Shariah Courts and Shariah Records: The Application of Islamic Law in the Ottoman State

Author(s): Ahmed Akgndz

Source: Islamic Law and Society, Vol. 16, No. 2 (2009), pp. 202-230
Published by: BRILL
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1 J&

IslamicLaw

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and

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www.brill.nl/ils

Shari'ahCourtsand Shari'ahRecords:
TheApplicationofIslamicLaw in theOttomanState
Ahmed Akgiindiiz

Abstract
This essayaddressesthe Shari'ahcourtsand Sharicahrecordswithinthe broader
framework
of theapplicationof Islamiclaw in theOttomanstate.We firstexplore
historical
beforeandafter
Tanzimatas wellas a numberofdevelopments
developments
in thelegalguidelinesforthepreservation
A concisesummary
oftheShari'ahrecords.
is givenof theShari'ahcourts,qadis,and thejudiciary,
includingtheshaikhuislam
to the
and qadaskar.SectiontworeviewstheSharicahrecords,
withspecialattention
sijilj mahdar,sakk,and hujjah deeds. This sectionalso examinesjudicial decrees,
includingtheirdefinition,
arrangement,
qualities,typesand models.Linkedto this
is a discussionof a numberof interesting
documentsin theShari'ahcourtsand the
Shari'ahrecords,includingmaWuzand murasalah,
as wellas documentsfromother
offices
thatareregistered
in therecords.
Keywords
Islamiclaw, Ottomanstate,Shari'ahcourts,Shari'ahrecords,sijiU mahdar,sakk,
i(lamy
ma'ruz,murasalah
hujjahy

1. Hie Shari'ah Courtsand the Qadis

When OthmanI (1281-1326), thefirstsultanof theOttomanstate,
came to power,thefirstappointment
he made was a qadi or judge.
Sincetherewasno institution
fortraining
Ottomanqadis
qadis,thefirst
werebroughtin fromAnatolia,Persia,Syriaand Egypt.Therewas no
established
seatwherethejudgmentwas executedin thenameofthe
Shari'ahCouncil.Qadis had offices
wheretheycouldconductjudicial
AhmedAkgiindiiz,
TheIslamicUniversity
ofRotterdam,
135,
Correspondence:
Bergsingel
theNetherlands.
3037 GC Rotterdam
E-mail:akgunduz@iur.nl.
Koninklijke
BrillNV,Leiden,2009

DOI: 10.1163/156851909X461690

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I IslamicLawandSociety
A. Akgiinduz
16 (2009) 202-230

203

mattersand wherelitigantscould call on themat any time.Such

an officemightbe in the qadi s home,a roomin a mosque or in a
madrasah}
duringtheOttomanperiod,
Althoughthereweresomefluctuations
was the head and competentauthorityof the
the shaikhulislam
ulama class and the judicial organization.Qadis solicitedfatwas
frommuftis,of which therewere two categories:(1) the central
and (2)
mufti,the head of the ulama class,viz. the shaikhulislam
no
The
shaikhulislam
had
office
muftis.1
specific
provincial
building
until 1241/1826. When Mahmud II (1808-1839) abolished the
JanissaryCorps, the Janissaries'officeof Agha was transformed
into the officeof the shaikhulislam,which became known as
Fatwakhanahal-Ali?
Theheadofthejudiciaryand secondrankofthemenofknowledge
was the qadaskar.He was a
afterthe shaikhulislam
(rijal ilmiyyah)
memberof theImperialCouncil (Diwan al-Humayun)withresponsibilityforjudicial matters,especiallythe Islamicand legal affairs
and
of the militaryclass. He also appointedqadis to principalities
sanjaqs.4The qadaskarwas a memberoftheImperialCouncil,which
he attendedon appointeddays. At the Council some cases were
broughtbeforethe qadaskarof Rumelia.Unlessvestedwithspecial
the Anatolianqadaskardid not have any authorityto
authority,
hearcases. Still,the examinationof legal issuesat the Council was
of the office
The significance
one of the qadaskars responsibilities.5
of the qadaskarand its functionsbegan to declinein the wake of
whichwere initiatedin 1839. The
Abdulmajidspoliticalreforms,
decreased
towardstheend of theOttoman
the
of
authority
qadaskar
enteredtheCabinet,but theqadaskarwas
period.The shaikhulislam
excludedfromit.6
1}Hezarfen,
Doc. 135/Aff.;Ergin,Majalla-i Umur,l:265ff.;Zaydan,
Talkhis
al-Beyan,
108ff.
OsmanhDevletinin
Nizamal-Qadha,117-20;Uzuncarih,
IlmiyeTeskilati,
2) Hezarfen,
Doc.
Talkhis
1:541.
133/B
MTM,
ff.;
Qanunnamesi,
Tavqii
al-Beyan,
3) AliHaydar,
Duraral-Hukkam,
140-52;Uzuncarili,
Salndmesi,
4:715-16;Ilmiye
Ilmiye,
222-26.
208ff.;Mumcu/Ucok,
4) Hezarfen,
Doc. 139/Bff.
Talkhis
al-Beyan,
5)
1:508-09,540.
MTM,
QanunnamesU
Tavqii
6) Nizamnamah
al-Manasib
1/315-20;
al-Tawjihat
al-Qadha,dated1271, Dustur.I. Tertib.
dated1331,Dustur.II.
Hukkam
al-Shar(waMemurin
Qanunal-Muwaqqat,
al-SharHyyah

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204

A. Akgundiiz
16 (2009) 202-230
I IslamicLawandSociety

The personwho carriesout judicial tasksin the SharVahcourts

is called qadi. The verbqada> literally"to cut" or "to divide",came
to signify"to judge." Ottomanjuristsdefineda qadi as a person
appointedby the highestofficialof the state(the Sultanor one of
his deputies)to decidecasesor disputesamongthepeopleaccording
to the Sharicah.The qadi also was known as the hakimor the
theOttomanstatewas dividedinto
hakirnul-shar(.
Administratively,
and koeys(villages)
called
liwahs,qadas, nahiyahs,
provinces
eyalets,
in descendingorder.Each judicial centerhad a qadi who served
not onlyas judge but also as mayorand chiefof police.At times,
head and was in chargeof
he functionedas the administrative
of
the
The
tasks
functions
and
security.7
qadi can be summarized
thedisputed
to verify
Shari'ahinjunctions;
as follows:To implement
viewsof theHanafischool,applyingreliablesolutions;to formulate
Shari'ahjudgments;to marryminorswho haveno guardianof their
of orphansand paupers;to appoint
own; to safeguardthe property
or dismissguardians;to supervisecharitablefoundationsand their
and to executebequests.
accounts;to formulate
marriagecontracts,
he did not interfere
he
executed
decrees
and
instructions,
Although
in thepoliticalor administrative
affairs
of thestate,whichwereleft
to administrative
(ulul-emr).s
supervisors
and
In addition to the Sharicahcourts,variousadministrative
were
were
in
Their
functions
courts
established
1284/1867.
judicial
calledNizamrestricted
to certainfields.Accordingto theregulations
namahal-Diwanal-Ahkamal-Adliyyah,
issuedin 1284/1867,crimes
or individuals,as well
committedagainstthe family,
endowments,
as ta'zir crimesand theirpenalties-inadditionto law-cases-were
removedfromthejurisdictionof the Shari'ahcourts.Accordingto
a similarregulation,
called Nizamnamahal-Shuraal-Dawlah,some

Tertib.
Dustur.II. Tertib
V/352 ff.Article:
6.7; Nizamname-i
Dakhili,dated1332/1914,
VI/184;Ali Haydar,Durer,4:705; Salnamahal-Ilmiyyah,
154,318; Uzuncarih,
Umiye,
160ff.

7)
Majallah, Article1784-1785; Ali Haydar,Durar al-Hukkam,4:657 ff.
8)
MTM> 1/541; Qanuni QanunnamesU
MTM> 11f326-27; Uzuncarih,
Tavqii Qanunnamesi,
83ff.
Ilmiye,

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A. Akgunduz
I IslamicLawandSociety
16 (2009) 202-230

205

When the
of the Sharicahcourtswereabolishedentirely.9
functions
theNizamiyyah
of 1286/1870established
Courts,a certain
regulations
in
the
of
dualism
Department Justice.10
developed
judicial
Records
2. Legal GuidelinesforPreserving
betterin the Ottomanstatethanin
Shari'ahrecordswerepreserved
are
recordbooks{sicill&t-i
There
otherMuslimstates.
20,000 Sharicah
fortheIstanbulShari'ahcourtsalone.
sha/iyyah)
To preservethe Sharicahrecords,the Ottoman state adopted
by laws, decreesand local
policiesand plans thatwerereinforced
orders.The firstlaw,a legaldecreeof SultanBayezidI (1389-1403),
containedrulesabout writingand preserving
legal documentsand
issued by qadis, as well as the feeschargedforthese
registrations
services.As mentionedin the law: "In the time of BayezidI the
qadis of the provinceswere orderednot only to chargefees on
{hujjetakcesi),on the divisionof estates(resm-i
hujjahregistrations
of registrations
kinds
other
{sicil akcesi) but also to
qismet)and
preservetheserecords.This was enactedas a law in 796/1394."11
Article49 of SultanMehmed Us (1451-1481) Public Ottoman
fees.
Legal Code concernsthe Shari'ahrecordsand theirrespective
It states:"Alljudges(qadis,)shouldreceive32 akchasforanyregistration
recordsand forhujjah documents;12 akchasfor
in the sharHyyah
and the
records(to the plaintiff
givingone copyof thesesha/iyyah
This
record."
12
for
akchas
and
defendant),
signingany sha/iyyah
in
documents the
articleassumesthatall judgesmustrecordofficial
recordsand give copies to the litigants,if demandedor
sha/iyyah
needed.In explainingthefunctionof thejudge,themainOttoman
as an official
task,amongotherthings,
"recording
LegalCode mentions
Sharicahrecordsand judicial documents(ketb-isijillatve sukuk)."11
9) Nizamname,
Dustur.
al-Diwanal-Ahkam
dated1284calledNizamnamah
al-Adliyyah,
al-Shura
I. Tertib1/325et seq:,Article-2;
Nizamname,dated1284 calledNizamnamah
al-Dawlah,Dustur.I. TertibI/703ff.
10)Dustur,
I. TertibI/328ff.
n) Qanun-iCedid,MilliTetebbular
Mecmuasi
(MTM), 1:326.
12)
Mecmuasi
v. I; Qanun-iCedid,Milli Tetebbular
OsmanliQanunn&meleri,
Akgunduz,
TurhanValideSultan,no. 326, 155/a.
(MTM), 2.541,TheSttleymaniye
Library,

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A. Akgiinduz
I IslamicLawandSociety
16 (2009)202-230

Afterthe reignof MehmedII, new legalguidelinesabout theregistrationofshar'iyyah

recordswereenactedbytheOttomanauthorities.
Rusum(Legal Code
Theselegalguidelineswerecalled Qanunndme-i
forSharicahCourt Fees).13
Whathappenedifsomeoneremoveda shar'irecordbook or failed
to documenta legal issue in the Sharicahrecords?In the Public
Legal Code enactedby BayezidII, Article138 stipulates:"If the
judge is removedfromhis position,he is to hand overthe Sharicah
recordbook to thenextjudge. If he leaveswithouthandingit over,
he is to be urged to submitthe book so that the affairsof the
people are not harmed."In a legal code dated 915/1510,Article8
a copy
takesup the second issue: "You, as a judge, shouldregister
of theseguidelinesin the Sharicahrecords.Be carefulnot to lose
thisbook! Obey theserulesall the time!Afterexaminingthiscode,
Whoever
thisdocument.
theemin(official
recordkeeper)is to preserve
becomesthe eminis requiredto preservethe Shari'ahrecords."14
for
The Tanzimatreforms
(1839-1876) includednew arrangements
the writingand preservation
of Shari'ah records.In 1296/1878,
Ta'limatal-Saniyyah
established
solid principlesforthearrangement
and preservation
proceduresof decrees(i'lams)and deeds (hujjahs).
themostimportant
The Shari'ahrecords(sijilal-shar'iyyah)
constitute
sourceforan accurateunderstanding
of the Ottomanlegal order.
3. DescriptionoftheShariah Recordsand theTypesof
Documents
3.1. Sijil,Mahdarand Sakk
Threetermsareessential.
1 The word mahdar,literally"presence"or "being present,"has
two technicalmeanings:(a) It refersto the recordof a legal
case-thatis, the writtendeclarationsby the partiesregarding
allegationsand proofsthatwererecordedby theqadi as an aide13) Qanunndme,
Turkish
no. 1807,68a-b.
Manuscripts,
14)
Osmanli
2:141.
Qanunndmeleri,
Akgiindiiz,

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A. AkgunduzI IslamicLaw and Society16 (2009) 202-230

207

memoire.The termmahdaris used with this meaningin fiqh

wherethe
books15in chapterson "kitabal-mahadirwal-sijillat,"
for"records."16
termis used as a synonym
(b) The wordmahdar
of witnessesand to the signatures
also refersto the statements
of, mainly,the subashi(chiefof police), chawush(sergeantor
who were presentat
guard) and muhdir(courtprocess-server)
were forthe decisionsessionswith experts.These statements
mulatedin a writtentextarrangedin such a way as to confirm
writtentestimonials
theaccuracyof thedocument.Occasionally,
werecalled mahdars,whichwould then be treatedas evidence
in the Sharicah
(hujjah). The termmahdarwas used frequently
the judicial investigarecordsin this second sense, signifying
tion.17
"to read,to record,or to decide,"is used
2 The wordsijil,literally
as a technicaltermto referto legal registers
containinglegal
cases involvingpeople, copies of qadis' judgments,along with
to a judgment.Theyarecalled
recordsrelating
thediversewritten
Court Books, Minutes of
qadis1registers,
sijillatal-shar'iyyah,
or
Cases {sijillal-zabtal-waqaH*) Registerof Sijillat.Judgments,
deedsand documentsissuedbytheShari(ahcourtswererecorded
A judge
withtheiroriginals.
in strictconformity
in theseregisters
kept a recordbook at the court to recordall judgmentsand
were
Such registers
deeds for protectionagainstfalsification.18
size
cm
the
varied
and
40
cm
16-17
wide,although
usually
high
fromcourtto courtand, sometimes,fromjudge to judge. The
scriptwas mostoftenta'liq (a Persianstyleofwriting).The paper
was strongand bright,and theinkhas maintaineditsdarkcolor
untilthepresenttime.The namesof theqadis arefoundin these
Upon assumingoffice,the firstthinga qadi did was
registers.
15)
282; Al-Fatawa al-Hindiyyah,6:160ff.Damad, Majma al-Anhur,
Jurjani,Al-Ta'rifat,
2:559.
16)Al-FatawaalHindiyyah,6:l60ff.; Damad, Majma al-Anhur,2:559.
17)
Al-Munjidy 139; Mutarjim Asim, Qamus al-Oqyanus, 2:262; Ali Haydar, Durar
al-Hukkam,4:7 IS.
18)
and Zabt al-Da'awi, dated 15 DhilAl-Munjidy322; Bayindir,1; Sijillatal-Shar'iyyah
hijjah 1290, ArticleIff.;Dustur,1. Tertib,4:83-85; Majallah, Article1814; Uzuncarih,
llmiye,116.

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208

A AkgundiizI IslamicLaw and Society16 (2009) 202-230

to writeon the firstpage of the sijil his name, title,and the

his obligation
date on whichhe took office;he also confirmed
to deliverthe sijil to his successor,eitherpersonallyor through
his successor
his agent.If he did not deliverhis sijil by himself,
withhis
would ask him to do so. A qadi purchasedthe register
This did not
own money,or withfeescollectedfromligitants.19
in any way affecthis obligationto producethe registerat the
rightmoment.
All
writtendocumentsin therecordswerearrangedand recorded
3
in thesakkal-shar'istyle,whichvariedfromjudgeto judge.Sakk
is theArabicequivalentof the Persianchek,literally
patent,deed
or titledeed-inshort,a writtendocument.As a technicalterm
it expresses
and recording
thewriting
styleusedin theformulation
ofSharicah
courtdocuments.
Sakkbookscontainwriting
specimens
thatillustrate
theformulation
and writingstyleofall documents,
of
particularly
judicialdecreesand deeds.Thus,the formulation
and
documentsin the Shari'ah recordswas based on regular
consistentmodels. Esteemedqadis compiledsakk models for
the qadi s task.The records,
different
issuesin orderto facilitate
in general,conformto thesemodels.Fiqh books,calledal-Shurut
and Kitabul-Mahadirwal-Sijillat,discuss writtenprocedures.
OttomanSharicah
written
courtstranslated
standardized
procedures
into the Turkishlanguage.From the reignof Othman I until
thatof Mehmed II, the styleforformulating
documentswas a
mixtureof Arabicand Turkish.At the end of 17thcenturysakk
bookscameto be written
inTurkish,
exclusively
thereby
contributing
to terminological
in
the
Sharicahrecords.20
consistency
3.2. GeneralFeaturesoftheSharVahRecordsand Developments
afterthe
TanzimatReforms

Not all caseproceedings

heardin theSharicah
courtswereenteredinto
the records.The Sharicahrecordsdo not resemblethe minutesof a
moderncourt.
19)
Duraral-Hukkam,
4:717,720; Uzuncarih.
Vlku,
Majallah,Article1814;Mi Haydar,
116.
366;flmiye,

20)Al-Fatawa
6:l60ff.; Bayindir,IslamMuhdkemeHukuku,1-2.
al-Hindiyyah,

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16 (2009)202-230
A Akgiinduz
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209

therecords,
Withtheexceptionof endowmentdeeds (waqfiyyat),
especiallyin old recordbooks,generallydo not exceedhalfa page
in lengthand, in mostcases,anywherefromfiveto eightcases are
recordedon a singlepage. The oldestsijik are small,narrowand
tallso thattheywould fitinto the pocketof a qadi's cloak. Record
book number2/1 of Mahkamahal-Bab (a lowercourtin Istanbul),
containingjudicialdecreesand deeds writtenafter1076/1665,has
146 pages, is 41 x 15 cm, writtenin ta'liq style,with finished,
watermarked
paper,and boundwitha coverofmarbledpaper(ebru).
Entrynumber4/2 of the Court of InspectorsforImperialEstates,
from944/1540 to 949/
whichcontainsthe recordsof endowments
1542, is 32 x 11 cm, writtenin severalstyles,mostlyta'liq; the
white,finished,and watermarked;
paper is of a normalthickness,
it has 264 pages and is bound with a marbledpaper,has a back
coverand bordersin leather,and the recordsare mostlyin Arabic.
The earlyShari'ahrecordbooks generallyhad the same features.
Afterthe TanzimatReforms,judicial decreesand Sharicahcourt
the recordbooks grewin
recordsbecamelongerand, accordingly,
size.Theyincludedthenamesand addressesofpersonswho testified
of witnessesand explainedthe rationaleof the
to the credibility
in
judgments greaterdetail.21
Everyregister
beginswitha dibajahor preface,usuallyin Arabic,
praisefortheShari'ahdecreesand forGod and His Prophet.
offering
The nameand titleof thejudge who kepttherecordfollow.Often,
orderofthejudgewhokepttherecordis mentioned,
theappointment
Wheneverone qadi replaced
at
the
usually
beginningof theregister.
For
was
the
another, dibajah
example,in SharicahRecord
changed.
the
numberE27 (Isparta1150/1737),thedibajahof Omar Effendi,
"Ya
which
the
is
followed
of
Fattah,"
by
expression
Isparta,
qadi
occursat thebeginningof mostrecords.The expressionis repeated
fourtimes,afterwhichthefollowingcoupletappears:"If thousands
of such books are bound, the Shari'ahof Ahmed will not expire
untilDoom's Day."
21)Istanbul's
HuIslamMuhdkeme
Archives
OfficeofMufti,
Records-,
Bayindir,
ofSharVah
4:71ff.;IstanbulSijilleri1-334/11-12;
kuku,2:273-81;Ali Haydar,Duraral-Hukkam,
no.A 27 (KonyaMuseum).
Uluborlu
Sijilleri,
Shar'iyyah

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210

A Akgundiiz
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16 (2009) 202-230

decreessigned
Next,we findthe qadi's seal and theappointment
Effendi,the Anatolianqadaskar.In all Shari'ah
by Abdurrahman
recordsthe signatureand seal of the qadi appear together.Sakk
and seals.22
books providemodelsof signatures
The courtswererequiredto keep records.Because a qadi often
the
gave a copy of a judicial decreeor deed to otherauthorities,
was alwayspresent.If the qadi recordedhis
possibilityof forgery
he would be
lettersin a register,
and official
decrees,
deeds,
judicial
efforts
to protect
if
to
able to refer them necessary.
Despitediligent
the Shari'ah records,most were lost over time. The numberof
Sharicahrecordsthatsurvivein Turkeytodayis smallin comparison
to the totalnumberthatexistedin the past.23
A numberofjuristsheldthatofficial
entriesin therecordsshould
be groupedaccordingto subject.In practice,juristsgroupedthe
recordsaccordingto othercriteria,such as the typeof document
(see below). For instance,one juristmade the followingproposal.
The Sharicahrecordsshouldbe dividedinto fourcategories:(a) the
appointmentof a guardian(nazir); (b) the appointmentof the
of
trustee(mutawalli)of a pious endowment;(c) thedetermination
alimony;and (d) judicialdecreescontainingjudgments.It was convenientto preserve
therecordsaccordingto theseor similarcategories
in orderto ensureeasy reference.
Althoughthesecategorieswere
used in keepingtherecordsin Istanbulcourts,anothermethodwas
whererecords
wereorganized
usedin theOttomanprovinces,
according
to both subjectand chronology.24
The Tanzimatreforms
not only the Sharicahcourtsbut
affected
also the Shari'ahrecords.The Regulationof 13 Safar 1276/1859
refersindirectly
to the Sharicahrecordsas well as to the feesto be
An
order
dated15 Dhilhijjah1290/1874introduces
charged.
important
the Sharicahrecords.Accordingto theselegal
regulations
regarding
all courtrecords,bothin Istanbuland in theprovinces,
regulations,
22)
E 27, 100-01;Debbaghzadah,
380ff.,
Jami'us-Sakk,
KonyaMuseum,IspartaSijiUeri,
402ff.
23)Ali
2.
IslamMuhdkeme
4:717ff.;Bayindir,
Hukuku,
Haydar,Duraral-Hukkam,
24)Ali
4:718; Istanbul
1-65,76, 97, 106, 135,334,
Haydar,Duraral-Hukkam,
SijiUeri,
Uskudar
SijiUeri,6-802 (Booksof Ordersand Rescripts);
KasimpasaSijiUeriU6-465
IslamMuhdkeme
273ff.
Hukuku,
(Petitions);
Bayindir,

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A. Akgunduz
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16 (2009) 202-230

2 11

wereto be numberedfromthefirstpage to thelast (Article1). The

originalcopy of writtendocumentsissued by the Sharicahcourts
wereto be enteredinto the register
and stampedwiththe special
seal of the Registrar(muqayyidEfendi)(Article2). Since records
to and used when necessary,
the writinghad to
would be referred
be legible,withoutanyerasureor scraping,and thereshouldbe no
interlinear
insertions;if therewere,the qadi was to sign and then
seal the record(Articles3-4). EverySharicahcourtshould have a
the records;the chestwas to be sealed
specialchestforprotecting
afterthe recordshad been deposited.
the
everyeveningby
registrar
When the qadi's termof officewas over,he was to certifythe
withhis privateseal.25
registers
On 4 Jumadhaal-Ula 1296/1879,theOrderof theArrangement
of theSharicahrecordswas publishedto definehow Sharicahcourts
shouldkeep judicial decreesand deeds. These recordsmightserve
as reliableevidencein court,makingit possibleto rendera judgment
if therewas no otherproof.26
3.3. TypesofLegal Documentsin theShari(ah Records

written
recordsfallintotwomaincategories:
In theSharicah
registers,
andwritten
(1) recordsprepared
byqadis,e.g.,deeds,judicialdecrees,
fortheirdeputies;and
of
letters
and
appointment
petitions, judges'
instructions
and decreesnotpre(2) decrees,ordersof appointment,
into
the
because
but
entered
theyweresentto
registers
paredbyqadis
qadis.
Written
3.3.1. Documents
byQadis
The sakkal-shar'ibooks explaindifferent
typesof documentsto be
intheShari'ah
whichcovermostoftheentries
includedinthiscategory,
registers.27
25)Dustur,1,Tertib,1:301-314,
4:83-85;Orderof
29-53;Dustur,1,Tertib,
esp.Articles
dated1290,Articles
4:83-5.
Shari'ahRecords,
5-18,Dustur,1,Tertib,
26)
Islamve OsmanliHukukuKulliydti,
774-82;Dustur1. Tertib,
Mukayeseli
Akgiindiiz,
PrivateFile of Majallah,no. 517. Ali Haydar,Durar
4:79-84; BOA, Irade-Hususi.
4: 81,719 ff.
al-Hukkam,
27)See,for
108.
Ilmiye,
exampleUzuncarih,

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A. Akgunduz
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Hujjahs (Deeds) and theirFeatures

thatan
The termhujjahmeans"proof,"
i.e. something
thatestablishes
ithastwomeanings.
acthasbeenproven.In Ottomanlegalterminology
in
it
is
with
a
law
case
associated
First,
(i.e., witnessing,
legalproofs
in
whichcase it is
oath
or
from
abstention
oath),
acknowledgment,
the
with
a
Second, hujjahbearing sealandsignasynonymous beyyinah.
tureoftheqadi (at thetop) is a documentthatoutlinesthelegalcase,
In the
and approvalof thelitigants.
includingtheacknowledgement
post-Tanzimat
period,the termhujjah(deed) was replacedby sened
In
withtheresultthathujjahscameto be calledsenedat
al-shar'iyyah.28
of
a
and
seal
document
the
publicusage,any
judge
bearing signature
atthetop,whether
isknownas a hujjah.
(ornot)itcontainsa judgment,
The recordsin thePrimeMinisterial
Archives
arethushujjahs.
The majorityof the recordsin the Shar'iyyah
are hujjah
registers
in
the
deeds.The different
that
are
included
of
registers
types hujjahs
and the featuresof each typeare as follows:First,any legal case
= hujjah)would not
thatwas settledwitha definite
proof{bayyinah
be transferred
to thecourt.Whenthecourtarrangeda hujjah(deed),
a copy in the register,
presentedit to the litigants,and registered
thereusuallywas no legaldisputewithregardto the issueat stake.
In case of a dispute,the courtwould issue a judgmenton behalf
of the partythatheld the hujjah.A hujjahissuedat the Shar'iyyah
courtwaslikea judgmentagainsttheplaintiff
therelevant
concerning
matter.
A
that
a
house
had
been
purchasedwas
legal
hujjahstating
definiteproof that mightbe used in a lawsuitfiledagainstthe
personwho sold the house.
The decisionwas recordedin thecourtregister
forfuturereference
and hence as the main hujjah.Copies wereissuedto litigantswho
requiredthem.At the top of the hujjah deliveredto the litigants
are foundthe signatureand seal of the presidingqadi. This is not
trueof hujjahsin the registers,
seal and
wherea judge'ssignature,
28)
4:367, 718; Bilmen,Hukuk-i
Majallah,Article1676;Ali Haydar,Duraral-Hukkam,
IslamMuhdkeme
8:118; Compare:Uzuncarih,
Hukuku,
108; Bayindir,
Isldmiye,
Umiye,
forSharicah
12;Regulations
ah,
Courts,dated1276,Articles
15ff.,
27ff.;Senedat
al-Shar'iyy
dated1296,Articles
16ff.

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A. Akgundiiz
I IslamicLawandSociety
16 (2009)202-230

2 13

the date on whichhe beganhis officeare foundonlyat the top of

the recordor at the top of the entryregistered
by thejudge on the
date of his appointment.Sometimesthe qadi's signatureis found
at the top of the copy of hujjahentryin the registers.
a hujjahbeginswiththe
How is a hujjahformulated?
Generally,
name of the cityin whichthe courtissuingthe hujjah is located,
or madinah:such as
mahmiyah,
qualifiedby the word mahrusah>
"... subjectto the townof Kabatash,of al-Galataal-Mahrusah...,"
"... in the quarterof Bakir Pasha in Mahmiyahal-Istanbul...,"
"... in Madinah al-Erzurum..."; or in hujjahsof estimationand
the issueto be men"forexaminingand investigating
examination:
and estimation
tionedon the spot ..."; or "forthe investigation
of the matterto be declaredat the localitythereof..."; or "it is
of the book is that ...",
that...", "thereasonforthe investigation
of the lettersis that ...".
"thereasonforthe investigation
or
followstheseintroductory
Additionalinformation
expressions
prologue:29
1
2
3
4

5
6

The namesand addressesof the litigantsare recordedin such

a way as to removeall ambiguity.
of the commodityor rightthatis the objectof
The definition
the hujjah.
conditions
and-ifany-delivery
themanner,
A declaration
regarding
and receiptof a legal procedure.
A declarationthatthe consentingpartyacquittedthe opposing
partyand willnot makethesame issuethecause of anyfurther
lawsuitor dispute.
The year,month,day and, sometimes,timeof day.
The namesand thetitlesof thewitnessesappearat thebottom,
underthe rubricof shuhudal-hal (witnessesto the law case)
or shuhudal-mahdar.For instance,if a hujjah recordsa conthe
tractof purchase,the namesof the vendorand purchaser,
of
offer
and
the
declarations
featuresof the propertysold,

29)
3-188, 160ff.;Beshiktash
Jami'usSakk,
Sijilleri,23-127/137,141-42;
Debbaghzade,
1.Tertib,1:30Iff.
116-17;Dustur,
B23-127/118;
Uzunsar^ih,
tlmiye,

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A Akgunduz
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16 (2009)202-230

acceptance,price and qualities,deliveryand receipt,are also

indicated.30
The followingdocument,in Turkish,partof whichis translated,
is
a hujjah fora contractof sale {bef-i qati) arrangedby the Galata
Court:31
ThepersoncalledMehmedEmin,sonofOmar,wholivesin thevillageof
affiliated
withthetownof Beikta,
ofthenahiyah
ofGalata,
Kuruceme,
cameup inthemostillustrious
withtheyoungman
Sharicah
court,together
called<Javuzade
MehmedEmin,sonofIsmail,andtheyspoke,makingthe
declaration
ofoffer
arelegallycomplete).
(all ofwhoseelements
following
HereMehmedEminbinOmerspecifies
heisselling
toMehmed
theproperties
EminbinIsmail.He hasreceived
asdescribed,
themunderthesameconditions
and I havereceived
whichhe
fromhimthefullpricethereof,
600 qurush,
hasdelivered
in full.Theaforementioned
to theownhousewastransferred
he can use it as he
ershipof theaforementioned
purchaser.
Accordingly,
wishes.Afterthesedeclarations
ofconsentwerecertified
bythecourt,the
casewasentered
1169/1756.
21
intotherecords
Shawwal,
uponrequest.
Witnesses:
IsmailUsta(Mason)sonofMehmed,themasonofthevillage,
sonofImamMehmedEffendi,
SeyyidHussainEffendi
HammamiJanitor
Hussain,
Haj MustafasonofMehmed,
AbdullahChelebitheMuhdhir(a courtsummoner),
MustafaEffendi
sonofMuazzinAli,
DarwishMehmedsonofAhmed,
BoliikMehmedBeysonofAli,
HammamiAli Beshe(sonofMustafa),
AliAghasonofMusa,
Andtheothers

30)AliHaydar,
Isldm
Muhdkeme
12ff.
Diirer,
4:718-19;
Hukuku,
Bayindir,

31) Beshiktash
Sijilleri,23- 127 11 14.

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A. Akgundiiz
I IslamicLawandSociety
16 (2009) 202-230

2 15

The Subjectsand Some TypesofDeeds

Let us consider
Some deedsarearrangedaccordingto subjectmatter.
Themainsubjectsincludemarriage
the
themostsignificant.
contracts,
minor
either
its
or
a
the
of
of
a
execution
a
by
qadi,
parent
marriage
woman'smarriagecontractby a proxy,or thevalidityof a marriage

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216

A. Akgunduz
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divorce
contract;hujjahof divorce(hujjahal-talaq)>an irrevocable
the
(talaq al-ba'in);divorcebymutualconsent(hujjahal-mukhaldd),
of a marriageifaskhal-nikah),dowry(hujjahal-mahr),
nullification
a woman'sappointing
childguardianship
alimony,
(hujjahal-hadanah),
of a trustee,
slaves
tadbir,
mukatabah),
givingpermanumitting
(itq,
contractsof sale, cessionof property
missionand authority,
(hujjah
of
sale
with
al-wafa),rightofprepower redemption
(bey1
al-faragh),
retaliation
emption(hujjahal-shufah),
(qisas),blood money(diyah),
settlement
(sulh),acquittal(ibrah)and bankruptcy
(iflas);and apor
as
of
officers
such
kathhuda
(civilchief) subashi(police
pointment
chief).32
or endowment
One typeof hujjah is sui generis:the waqfiyyah
fromotherhujjahswith respectto both styleand
deed. It differs
is a writtendocumentconcernedwith the
content.A waqfiyyah
document
a
s
legalstatusof person endowment
(waqfiand thewritten
law case.
certified
by a Sharicahcourtat the end of a hypothetical
fromotherhujjahsnot onlybecause
Thesewrittendocumentsdiffer
oftheirstatusand naturebutalso becauseoftheirformand content.
containsa
Apartfromthe generalqualitiesof hujjahs,z. waqfiyyah
dibajah thatvariesin formfromone founderto the next.33
ordersand footnotes
refers
to declarations,
Al-hujjahal-zahriyyah
writtenor put on the back of officialdocuments.For instance,one
side of the documentmay containthe sultans decree,while the
other side is the certifiedcopy of the hujjah that was prepared
accordingly.
JudicialDecrees:Definitionand Arrangement
courtjudgments.
Judicialdecrees(i'lamat)aresimilarto contemporary
The termi'lammeans"toinform."
to
As a technicalterm,Vlamrefers

32)
IsldmMuhd3-188;61;AliHaydar,
Durer,
4:718,Bayindir,
Jami'us-Sakk,
Debbaghzade
12ff.
kemeHukuku,
33)
IslamHukukundave OsmanliTatbikatinda
Mahakim-i
Miiessesesi;
Akgunduz,
Vakif
dated1276,Articles
Nizamnamesi,
189-220;
15-20;Debbaghzade,
Jami'us-Sakk,
Shar'iyya
records,
F25,p. 214.
KonyaMuseum,Burdurs
Shar'iyyah
SharHyyah
Sijilleri,

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A. Akgunduz
I IslamicLawandSociety
16 (2009) 202-230

2 17

a writtendocumentcontaininga Sharicahdecree,at the bottomof

whichone findsthe signatureand seal of thejudge who issuedthe
allegationas
judgment.Each Vlamdocumentcontainstheplaintiffs
well as supportingevidence,the defendant'sreplyand, in case of
thereasonsforsuchrefutation,
followedat theend bythe
refutation,
Themostsignificant
feature
forthejudgment.
rationale
distinguishing
i'lamdocumentsfromotherentriesin thecourtrecordsis thejudge's
verdict.
Anydocumentthatcontainsa judges verdictis an Vlamnota
hujjah(deed), maWuz(petition)or anythingelse. In popularusage,
and seal,whether
it contains
anydocumentbearinga qadi'ssignature
a judgmentor not, is knownas an i'lam. In the PrimeMinisterial
like a qadi, is often
Archives,a petitionmade by any stateofficial,
as an Vlam.
registered
courtwouldissuehisjudgment
A judgewhoservedin theSharicah
accordingto the Shari'ahrules,based on the case file. First,he
informs
bothpartiesofhis decreeorally.He thendraftsa document
therationaleforthejudgment,a copyofwhichis handed
containing
The decision
defendant.
and-ifnecessary-the
overto boththeplaintiff
as themainproof.When a judge drafts
is enteredintotheregisters
a decree,he muststudythe minutesof the case and demonstrate
diligence,so thatthe decreewill not contradictthe recordsof the
case file.The Instruction{Ta'limatal-Saniyyah)dated 1296/1878
introducedsounderprinciplesforthe draftingof decrees{i(lams)
as definite
and deeds (hujjahs)to assuretheirreliability
proofs.Such
of law
or
minutes
as
served
guidelineswherebygazettes
principles
were
to
all
records
cases,including
prerelating judicialprocedure,
served.Beforea decreewas issued,a draftdecreewas writtenin
accordancewiththeessentialsofsakkal-shar'i,basedon theminutes
of the case as recordedin the gazette.Althoughit was possibleto
in the copies of the minuteswhilewriting
amendsome statements
thedraft,no amendment
alteringthecourseofthecasewas allowed.
Afterthe scribehad writtenthe draftdecree,it would be checked
bythetwoqadaskarsof Rumeliaand Anatolia,katibal-waqayi((the
clerkwho kept a registerof events),the reisal-awwal (the head
chief) and the head clerk.The draftwould then be submittedto
the judge. Afterhis examinationand approvalof the draft,both
the scribeand the officialsconcernedwould examineit one last

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A Akgunduz
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the judge
time and sign the back of it. Upon this finalscrutiny,
The sameprocedureapplied
wouldenterthedecreeintotheregister.
to hujjahs.34

JudicialDecrees:Features,Typesand Models
basic
A judicialdecreedraftedin a Sharicahcourthas the following
features.
1

The judge'ssignatureand seal,placed at thebottom.The judge

A seal
signsthe decreeby writinghis name and patronymic.
containsthe judge'sname,his father's
name,and sometimesa
shortsupplication.These ruleswereused when a judge signed
Classicalstatements
his name at the beginningof theregister.35
and seals are foundin books on sakkal-shar'i.
on signatures
A descriptionof the litigantsand the locationof the lawsuit
are similarto thatof a hujjah.In a judicialdecree,we findfirst
name. If the plaintiff
the plaintiffs
address,name and father's
He is expected
is indicated.
hishometown
is fromanotherdistrict,
to statethe reasonswhyhe is visitingthe localityin whichthe
trial is held, and to specifyhis currentaddress.As for the
name are
defendant,his name and titleas well as his father's
In
this
mentioned.
his
address
is
not
Often,
respect,
registered.
a judicial decreeis similarto a hujjah.
The claim, i.e. the subjectmatterof the case, statedin full.
Statementsby the plaintiff,
noted in the minutes,must be
examined;any repetitionsor statementsnot relevantto the
decisionare deletedand the allegationsand statements
made

34)Mahakim-i
Decrees
dated1276/1859,Article27 "Shar'iyyab
Nizamnamesi,
Sha/iyya
of Decrees";Ali Haydar,Duraral-Hukkam,
4:718; Majallah,Article1827;
Consisting
Isldm
Muhdkeme
Hukuku,
3; Uzuncarih,
108;Debbaghzade,
Jami'us-Sakk,
Bayindir,
Umiye,
Article
Duraral-Hukkam,
dated
223ff.;
1827;AliHaydar,
4:764-68;Nizamname,
Majallah,
1296,Article12, 13-25.
35)Nizamname,
dated1296,Article
Duraral-Hukkam,
15:AliHaydar,
4:718;Debbaghzade,
IsldmMuhdkeme
records
380ff.;Bayindir,
Hukuku,3-4, 231; Shar(iyyah
Jami'us-Sakk
Archives
ofIstanbul's
OfficeMufti,TheBookofApplication
Seals,no.7, Doc. 4b.

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16 (2009) 202-230
A. Akgunduz
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2 19

in severalsessionsmustbe integrated.
This part
by theplaintiff
of a judicial decree containsthe allegationsof the plaintiff,
withoutany omissionor addition.36
The defendantsresponse.A defendanteitheracceptsor rejects
Thejudicial
theplaintiffs
(defi*).
allegationor filesa counterclaim
decree (i'lam) specifieswhich choice is made. If a defendant
such as
denies an allegation,this is specifiedby formulations
..."
or
"after
"afterthe question
...),
rejection..."
{gibbes-sual
A
defendant
...).
may partlyaccept and partly
(aqibal-inkar
in
which
case
the decreestates"... after
an
reject allegation,
in hisaforementioned
thequestionthedefendant
replyaccepted
a defendantmayacceptthe
... and rejected...." Alternatively,
in whichcasethedecreespecifies
hisconsent
allegation,
plaintiffs
a
counterclaim
the
defendant
verbatim.
maybring
Finally,
(defi*),
to thecounterclaim
with
in whichcase thejudicialdecreerefers
a formulalike "... [the defendant]made a counterclaimby
reply... in the course of his
statingin his aforementioned
responseand afterhis rejectionof accusations."37
fora judicialdecree.A proof,i.e. evidencesupporting
Therationale
the allegation,is usuallyrequiredin a judicialdecree,as in the
hisrejection,
thequestionandfollowing
"... when,after
statement:
was asked to presentevidencein
the aforementioned
plaintiff
his
with
conformity
allegations...."
of a defendantis
The acknowledgement
The acknowledgement.
modelformulation:
as in thefollowing
recordedword-for-word,
.... in hisresponse
thequestion[thedefendant]
"after
acknowledged
has stated."38
thatthe case is as the plaintiff
verbatimanywritten
Writtenproof.The judge musttranscribe
proofsin the judicial decree,except for writtenproofsnot
relevantto the case. In somejudicialdecrees,one findszfatwa

36)Themainsourceforthisinformation
We havetakenonlyone
is thei'lamsinregisters.
exampleofan Vlamat theendoftheseexplanations.
37)AliHaydar,
al-Bab(a lowercourt
Duraral-Hukkam,
4-7;Mahkamah
4:769; Bayindir,
in Istanbul),
2-96137,65, 125
38)
takrir-i
bil-cumle
mudde-i
mezkurun
. . . cevabindafi'l-hakika
merkum
kaziyye
"gibbes-sual
..."
bi tavihiikrarveitiraf
u'zreolub. . . olduguna
mesruhu
itmegun

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220

A. Akgundiiz
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I IslamicLawandSociety

(judicialopinion) or legal decreesthatformedthe basis of the

judgment.
In the14th
thename,sex,religious
8 Witnessing.
and 15th
centuries,
witnesses
are
recordedin decrees.
of
the
and
address
affiliation,
thewitnessing
knewthedefendant;
It is notedthatthewitnesses
are
are recordedverbatim.In decrees,thesematters
declarations
the witnesses,either
given more emphasis.Afteridentifying
in
their
terms
of
social
or
backgroundand
openly secretly,
to (tazkiyah)
attested
of
those
who
the
criminal
record
character,
In 1283/1866,
and recorded.39
is described
thewitnesses'
credibility
to
SultanAbdulAziz senta rescript
(firman) qadis so thatthose
thecharacter,
established
personswho,eitheropenlyor secretly,
and significant
eventsand incidentsin theearlylifeofwitnesses
shouldbe recordedin the records.
9 The oath (qasarn)or abstentionfromoath (nukut).In a judicial
decreea judge muststatethe oath he proposed,to assurethat
with the regulations;a
it was administeredin conformity
s takingan oathor abstainingfromit could not form
defendant
of theplaintiff
a basisforthejudgment.The religiousaffiliation
rolein theformulation
and/orthedefendant
playeda significant
of his oath. Litigantswereaskedto swearan oath accordingto
Courtrecordsindicatethateverybody
theirreligiousaffiliation.
took the oath accordingto his or her faith.40
10 At the end of the judicial decree,the judge announceshis
accordingto the means
judgment,usingstandardexpressions,
ifthemeansofproofis an acknowledgment
ofproof.Forinstance,
(iqrar),the judge uses the term"binding"(ilzam),41as in "...
Ali Agha so as to rejectand
bound by the above-mentioned
.
.
.
."
If
of
the
means
proofis witnesstestimony,
acknowledge
thenthe term"to exhort"(tanbih)is used, e.g. "theproxyof
theabove-mentioned
. . . was exhortedforrefusaland acknowl39)AliHaydar,Duraral-Hukkam,
IslamMuhdkeme
7ff.
Hukuku,
4:868-69;Bayindir,
40)
Muhdkeme
181
Istanbul
1-334/11-12;
Hukuku,
9,
ff.;
Kzyindirjsldm
Sijilleri,
Shariyyah
AliHaydar,Duraral-Hukkam,
4:869.
41)
to thejurists,
ilzammeansthatone ofthelitigants
acceptedthestatement
According
thatit is
of theotherand therefore
was silent.Forexample,ifa personacknowledged
him
for
to
act
to
the
obligatory
acknowledgment.
according

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16 (2009)202-230
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I IslamicLawandSociety

22 1

such as "it was decreed

edgement...." We also findexpressions
that ...."
areusedfortheqada al-ilzamor bindingjudgThe aboveexpressions
orexecutionofrestitution.
Thismeans
mentorfortheqada al-istihqaq
that"theaccusedpersonwas bound in termsof thedisputedcase by
'I havedecreedthattheclaimedobjectbe given.'"
thejudges statement,
of renunciation"
In a decreecalled "performance
{qada al-tark),the
like"youhaveno
lawsuitwithexpressions
judgerejectstheplaintiffs
fromdispute"
"...
has
been
not
so
should
dispute",
prevented
right, you
fromdisputefromtheaspectof Shari'ah
or "... has been prevented
to theseexpressions,
an Vlammay
attention
courts...." Throughcareful
in
Sharicah
records.42
fromotherentries the
be distinguished
A judicial decreeissued by a courtwas called an Vlambecause
its main aim was to requestthe executionof a courtdecision.The
for
courtwas requiredto submitits decreeto executiveauthorities
in
certain
a
had
to
submit
Furthermore,
cases, qadi
implementation.
his judgmentsto the Sultan,the head of the executiveauthority,
or to the GrandVizier,who was regardedas the Sultansproxy.For
fromthe late 17thcenturyonwards,the
this reason,particularly
of
a
section
judicialdecreebeginsto includeexpressions
judgment
to
suchas "... submitted his royalhighnessthat...," "... submitted
to his Excellencythatit was orderedthathe ...," or "... submitted
to his royalhighnessthroughthe privilegeof Mehmed Chawush
that. . . al-amruli menlahul-amr= the entireissueis in the hands
For thisreason,fromthe late 11th/
17thcentury
of the authorities."
onwards,thefollowing
beginto be usedat thebeginning
expressions
i.e. the wellof a judicialdecree:"ma(ruz-idaci-idawlat-icaliyyah>
or
"...
ddi-i
mafruz-i
wisherof youresteemedsuccesspresents...,"
dewam-i'omr,i.e., he who praysfor the prolongingof your life
"
Sometimes,only the word "ma'ruz*is used at the
presents
have caused some
beginningof a judicialdecree.These expressions
to confusea judicial decreeor Vlamwitha petitionor
researchers
In theLegalCode ofSultanMuhammad
ma'ruz.Thetwoaredifferent.
42)AliHaydar,
Duraral-Hukkam,
4:659-62,769-70;Debbaghzade,>?mf^-S^,252-53,
255; Majallak Article1786.

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222

A. Akgunduz
I IslamicLawandSociety
16 (2009) 202-230

it is statedthat
the Conquerorand SultanSuleimanthe Lawmaker,
some importantjudicial decrees"would be submittedto his royal
highness."43
Unlikea hujjahdeed, it is not necessaryforan i(lamor judicial
decreeto containa list of the names of the witnesses,underthe
rubricshuhudal-hal. If the means of proofis witnesstestimony,
thenamesof thewitnessesmightbe writtenat theend of a judicial
decree. In the 18thcentury,the witnessesare nevermentioned,
especiallyin a judicial decree based upon an acknowledgment.
However,the name of the complainantis likelyto be mentioned
from
in a decreeinvolvinga crime.Judicialdecreesweredifferent
deeds. In the 19thcenturyrecords,documentsthat mentionwitnesseswere considereddeeds, while othersare viewedas judicial
witnessesare mentionedin certainjudicial
decrees.Nevertheless,
decrees.44
mentioned
underthefollowing
terms,
Judicialdecreesaregenerally
of
a
to
their
debt,
subjects:acknowledgment
according
differing
to
the
the
oath
receivables,
party
(tahlif),
opposing
offering
proving
and restitution,
transfer
of receivables,
thepostponement
guarantee,
forslaves,lease(ijarah),endowments,
declaration
offreedom
marriage
and divorce,penaltiesforfalseaccusationof illicitsexualrelations
(zina),examining
{shirb)and adultery
buildings,
(qazf),winedrinking
fromIslam (irtidad),the deterconversionto Islam or apostatizing
minationof thebeginningof themonthof fasting(Ramadan);theft
and punishmentof theft(hadd al-sirqati).
subjects,
Any documentrelatingto one of the above-mentioned
includingthe judgmentof a qadi, is an Vlamor judicial decree,
is mentioned
evenifthetermma(ruzor ma'ruzal-dawlahal-aliyyah
at the beginning,and whetheror not the "witnessesof the case"
{shuhudal-hat)are mentionedat the bottom.

43)Qanun-iOthmanu
totheJournal
oftheCounciloftheOttomanHistory,
Supplements
Istanbul1330,70-72;Debbaghmde
223-40;B23-1271104;HilmiErgUney,
Jami'us-Sakk,
TurkHukukLugati,218; Bayindir,
IslamMuhdkeme
Hukuku,18ff.
44)

Bayindir,IslamMuhdkemeHukukuy11; JudicialDecreesin theRecordBook no. Besikta

BabMahkemesi,
2-88/50a.
23-127,Istanbul
Shar'iyyah
Sijilleri,

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I IslamicLawandSociety
16 (2009) 202-230
A. Akgunduz

223

One importantVlamrelatesto receivables,the means of proof

of witnesses:45
beingthe testimony
documentitself,
Mehmed
Beingthecauseof theissuanceof thiswritten
utteredthefollowing
Bee,son of Mahmud,a butcher,
allegationat the
OsmanBey,sonofMustafa:
ofthedefendant,
courtinthepresence
Sharicah
fromme,theweightandamountofwhichis
"In return
formeatpurchased
havebeenmade,theaforeknownto bothofus,and afterthecalculations
in the
Osmanowesme2020 akcha.OsmanBeyacknowledged
mentioned
this
was
that
one
before
written
document
draftedof
witnessesday
presence
and
be fullyinvestigated
he owesme2020 akcha.I requirethatthematter
Whenthedefendant
topaymethesaidamount."
thatOsmanBeybeordered
was askedto
he deniedit,and theplaintiff
wasaskedaboutthesituation,
then
Abdulhis
The
to
evidence
support allegation. plaintiff brought
present
in the
who
lives
lah, son of Mustafa,a Muslimand trustworthy
person
in the
son
of
who
lives
in
and
Ibrahim,
Istanbul,
Hasan,
Awliyah
quarter
the
Sharicah
court.
After
the
aforeas
witnesses
to
WaladKarabashi
quarter,
theirteswereaskedaboutthematter,
witnesses
mentioned
theypresented
2020 akcha
OsmanBeyowestheplaintiff
timony,
legally,
saying:"In truth,
one day
as thepriceof themutton,thetruthofwhichhe acknowledged
us as
of thisdocumentin our presence,
designating
priorto thedrafting
ofthesameand we
we arenowthewitnesses
as well.Therefore,
witnesses
were
ofthewitnesses
andsocialbackground
toit."Whenthecharacter
attest
a
was
was
and theirtestimony accepted, judgment givenfor
established
wasthereafThematter
wasdulyordered.
andthedefendant
remuneration
as requested.
in therecords,
terregistered
Zil-qadah,1127/1715.
MehmedsonofAhmedChelebi,
AbdullahsonofAbdullahChelebi,
MustafaChelebi,sonofShabanoglu,
AbuBakr,sonofKatibAhmed.

45)Istanbul
2-110/43a.
BabMahkemesi,

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224

A. Akgunduz
I IslamicLawandSociety
16 (2009) 202-230

ThetermmcCruz
We drawattenmeans"something
literally
presented."
tion to threetypesof ma'ruzat:(1) a generalma'ruzpetition;(2) a
ma'ruzas an officialdocumentin whichone official/office
requests
actionfromanother(oftena superior)or informsit of a particular
matter;(3) a ma'ruzofa qadi,whichis likean Vlam.
Technically,the term macruzhas two meanings.The primary
meaningrefersto an independentdocumentthatdoes not contain

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16 (2009) 202-230
A. Akgiinduz
I IslamicLawandSociety

225

the judgmentof a qadi. Althoughwrittenby a qadi, it is not

of a legal case.
acceptableas a writtenproofforthe determination
documentin whichtheqadi submitsan administrative
It is a written
Otherdocumentsof this
matterto the executiveauthorities/offices.
to the executive
of
submitted
include
petitions complaint
type
or to theqadi. However,a ma'ruzis in generala document
authorities
of lowerrankto his superiorsto
and recordwrittenby an officer
or a case. Such documentsare
submita requestfor information
The secondarymeaningis associated
also knownas (arizahor (arz.46
withan Vlamaddressedand submittedto the officeof execution.
in theArchivesof theOffice
Forinstance,ma'ruzregisters
preserved
of Vlams,i.e., cataloguesconof the Muftiof Istanbulare registers
in
mostVlamsopen with
the
Vlams.
17th
century,
Beginning
taining
the statement"ma'ruzal-daHal-dawlahal-aliyyah...." We should
not treattheseVlams,in whichthe word ma(ruzis writtenat the
submittedby
theminutesof investigation
as comprising
beginning,
a regentto a qadi. These were Vlamsrelatingto penal law and
(theSultan
bya regentto executiveauthorities
judgmentssubmitted
of
Sultan
Muhammad
or GrandVizier).But just as the legal code
decreesto high
theConquerorrequiredthesubmissionofimportant
thesame traditionwas observeduntiltheend
executiveauthorities,
of the Ottomanperiod.Each issue of taqvimal-waqayV(the first
submitted
Ottomanofficial
gazette)containeddecreesof retaliation
in
book
Vlam
a
sakk
an
the
sultan.
to and certified
Moreover,
by
as a ma'ruz.
is identicalto an Vlamregistered
betweena ma(ruzwrittenby a qadi and an Vlam
The difference
as a ma'ruzis thatthe formerdoes not containtheqadi's
registered
judgment.Rather,the qadi submitsthe mattersto the relevant
officesof execution.A viziermightsubmita reporton the good
conduct of a muftiand qadi in the regionand recommendhis
promotion{ma'ruz of good conduct,malruzal-husnal-hal). He
mightsubmita reporton the bad behaviorof banditsand demand
thatactionbe taken(ma'ruzof bad conduct,ma'ruzal-su al-hal).
46)Qanun-iOthmanu
oftheCommittee
fortheHistory
to theJournal
TheSupplements
IsldmMuhdkeme
Hukuku,18ff.;
lSl-25/lff.;
oftheOttomans,
70-72;Bayindir,
Kasimpasa
223-39,341-70.
Sijilleri, 3-93/Iff.;Debbaghzade,

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226

16 (2009) 202-230
A. Akgunduz
I IslamicLawandSociety

He mightinformthe officeof executionof vacantposts {ma'ruz

orsubmita reporton positions(jihats)eliminated
al-jihatal-mahlulah)
A qadi might
or abolished(ma'ruzal-jihatal-mafrugha
wal-marfu(a).
sent
a
of
decree
about the receipt
by the cenprovideinformation
or submita reporton thesituationof qadis and
traladministration
ulama who serveda trainingperiodin officialposts {mulazamati)\
the
or he mightsubmita reporton e.g., the releaseof a prisoner,
deathof a governoror qadi, or a requestfora license.47
The followingis an exampleof a ma'ruzpetition:
andblessedSultan!I amoneofthedwelLongliveour(Grand),(illustrious)
banditsappearedin theaforementioned
lersof Haskoy.Recently
village,
I submitto thewillofmy
brokeintomyhouse,and stolemybelongings.
wouldkindlyconveya
SultanthatI suspectsomepersons.Ifyourhighness
The edict
thematter.
written
decreeto BostanjiAgha,he willinvestigate
is frommySultan.
(ferman)
SayyidOmar,sonofIdris.
theGrandVizier,therepresentaofthewritten
complaint,
Uponthereceipt
decreeto Bostanjibashi
thefollowing
tiveofthesultan,conveyed
Agha:
Ithasbeendecreed
thattheHonorableBostanjibashi
Aghashouldinvestigate
and
be apprehended
robbers
and
thematter
so thatthesuspected
persons
to justice.
brought
In 1085/1674.

The Murasalah (Judge'sLetterofAppointment)

Forinstance,
Theqadi carried
outothertypesofofficial
correspondence.
from
the
a
of
an
edict
or
decree
capital, qadi mightwrite
upon receipt
ofa district
an official
letterto thevoivode48
or thekatkhuda
ordering
he mightalso
thata criminalbe apprehended.
Withan official
letter,
to him.A document
appointa deputyjudgeor delegatehisauthority
writtenby a qadi to a personof the same or lowerrankis calleda
murasalah.
Such a documentfallsintotwocategories:
(1) Subpoenas
47)
341-70.
Debbaghzade,>razf^-&z,
; A military
in a
in Slaviccountries;
ofa townor province
commander
localgovernor
Slaviccountry,
&
Wallachia.
Poland,
Moldavia,
esp.
Transylvania

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A. Akgimduz
I IslamicLawandSociety
16 (2009)202-230

227

summoningtheaccusedto the court;and (2) otherrelatedissues.49

Manysuchdocumentsarefoundin thecourtrecords.
and Registered
in the
33.2 Documents
Emanating
fromOtherOffices
Records
Especiallyin theprovincialcapitals,theqadi receivedmanydecrees,
to a beglerbegi,
a sanjak
sentgenerally
by the centraladministration
and
to
a
or
These
or
a
decrees
were
town,
qadi deputyqadi.
principality,
who
was
not
with
Shari'ah
affairs
addressedto theqadi,
charged only
in
his
as
indicated
butalsowithexecutive
domain,
power
jurisdictional
forqadis. The qadis registered
decrees
in documentsof appointment
letters
ordersconveyed
(berats),
bytheGrandVizier,
imperial
{firmans),
as
other
as
well
documents
sentby di
and
beglerbegi qadaskan
stateinstitutions.
Decreesand EdictsfromtheSultan
Decreesand edictssentto theqadi by thesultanfallintotwo main
The first
includesdecrees{awamirandfaramin)50
category
categories.
in
or
his
the
sultan
written
name,baseduponhisstatusas theultiby
a qadi thathe had
The
sultan
matesourceofauthority.
mightinform
or
selectedone of severalviewson a matterdisputedin theSharicah,
theexecutionofa Shari'ah
decreeendorsing
he mightconveya written
oftheImperialCouncil(Diwan
an abstract
rule,orformulate
(talkhis)
aboutwhich
limits
of
authorized
the
within
arrangements,
Humayun),
often
at the
were
drafted
These
documents
he theninformed
qadis.
weresometimes
OfficeoftheQadi ofIstanbul,wherespecialregisters
wasnotused,thedocumentwasregistdevotedto them.Iftheregister
so that
eredat thebeginning,
middle,or end of theShari'ahrecords,
from
other
entries.
be
would
separate
they
Second, the sultan issuedfirmans,imperiallettersand orders
concerningthe assignmentof tasks,i.e., assigningfiefsto farmers
or tradelicenses.In the Ottomanstate,the officesof the qadi, the
imam,the preacher,and the holderof public land, amongothers,
49)
IslamMuhakeme
Mahkemesi
Hukuku,19,254.
19-9/39;Bayindir,
Sijilleri,
Haskdy
50)Awamir
is pluraloffirman.
is pluralofamr,faramin

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228

A. Akgiinduz
I IslamicLawandSociety
16 (2009)202-230

were assignedto personsin officialmemoranda,emanatingfrom

the qadaskarand grandvizier,and in edicts and imperialletters
issuedby the sultan.A copy of the edictsand imperialletterswas
localities.
in the Sharicahrecordsof the respective
registered
OrdersfromtheGrandVizier,Beglerbegiand Qadaskar
The GrandVizier,thedeputyofthesultan,was chargedwiththeexecutionand follow-up
ofSharicah
decreesand laws.The GrandVizier,
of
in accordancewitha decreebytheSultan,coulddrawtheattention
mandates
The
contain
to
certain
matters.
Sharicah
records
qadis
legal
orderoftheGrandVizier,in whichhe api.e., thewritten
(buyrultu),
and qadaskar,
viziers,beglerbegh
pointsadmirals,
4. Conclusion
Thesharicah
courtsystem
aroseintheearlyperiodoftheOttomanstate.
Officessuchas theshaikhuislam,
qadaskar,and qadi formedthemain
of
the
Ottoman
part
affecting
judicialbody.A numberofdevelopments
theOttomanjudiciary
occurred
duringthereignofMahmudII, during
theTanzimatperiod,and in theperiodthatfollowed.Thesedevelopmentsbroughtabout changesin the statusand functionof thekey
actorsin theOttomanjudicialenterprise,
i.e.,theshaikhuislam,
qadaskar,and qadi.
Ottoman shari'ahrecordswere preservedbetterthan in other
Muslimstates.The Ottomanstatetookcareto preserve
pre-modern
sharicahrecordsin accordancewithlaws,decreesand local orders.
The firstlaw about preserving
courtrecords,a legal decreeenacted
Sultan
I
by
Bayezid (1389-1402), containedrulesaboutwritingand
documentsand registration
preserving
procedures.
Duringthereign
ofSultanMehmedII (1451-1481),we findsomerulesin theOttoman
Legal Code. AfterMehmed II, new and independentlegal guidedealt with the registration
lines,enactedby Ottomanauthorities,
of sharicahrecords.Theselegalguidelineswerecalled Qanunndme-i
Rusum(Legal Code forCourt Fees). AftertheTanzimatmovement,
new arrangements
were made forwritingand preserving
sharicah
records.

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16 (2009)202-230
A. Akgiinduz
I IslamicLawandSociety

229

A numberof recordsin the sharicahrecordbookswereclassified

The firstcategoryincludestherecordsprepared
intotwocategories.
and writtenby theqadi, which,in turn,fallintofivesubcategories:
deeds(hujjahs),judicialdecrees(i'lams),petitions(ma'ruzat),judges'
lettersof appointment(murasalat)and otherrecords.The second
instructions
includessultanicdecrees,ordersofappointment,
category
and othertypesof decreesthatwerenot preparedby a qadi.
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