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Operational Amplifiers

I terminali dellamplificatore
operazionale

Figure 2.1 Circuit symbol for the op amp.


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Figure 2.2 The op amp shown connected to dc power supplies.


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Funzione e caratteristiche
dellamplificatore operazionale
ideale
A= guadagno differenziale

Figure 2.3 Equivalent circuit of the ideal op amp.


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Segnale differenziale e di modo


comune
vid=v2-v1
vic=1/2(v1+v2)
v1=vicm-vid/2
v2= vicm+vid/2

Figure 2.4 Representation of the signal sources v1 and v2 in terms of their differential and common-mode components.
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La configurazione invertente

Figure 2.5 The inverting closed-loop configuration.


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A
v2-v1=vo/A=>0  v1=v2 cortocircuito virtuale

Sfasamento di 180
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Effetti del guadagno a anello aperto


finito

v0=A(v2-v1)
v2=0
v1=-v0/A
Se A G-R2/R1
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Resistenza di ingresso e di uscita

R=vi/i1=vi/(vi/R1)=R1
Per avere alta resistenza di ingresso ed elevato guadagno R2 dovrebbe essere
troppo elevata (> decine di M) e questo farebbe perdere di idealit al funzionamento
delloperazionale.

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Esempio di possibile
configurazione ad alto guadagno

Figure 2.8 Circuit for Example 2.2. The circled numbers indicate the sequence of the steps in the analysis.
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Figure 2.9 A current amplifier based on the circuit of Fig. 2.8. The amplifier delivers its output current to R4. It has a
current gain of (1 + R2/R3), a zero input resistance, and an infinite output resistance. The load (R4), however, must be
floating (i.e., neither of its two terminals can be connected to ground).

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Esercizio 2.5 (Amplificatore in


transresistenza)

Figure E2.5
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Esercizio 2.6

Figure E2.6
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Applicazione: il circuito
sommatore

Figure 2.10 A weighted summer.


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Figure 2.11 A weighted summer capable of implementing summing coefficients of both signs.
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Configurazione non invertente

Figure 2.12 The noninverting configuration.


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Analisi della configurazione non


invertente ideale e calcolo del
guadagno in anello chiuso

Figure 2.13 Analysis of the noninverting circuit. The sequence of the steps in the analysis is indicated by the circled
numbers.
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Applicazione: buffer

Figure 2.14 (a) The unity-gain buffer or follower amplifier. (b) Its equivalent circuit model.
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Effetto del guadagno ad anello


aperto finito

Se A oppure A>>1+R2/R1
G=1+R2/R1
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Esercizio 2.9

Figure E2.9
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Esercizio 2.13

Figure E2.13
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Esercizio 2.14
Si deve collegare un trasduttore caratterizzato da una tensione a circuito
Aperto di 1V ed una resistenza interna di 1M ad un carico di 1k.
Si determini la tensione sul carico se il collegamento viene fatto
(a) Direttamente
(b) Attraverso un inseguitore di tensione a guadagno unitario (buffer)

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Amplificatori differenziali
vid= tensione differenziale
Ad= guadagni differenziale
vicm= tensione di modo comune
Acm= guadagno di modo comune

Rapporto di reiezione di modo comune


Figure 2.15 Representing the input signals to a differential amplifier in terms of their differential and common-mode
components.
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Amplificatore di differenza a
singolo stadio

Figure 2.16 A difference amplifier.


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Calcolo del guadagno differenziale

vo1=-R2/R1 vi1
vo2=( R4/(R3+R4))(1+R2/R1)vi2
vo=vo1+vo2=( R4/(R3+R4))(1+R2/R1)vi2-R2/R1vi1
Se si vuole pesare nella stessa maniera i due ingressi si deve porre:
( R4/(R3+R4))(1+R2/R1)= R2/R1 ovvero (R4/(R3+R4))(R1+R2)/R1=R2/R1
R4/(R3+R4)=R2/(R1+R2)
Questa condizione viene soddisfatta se R4/R3=R2/R1
vo=R2/R1 (vi2-vi1)  Ad=R2/R1
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Calcolo del guadagno di modo


comune

Essendo i2=i1 si ha:

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Resistenza di ingresso
dellamplificatore differenziale
Oltre a rigettare i segnali di modo comune, lamplificatore differenziale
normalmente dovrebbe avere unelevata resistenza di ingresso.
Per determinare la resistenza di ingresso tra i due terminali (cio la vid),
detta resistenza di ingresso differenziale Rid, si consderi R1=R3 e R2=R4

Vid=R1 ii+0+R1ii
Rid=2R1

Figure 2.19 Finding the input resistance of the difference amplifier for the case R3 = R1 and R4 = R2.

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Per avere Rid grande devo


Aumentare R1 ma questo
riduce Ad

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Amplificatore da strumentazione

Figure 2.20 A popular circuit for an instrumentation amplifier: (a) Initial approach to the circuit; (b) The circuit in (a) with
the connection between node X and ground removed and the two resistors R1 and R1 lumped together. This simple wiring
change dramatically improves performance; (c) Analysis of the circuit in (b) assuming ideal op amps.
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Dipendenza dalla frequenza del


guadagno ad anello aperto

Figure 2.22 Open-loop gain of a typical general-purpose internally compensated op amp.


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Risposta in frequenza degli


amplificatori ad anello chiuso

Figure 2.23 Frequency response of an amplifier with a nominal gain of +10 V/V.
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Figure 2.24 Frequency response of an amplifier with a nominal gain of 10 V/V.

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Comportamento per grandi segnali:


Saturazione della tensione di uscita

Figure 2.25 (a) A noninverting amplifier with a nominal gain of 10 V/V designed using an op amp that saturates at 13-V
output voltage and has 20-mA output current limits. (b) When the input sine wave has a peak of 1.5 V, the output is
clipped off at 13 V.

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Comportamento per grandi segnali:


slew rate

Figure 2.26 (a) Unity-gain follower. (b) Input step waveform. (c) Linearly rising output waveform obtained when the
amplifier is slew-rate limited. (d) Exponentially rising output waveform obtained when V is sufficiently small so that the
initial slope (vtV) is smaller than or equal to SR.
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Figure 2.27 Effect of slew-rate limiting on output sinusoidal waveforms.


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Non idealit in continua: offset

Figure 2.28 Circuit model for an op amp with input offset voltage VOS.
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Figure E2.23 Transfer characteristic of an op amp with VOS = 5 mV.


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Figure 2.29 Evaluating the output dc offset voltage due to VOS in a closed-loop amplifier.
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Figure 2.30 The output dc offset voltage of an op amp can be trimmed to zero by connecting a potentiometer to the two
offset-nulling terminals. The wiper of the potentiometer is connected to the negative supply of the op amp.
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Integratori e derivatori

Figure 2.37 The inverting configuration with general impedances in the feedback and the feed-in paths.
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Integratore reale (Esempio 2.6)


Si ricavi per il circuito in figura unespressione
per Vo(s)/Vi(s) . Si dimostri che la funzione di
trasferimento quella di un circuito passa-basso.
Si trovi il guadagno dc e la frequenza a -3dB.
Si dimensioni il circuito per avere un guadagno
dc di 40dB, una frequenza a -3dB di 1kHz e la
resistenza di ingresso 1k. Per quale frequenza
il modulo della funz. di trasferimento 1?
Qual langolo di fase a questa frequenza?

Figure 2.38 Circuit for Example 2.6.


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Diagramma di Bode di un filtro


passa-basso del primo ordine

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Integratore di Miller
i1=vi/R1

vo(t)=-vc(t)

Si comporta come un passa basso con frequenza di taglio nulla.


Per =0 il modulo infinito  funziona ad anello aperto
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In dc , quando il condensatore si comporta come circuito aperto, non c


retroazione negativa!
Questa una fonte di problemi: ogni pur piccola componente dc in ingresso
produrrebbe una tensione teoricamente infinita. Ovviamente nella pratica luscita
Saturer positivamente o negativamente a seconda del segno del segnale dc in ingresso

Figure 2.40 Determining the effect of the op-amp input


offset voltage VOS on the Miller integrator circuit. Note that
since the output rises with time, the op amp eventually
saturates.

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Effetti delle correnti di bias in


ingresso

Figure 2.41 Effect of the op-amp input bias and offset currents on the performance of the Miller integrator circuit.
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Figure 2.42 The Miller integrator with a large resistance RF connected in parallel with C in order to provide negative
feedback and hence finite gain at dc.
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Esempio 2.7
Si determini luscita prodotta da un integratore di Miller in
risposta ad un impulso di ingresso di ampiezza 1V e durata 1ms.
Siano R1=10k e C=10nF. Se in parallelo al condensatore viene posto
Un resistore 1M, come si modificher la risposta?
Si ipotizzi che lopamp saturi a +/-13V.

Si assuma che per t=0 Vc=0

Dove v0(0+) il valore iniziale che 0.


Luscita sar un esponenziale con cost. di tempo RFC=10ms

Per t=1msFigure
v0(t)=9.5V
2.43 Waveforms for Example 2.7: (a) Input pulse. (b) Output linear ramp of
ideal integrator with time constant of 0.1 ms. (c) Output exponential ramp with resistor
RF connected across integrator capacitor.
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Il derivatore (filtro passa-alto)

Fase =-90 (ovvero -180 (configurazione invertente)+uno sfasamento dovuto allo zero (+90))
Figure 2.44 (a) A differentiator. (b) Frequency response of a differentiator with a time-constant CR.
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