring
sufferingwithinitremainslargelymissingfromtheliterature.Moreover,thefocuson
migrantsworkconditionstendstoignorethefactthatdespitebeingdeniedcitizenship
manyFilipinosbecomelongtermresidentsinmanycountriesofdestination.Duringtheir
extendedstaytheydevelopcomplexculturalpracticesandnetworksofsociality.While
migrantsaffectiveandemotionallivesandmotivationsarenodoubtinflectedbyhighly
constrainingregimesofeconomic,institutionalanddisciplinarypower,theyareneither
reducibleto,norexhaustedbythem.Evenwhentheyfacecontinuouspredicamentsin

theirworkcontexts,Filipinosneverthelessfindwaysofcreatingspacesforsocialisingand
celebrationthatdenytheirimageasculturallyimpoverisheddocilebodies.
BeyondMaidstoOrder:spiritualsojournsinsacredplaces.
AddressingthesegapsintheliteratureonFilipinodiaspora,ourprojecthasexplored
migrantsemotionalandintellectualengagementwiththesocialandsymbolicgeographies
ofhostcountries.WorkintheMiddleEastisoftenviewedasasteppingstone,andsecond
best,toworkinaWesterncountrysuchastheUSA,CanadaortheUK(Johnson1998,
Liebelt2008a).However,forMuslimandChristianFilipinos,livingandworkingattheholy
centresorhomelandsoftheirrespectivefaithsmaymitigatethehardshipsoflivinginexile
andthedifficultworkingconditions.Filipinomigrantsinmanypartsoftheworldtalkabout
thesacrificestheymakeinordertosupporttheirfamiliesandlovedonesbackhome.That
sacrificemaytakeonanaltogethermorereligiousdimensionwhenassomeMuslim
Filipinoworkersdotheytalkabouttheirlabourinsacredplaces,suchasMakkahor
Madinah,asworkwhoserewardisdeemednotonlyorprimarilytocomeinthislifebutin
thelifehereafter.Sotoo,ChristianFilipinosdescribetheirworkinIsraelasenablingthem
tocomeintometonymiccontactwiththeholylandanditssacredsites,andportraythe
challengeofcaringfortheelderlyaspartandparceloftheirministryofspreadingthe
gospel(Liebelt2008a).
Formigrants,religionisnotsimplyabouttherewardsoftheafterlife.Theirvariedreligious
engagementsandfamiliaritywithasacredlandscapemayincreasetheirculturalcapitalat
home.Undertakingthehajjorumrahexemplifiesthispoint.Whereasbefore,undertaking
thehajjwasimpossibleforallbutthemostaffluentofMuslimFilipinos,oneofthepositive
benefitsofworkingintheMiddleEast,forwomenaswellasmen,isthatmanyhavebeen
abletofulfilthisfinalpillarofIslam.Intheprocess,theyhavealsoincreasedboththeirown
andtheirfamiliessocialstandingandprestige.ThesignificanceofthehajjforMuslim
Filipinoworkersisattestedtobythefactthatsomerespondentsreportedwalkingouton
employerswhopreventedthemfromgoingonpilgrimage.2Butequally,thereareother
examplesofemployerswhonotonlyallowedbutpositivelyencouragedandsometimes
assistedtheiremployeesinmakingthehajj.
ChristianFilipinossimilarlycangainrespectandprestigefrompeopleathomewho
acknowledgethemaspilgrimsintheirjourneystotheHolyLand.Workingascaregiversin
privatehomes,FilipinosnotonlylearnHebrew,butgetanintimatepictureofJewishculture
andreligion,especiallyappreciatedasknowledgeofChristianrootsamongevangelical
Christians.Catholiclaygroupsandindependentevangelicalchurches,formedbyfemale
Filipinodomesticworkers,organiseCatholicBlockRosaryCrusadesinTelAviv,pilgrimages
toHolySitesintheGalilee,JerusalemorBethlehem,andfrequentlyengageinlongdistance
philanthropy.AswithzamzamwaterfromMakkah,thefilmsandpicturestakenandthe

SeeWerbner(1999)forasimilarresponseamongPakistanimigrantstotheGulf.

devotionalitemsacquiredduringpilgrimagestravelbacktothePhilippines,supporting
migrantsclaimsthattheirsacredjourneyshaveenhancedtheirspiritualknowledgeand
potency.
Migrants,byestablishingreligiouscongregationsintheirplacesofsettlement,create
communityawayfromhome.Thisisasalientfeatureofmigrationoftenignoredinstudies
ofoverseasFilipinos,notallofwhomarereligious.Forthosewhoare,religionfillstheirlives
withsocialevents,fromcongregationalmeetingsandprayerstothejoyfulcelebrationof
ritualfestivalslikeChristmasorEidelFitr.Someofthesefestivalsmaytakeplacein
churchesormosques,othersinhomeswhereEidcelebrations,forexample,bringtogether
migrantcoworkersandemployersalongwiththeirextendedfamilies.Thisregularand
recurrentsharingofreligiouseventsprovidesopportunitiesformigrantworkerswhomay
otherwiseliverelativelyisolatedlivesduringtheweektocelebrateinthecompanyofco
religionistsandfellowFilipinos,togossip,jokeandchatwhileprovidingadviceandmutual
aid.Importantly,theseritualeventscanenjoybroadersocialsanctioninthehostsocieties.
Filipinomigrantsarewellknownformeetingandsocializinginthemoresecularcontextsof
publicparksandshoppingmalls.Oneofthebestdocumentedexamplesoftheseisthe
SundaygatheringofFilipinodomesticworkersinHongKong(Constable2007,McKay2005).
Here,Filipinos,largelyengagedindomesticwork,routinelycolonizethespaceofthecentral
businessdistrictafterattendingchurch.Onthestreets,intheparks,andalongthe
pavements,theymeet,sharefoodandexchangenewsandgoodswithfellowmigrantsfrom
thesamevillage,townorprovinceinthePhilippines.Theirvillagegatheringsrecreateand
extendasenseofethnicaffiliationandvillagematerialandculturaleconomyinatranslocal
space(McKay2005).Thesegatheringsarealsositesofpoliticalagencywheremigrantsform
hometownassociationsthatengageinphilanthropyandpoliticalactionathomeand
supportinternalmigrationwithinthePhilippines(McKay2005,McKayandBrady2005.)
IntheMiddleEast,Filipinomigrantssimilarlyrecreatetheconvivialityofhomeandethnicity
invariousways.InTelAviv,theycolonisetheCentralBusStationforkaraoke,shopping,
selfdecoration,clubbingandgettogethers.ElsewhereintheMiddleEastwherepublic
gatheringsaremorecircumscribed,informalandmixedgroupsofMuslimandChristian
Filipinoshireprivatevenuesandcongregateinmakeshiftparks(designatedkamsakamsa
becauseofthefiveRiyalcharge),recreatingfiestasindesertlocales.Here,religiousevents
andcongregations,likethemoresecularsocialoccasionsandmodesofexchangeinHong
Kong,mayhelptocreateandenhanceasenseofasharedhomeplaceindiasporaby
fosteringcloselinkswithparticularplacesinthePhilippines.Thus,forexample,apilgrimage
groupinTelAvivJaffadonatesmoneyforbuildingachapeltoaspecificcongregationin
SouthCotabatointheSouthernPhilippines,whileinJeddah,agroupofChristianFilipino
convertstoIslam(referredtoasrevertsorbalikIslam)sendsmoneytosupportthe
buildingofamosqueintheirhometowninLuzon.

Sharedreligiouspracticealsodrawsincoreligionistsfromothercountriesandfromother
partsofthePhilippinesinwaysthattranscendethnicandvillagelocalities.Worshiping
togethersimultaneouslycreatesandconsolidatesawidersenseofsharednational
affiliationandofbelongingtoaglobalcommunityofbelievers.MuslimFilipinos,for
example,bothclaimwhattheyregardastheirrightfulplaceamongtheuniversal
communityofthefaithful,butalsoroutinelycontrastthemselvesasMuslimFilipinosto
ArabMuslims.ForMuslimFilipinosthatdistinctionisoftenarticulatedinreligiousterms:
ArabsmayhavebeenblessedbybeingtheonestowhomtheProphetandQuranwere
sent,andhencemayhavemoreinthewayofreligiousknowledgeandbebetterinformed
aboutappropriatereligiousconductandritualpractice.However,whatMuslimFilipinos
lackinthewayofheadknowledgetheymorethanmadeupforintermsofapurityand
steadfastnessofheart.JustasevangelicalChristianFilipinosregardedthemselvesas
missionariesandevangelistsintheHolyLand,someMuslimFilipinossawthemselvesas
performingdawah,callingnonbelieverstorevertandreturntoIslam(balikIslam),and
fellowbelievers,amongthemArabMuslims,torenewtheirfaithandexaminetheirheart.
Theideaofmembershipinauniversalcommunityofbelieversisimportantinestablishinga
languageofsharedethicsacrossdivisionsofstatusandpower.Thisisespeciallysoin
situationsforlonemigrantworkerswhohavelittlerecoursetoemploymentandcitizenor
residentialrightsandlittleornothingintheformofcollectiverepresentation.Forsuch
people,religionmaybeanimportantmeansofmakingandpressingmoralclaimsbothon
fellowworkerstosocialize,toexchange,toshareandonemployers,evenifitisonlyto
persuadethemtoallowtheiremployeestoparticipatein,ifnottaketimeoffworkfor
sharedreligiousevents.Forsomemigrantworkers,religionwastheprimarylanguagefor
talkingaboutanddefendingonessenseofselfandpersonhood.Religionofferedameans
ofexpressingsocialagencyinthosediasporicsituationswheretheymightotherwisebe
forcedtocomplywithandbeartheeverydayhumiliationsofsubordinationanddifficult
workingconditionsinexchangeforarelativelysmallsumofmoneytosendhome.
Migrantsengagedreligiontoexpresstheiragencyinavarietyofways.MuslimFilipinoshad
recoursetoaformoflamentationwhereemotionaloutpouringintheformofcries,tears
andsobsinpublicspaceswithinthehomeorworkplaceareaccompaniedbythepointed
andvocalrecitationofQuranicversusinthepresenceoftheirArabemployers.Filipino
domesticworkerscaringforelderlyJewshavelearnedaboutanddrawnparallelsbetween
Jewishsufferingsandexperiencesofexileandtheirowndiasporaexperiences.Thislearning
enableonegrouptodeclaretostatepolicymakers,WearetheJewsoftoday(Liebelt
2008b).
Religionshapestheexpectationsandexperiencesofparticularplacesandhostsocietiesfor
bothChristianandMuslimFilipinomigrants.Whileareligiousstressonselfsacrifice,
enduranceandgoodworkscan,paradoxically,reinforceandconsolidatedominant
discoursesthatproducedocileanddisciplinedbodies,religioncan,atthesametime,

facilitatesocialnetworksandmobilisationagainstexploitationbyenablingnewformsof
sociality.Religionisthusanimportantsymbolicresourceforpeopleinthestrugglefor
recognitionandrightsbothathomeandabroad.Framingformsofsocialityandsocialaction
withinamoraldiscourseamonganimagineduniversalcommunityofbelieversnotonly
helpsmigrantstomakelongersojournsbearable,butalsoopensupwaysofnegotiatinga
senseofbelongingandculturalcitizenshipinhostnations.
Conclusion
Thecentralityofreligioninthestudyofmigrationanddiasporaisbynomeansnew.
ReligionhasbeenafocusofmuchrecentresearchonnewdiasporasintheWest,andtheir
claimstocitizenship(WarnerandWittner1998).Ourgoal,however,isnotsimplytoextend
religionastheprimaryanalyticallensthroughwhichtounderstandthesociallivesand
movementsofanotherdiaspora,thatofFilipinomigrantworkers.Ratherthebroader
analyticalandpoliticalpurposeofourresearchhasbeentoframetheexperienceoflone
migrants,particularlydomesticworkers,throughanalternativediscoursethatdoesnot
simplyreducethemtodocilebodiesorvulnerablevictims.Instead,wehighlightmigrants
volitionalmovementstoandcreativeengagementswithplacesandlandscapesthatmaybe
sacredorsecularandsometimesanalternatingcombinationofboth.Filipinos,weshow,
likeothermigrantgroups,alsoengageinprocessesofcommunityformation,networking
andmoralobligation.Theseenablethemtowinrecognitionanddistinctionamongfellow
migrantsandthoseleftathome,torecreateauniverseofconvivialityandsociality,andto
recentretheirplaceofworkwithinanimaginedglobalecumeneofopenboundariesand
constantmovement.
FurtherReading

Constable,N.(2007)MaidtoOrderinHongKong.StoriesofMigrantWorker,2ndEdition.
Ithaca,CornellUniversityPress.

Liebelt,C.(2008)OnSentimentalOrientalists,ChristianZionists,andWorkingClass
Cosmopolitans:FilipinaDomesticWorkersJourneystoIsraelandBeyond,CriticalAsian
Studies,40(4).

McKay, D. (2007) Sending Dollars Shows Feeling Emotions and Economies in Filipino
Migration,Mobilities2(2),175194.

Parreas,R.S.(2001)ServantsofGlobalization:Women,MigrationandDomesticWork,
Stanford,StanfordUniversityPress.

Pingol,Alicia.(2001)RemakingMasculinities,QuezonCity,UniversityofthePhilippines
UniversityCenterforWomensStudies.

Tyner,J.A.(2004)MadeinthePhilippines.Gendereddiscoursesandthemakingofmigrants,
London,Routledge.

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