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POWER ELECTRONICS
half cycle. At the end of the half cycle the current falls to zero as the load is resistive and the thyristor turns o f f .
Similarly in the next half cycle, Tn produces positive output.
Normally cyclocoriverter is used to produce an ac output at reduced frequency The output voltage
is fabricated by appropriate segments of the input voltage,
Negative half cycle is fabricated by Tm and Tm. It is obvious from the waveforms that output frequency
is 1/3 of the input frequency. As the firing angle of all thyristors is zero degree, average output has square
waveform, which will contain significant harmonic content. The harmonic content leads to excessive temperature rise in ac motors. In order to produce sinusoidally varying average output voltage, firing angle is
required to be modulated as shown in Fig. 8.2. It is clear from the waveforms that high frequency oscillation is
superimposed on the low frequency sinusoidal output. Amplitude of the fluctuation is quite significant, therefore, some other techniques are employed to produce output of better quality. However, it is not possible to
produce perfect sinusoidal waveform from cyclo-converter. Dual converter is also used to fabricate output of
desired frequency.
8.2
CYCLOCONVERTERS
385
resistive the current falls to zero at the end of this half cycle, consequently, both the thyristors are turned o f f .
In the following half cycle Tm and Tm are turned on. As Tpi and Tn are already off there is no possibility of
short circuit between two converters.
- . -
;>^Positive converter (P-converter) produces positive haIf cycle of the output and negative half cycle
is fabricated by N~converter
If the output is not an integer submultiple then short circuit may take place. Let us take the case when TN\
and TN2 fired in the third half cycle, it is evident from the circuit that short circuit will take place as Tp{ and
T^ are already conducting. Some amount of short circuit current is permitted to circulate between two converters, therefore, in a particular scheme an intergroup reactor is placed between P and N converters to limit the
circulating current.
N-converter
P-converter
Tpi
zx
T P 3
TN2
N4
b
<1
Tp4 7 \
A ip
ti
Ni
386
POWER ELECTRONICS
From ty to tT P-converter operates in the rectification mode. At t7, load voltage changes its polarity but the
current is still positive due to load inductance. After t2 negative voltage is produced by P-converter by
controlling its firing angle between 90 and 180. From t2 to t3 energy stored in the load inductance is fedback
_ _
_ _
.
_ _
_
.
_
v _
y
Fig. 8.5. Waveforms with inductive load.
to the source as the polarities of the voltage and the current are opposite. The converter in that duration
operates as line commutated inverter. Similar operation takes place in the N-converter during the negative half
cycle of the load current. Detailed explanation of the operation can be given with the help of the waveforms
shown in Fig 8.6. In order to obtain sinusoidally varying average output voltage, firing angle is gradually
varied. At point, A, appropriate thyristors are fired without delay to produce maximum mean voltage. At point,
B, average value is slightly reduced by introducing some delay in the firing angle. At point C firing angle is
further increased to reduce the average voltage. At tv firing angle is 90 for zero output voltage. From t2 to t3
P-converter is operated in inversion mode and firing angle is gradually increased to get higher negative
average voltage. At tv load current falls to zero and the conducting thyristors, Tpl and Tpv turn off naturally.
After some delay Tm and Tm are turned on. The delay is intentionally introduced to avoid any short circuit
between two converters. It can be seen from the circuit that in this particular case, short circuit can not occur.
Let us take the case when the load current falls to zero in the previous half cycle. At that point Tpl and Tn are
under turn off process and
and Tjv2 are turned on without any delay. It is clear from the circuit that short
circuit will take place between two converters. Therefore, a delay is introduced in the firing signal of the
incoming converter. In addition, intergroup blanking is used to block the operation of one of the converters.
P and N converters are operated alternately. As circulating current is eliminated, the circuit is called noncirculating current cycloconverter. Control circuit of non-circulating cycloconverter is complex. In another
scheme cycloconverter operates with a circulating current between two converters, however, the current is
restricted by an intergroup reactor. The control circuit of this cycloconverter is comparatively simpler and the
load voltage waveform is better compared to that of other scheme. At the same time, load current waveform is
further improved by the filtering effect of the reactor. But, losses in the converters are increased by the
circulating current. The reactor reduces the amplitude of the high frequency pulsation superimposed on the
low frequency sinusoidal output. Due to the reduction of total harmonic distortion, performance of the motor
type load is improved.
CYCLOCONVERTERS
387
(Load voltage)
(Load current)
Input voltage
- Delay
Any type of cyclo-converter has inherent capability of power flow in either direction, so the circuit can
deliver power at any power factor. Single phase to single phase cycloconverter is rarely used in practice. Three
phase to single phase cycloconverter fabricates better waveform, because more pulses are available for
fabricating output waveform.
type of cyclo-converter has inherent capability of power flow in either direction, so the circuit
can deliver power at any power factor.
8.4. THREE PHASE TO ONE PHASE CYCLOCONVERTER
As already mentioned that single phase to single phase cycloconverter is rarely used. Before explaining
the operation of the circuit let us develop the expression for output voltage. Fig. 8.7 shows a three phase,
c
Output voltage
A
j
\7
1c1
Load
POWER ELECTRONICS
338
three pulse P-converter and its output waveforms for constant firing angle. Time origin is taken at the instant
of the peak value of vA. Thyristor, J A , is fired at - 71/3 + a.
Average voltage is given by
1 fin/3+a I
v =
2VphC0S<0td(0t
...(8.1)
* wUJ
Where
VDh c o s 0)1 is the equation of phase voltage, vA.
From above,
sm
V, = V2 V,ph
cos a
= Vdocosa
Where
do
^ifHf
...(8.2)
...(8.3)
...(8.4)
...(8.5)
v0=vph
-rectification
Curve 1 is for P-converter and curve 2 is for iV-converter (Fig.8.9) It is clear from the curve 1 that for
0 < a < 90, P-converter operates as a rectifier and for 90 < a < 180, the converter operates as an inverter.
389
CYCLOCONVERTERS
Rectification and inversion properties are utilised in cyclo-converter to produce ac output when inductive load
is connected to it. By suitably controlling the firing angle, average output can be varied sinusoidally. Fig. 8.9
shows a six thyristor, three pulse cycloconverter. An interphase reactor can be omitted if non-circulating
current scheme is adopted.
r m
2
Z\
P-converter
qfWTWW
A
N-converter
Intergroup reactor
Load
N
CYCLOCONVERTERS
391
J
Fig. 8.11. Waveforms of P and N converters for R-L load.
8.5. BRIDGETYPECYCLOCONVERTER
It comprises 12 thyristors for producing single phase output. Basically it is a dual converter operated in
a particular manner to produce sinusoidal output. Fig. 8.13 shows the circuit.
8.5.1. Output with R-Load
As seen earlier, bridge converter produces six pulse output. Average value of the output is given by
...(8.7)
where
...(8.8)
m in this case is 6
As seen earlier, converters of this circuit can operate as rectifier or inverter. Fig. 8.14 (a) shows the
waveforms, when P-converter acts as a rectifier for ap = 30. TV-converter is operated at aN = 150 (Fig. 8.14 (b)).
Average voltages produced by both converters are same but their instantaneous voltages are quite different,
which will result in circulating current. Intergroup reactor limits the current circulating between two converters.
Reactance offered by one half is X. If both the halves are perfectly coupled then total reactance offered to the
circulating current is 4X. In this case instantaneous value of the load voltage is the average of the instantaneous values of the output voltages of P and TV converters. Load voltage waveform is shown in fig. 8.14 (c) for
the condition a p + o^ = 180.
8.5.2. Non-Circulating Current Seheme
Circulating current can be avoided by intergroup blanking, i.e. when one converter is operating, firing pulses
to other converter are blocked. In addition to this, a delay is introduced for incoming converter at the time of
change over. Fig. 8.15 (a) shows the waveforms with R-L load. As the number of pulses in this case is twice that
of the output of three pulse converter, the load voltage waveform is better. The load voltage is varied sinusoidally by suitable variation of the firing angle. Filtering effect of the reactor also helps in reducing the harmonic
content in the load current.
Circulating current can be avoided by intergroup blanking, i.e. when one converter is operating,
firing pulses to other converter are blocked.
POWER ELECTRONICS
408
(3 can be calculated from the above transcendental equation by iterative method. (3 can also be
determined as follows:
Eq. 9.22 can be written as
A graph is plotted between iQ and m (oof > 180). When io becomes zero, then the corresponding
value of (tit is equal to the extinction angle, (3. Thyristor, Tv conducts from a to (3.
The conduction angle, y, is given by
y=(3-a.
If y < 180 then the load current is zero for some time. This is a case of discontinuous conduction.
When a = then each thyristor conducts for 180. In this condition the circuit behaves as if R-L load is
directly connected to ac source. If OC is further reduced then there will not be any effect on the working of
the circuit. Let T2 be conducting and Tx is given gate pulse at a < Until Thyristor T2 stops conduction. Tx
cannot be turned on. T2 turns off at <|) then Tx is turned on. If Tx is given a narrow gate pulse then it will rail
to turn on after T2 ceases to conduct, and the circuit behaves as a rectifier. In order to avoid this malfunctioning, continuous gate pulse or pulse train should be supplied as gate signal to both thyristors. Gate
pulse should be supplied to T{ from a to 180, similarly gate pulse to T2 must be supplied from 180+a to
360.
9.1.3. AC Regulator with Purely Inductive
Fig. 9.6. shows the waveforms of regulator
with inductive load. When a = 90 the circuit
behaves as if load is directly connected to ac
source. Average power over a cycle is zero. For
a > 90 current flows from a to 2n - a and from
n + a to 37t - a . Current through T x is
symmetrical about 180 point. Average power
supplied to the load by the thyristor T{ is zero
as seen from the waveforms. This is in
accordance with the fact that inductance does
not consume any power. Fundamental
component of the load current will lag the supply
voltage by 90. The value of the fundamental
component can be controlled by the firing angle,
Vm
a. And it can be varied from J ^ ^ to 0 by
controlling firing angle from 90 to 180. Thus
reactance offered by the regulator can be varied
from 0) L to infinity. So the regulator with
inductance load behaves as a variable reactor.
Fundamental component of the toad current will lag the supply voltage by 90.
This circuit is used in static reactive power compensators. (Refer to example 9.6)
409
A.C. REGULATOR
Triac, shown in the circuit of Fig. 9.1.1 (b), conducts from a to n and ft + a to 2n. Gate pulse to triac
is provided in each half cycle. Same output is produced by the circuit of Fig 9.1 (c). In the positive half cycle
current flows through Dv Tand D2 . In the negative half cycle load current flows through Dv Tand D4. Due
to presence of the rectifier only one thyristor is required, which makes it cheaper compared to the regulator
of two antiparallel thyristors. Electrical isolation between gate and control circuit is not necessary. Electrical
isolation may be made redundant by the use of another configuration shown in Fig. 9.1 (d). In the positive,
half cycle load current flows through T{ and D{ and in the negative half cycle load current flows through T2
and Dt
9.1.5. Synchronous Tap Changer
Thyristors can be used as static switches for on-load tap changing of transformers. Static tap changers are very fast in operation. Fig. 9.8 shows a circuit with two taps. The circuit can also be used for
improvement of line power factor. As a tap changer, regulators are required to conduct for full cycle in order
to provfde sinusoidal voltage.
Thyristors can be used as static switches for on-load tap changing of transformers.
Tl
Si
t
T3
kV
T4
k< 1
S2
Load
410
POWER ELECTRONICS
When switch S} (T{ & T2) conduct for full cycle, output voltage is equal to V. If gate pulses to T{ and
T2 are blocked, and T3 and T4 are turned on for full cycle conduction then reduced voltage, KV, appears
across the load.
The circuit can be used to improve power factor. In an ac regulator, firing angle control is employed to
control the output voltage. At low output voltages, firing angle is high. So, output voltage is significantly
distorted resulting in higher percentage of harmonics. Both displacement factor and distortion factor will be
low leading to low power factor. Synchronous tap changer can be employed to improve the performance. A
comparison will be made between two cases. In one case only Sx is operated from 0 to 180. In other case
only S2 is operated. For simpler analysis, resistive load is considered and K = 0.5. Curve 1 is for output
voltage and P. F. when switch, Sv is operated. For a < 90 p.f. is more than 0.707.
an ac regulator, firing angle control is employed to control the output voltage.
1.0
O.s
P-t
0.6
W)
3 0.4
0.2
O-
P.F. and
output
Vvoltage
-J I 1 I I L i i i i i
71/2
Firing angle a
Fig. 9.9. Variation of output voltage and P.f. with firing angle.
411
A.C. REGULATOR
"I
1:1
H>tr
n-1
Load
416
POWER ELECTRONICS
417
A.C. REGULATOR
Whenever phase sequence reversal is required then thyristors of SB and Sc are turned off
and thyristors of S'B and S'c are turned on. By
turning on S'B and S'c, load terminals c and b are
connected to B and C respectively, thus phase
sequence of load is changed to ACB. The reversed
phase sequence produces a rotating field (in the
induction motor) in the opposite direction.
Reverse rotating field tends to rotate the
motor in the reverse direction. If the motor is already running then rotating field in opposite direction produces a braking torque, which quickly
stops the motor and then rotates the motor in the
opposite direction. This type of braking is called
plugging, which requires large stator current because the slip between rotor and flux is about 2.
Braking current can be about 12 times the full load
current. Therefore, thyristors of the circuit must
have very large current rating.
Reverse rotating field tends to rotate the motor in the reverse direction. If the motor is already
running then rotating field in opposite direction produces a braking torque, which quickly stops
the motor and then rotates the motor in the opposite direction.
9.3.3. AC Circuit Breaker
In usual ac regulator, thyristor
current falls to zero in other half cycle. In case of short circuit very large
current flows through the conducting thyristor. In order to protect the
thyristor from over current, forced
commutation may be employed. Fig.
9.19 shows ac circuit breaker. Capacitors, Cx and C 2 , are charged to peak
value through D{ and D2 respectively.
Let Tm{ be conducting and fault takes
place. A current feed back circuit is
used. On detection of over current,
firing pulses are generated by control circuit which turns on auxiliary
thyristor T&v as a result, the charged
capacitor, Cp turns offT x by forced
voltage commutation. Similarly T 2
can be turned off by Ta2 and C2
Fig. 9.19. AC circuit breaker.
In order to protect the thyristor from over current, forced commutation may be employed.
8-2
Introduction :
AC voltage controllers are thyristor based device which convert fixed alternating voltage directly to
variable alternating voltage without a change in the frequency. Some of the main application of ac
voltage controllers are for domestic and industrial heating, transformer tap changing, lighting control,
speed control of single-phase and three phase ac drives and starting of induction motors.
Sol.
Given : R load, a =
For single phase half
PMMC reads average
3.
Single-phase J
The main disadvantage of ac voltage controllers is the introduction of objectionable harmonics in the
supply current and load voltage waveforms, particularly at reduced output voltage levels.
2*
3.1 Rload :
h>A
xot
H < H
Dl
sin
v.l l i ?
V Q -
2 %
2iz
2tc '
J a
0frr
2kR
2n-a
sin 2 a
iJn
4K
s {pr)Power
factor :
2n~a
271 - a +
sin 2 a
2
sin2a
a
Average oi
v^ir) RMS outpi
yTThe source current contains DC components and saturates the transformer core therefore half controlled
// regulator not preferred for applications.
ower fact
* GATE A C A D E M Y P U B L I C A T I
Copyrights AH rights reserved by C
8-2
Introduction :
AC voltage controllers are thyristor based device which convert fixed alternating voltage directly to
variable alternating voltage without a change in the frequency. Some of the main application of ac
voltage controllers are for domestic and industrial heating, transformer tap changing, lighting control,
speed control of single-phase and three phase ac drives and starting of induction motors.
The main disadvantage of ac voltage controllers is the introduction of objectionable harmonics in the
supply current and load voltage waveforms, particularly at reduced output voltage levels.
2.
H < H
D1
F_ sin art
:R
f27t
V0= \J a
2tc
Fv
2TC
2TT
= =[cosa-1]
R
2%R
lv m
4%
m )Power factor
2n-a
2n-a
K
42
I 1
sin2a
f 2*
PL
2 (1-COS20
27i-a +
sin 2 a
sin 2 a
a
he source current contains DC components and saturates the transformer core therefore half controlled
regulator not preferred for applications.
^ Q P O l A C A D E M Y PUBLICATIONS G A T E A C A D E M Y P U B L I C A T I O N S G A T E A C A D E M Y P U B L I C A T I O N S G A T E A C A D E M Y P U B L I C A T I O N S
- ^ ^ h t s All rights reserved by GATE ACADEMY PUBLICATIONS. No part of this booklet may be reproduced or utilized in any form without the written permission.
8-3
Example 1
A single phase half wave AC voltage controller feeds a R load for a firing angle of 180PMMC voltage
across the load would read.
Sol.
3.
Ans.
+1
0F
& T2
M
:R
s shunt
i
Vfit / R
= i 7i-a+-
sin 2 a
sin2a
J%
8-4
'
a
FB
p i ^ O y /
FC
RB
RC
sin Qt)2
p-a +
3 . 3 R L l o a d u n c o n t r o l l e d ( a < <j>)
8-5
If pulse gate signal is given to ac voltage controller then it may behave as half wave rectifier because
one of the SCR fails to turn on. To avoid this problem we must give high frequency gate pulse to
thyristor.
S TRIAC cannot be used for inductive load with time constant.
4.
71J7
|V S
7 >
V.IL:
ivs
L=
42%
_ vM
yjln
F
\fliz
a - 0 +
^
a-0
sin 2 x 0 - sin 2 a
sin 2 a
47i-3a +
+ 4 7i-a +
J
V
sin 2 a
2
.
.
. . .
+ 4 7 1 - 4 a + 2 sin 2a
3 sin 2 a
|2tcH
lJ%R
sin 2 a
\2
dmt =
2F
V4tzR
sin 2 a
7i-a + -
sin 2 a
J%R
7i-a + -
G A T E A C A D E M Y P U B L I C A T I O N S G A T E A C A D E M Y P U B L I C A T I O N S > G A T E A C A D E M Y P U B L I C A T I O N S G A T E A C A D E M Y P U B L I C A T I O N S
Copyrights All rights reserved by GATE ACADEMY PUBLICATIONS. No part of this booklet may be reproduced or utilized in any form without the written permission.
8-10
Mid-Point
Type
. v,
Possible o/p
Voltage
Full-Bridge
Type
mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm
1) For low speed high power reversible operation the most suitable drives are cycloconverter based a.c
[rives Ex: Machine tool drive.
li) Advantage of cycloconverter is load commutation is possible in step down chopper.
(iij^Quality of ac voltage of cycloconverter is improved with increase in output voltage at increased
frequency because ripple decreases as frequency increases
(iv)18 Switches are used to construct a three phase cycloconverter.
(v) An intergroup reactor is used in a single phase cycloconverter circuit to limit the circulating current.
l)Cycloconverter has poor power factor.
POWER ELECTRONICS
348
Q. 11.
Q.12.
Q.13.
Q. 14.
Q.15.
Q.16.
Q.17.
Q.18.
Q.19.
Q.20.
Q.21.
Q.22.
C HiAFTER
Chopper
INTRODUCTION
In industrial application it is required to convert a fixed voltage dc source into a variable dc source.
DC chopper converts directly from dc to dc. A chopper can be considered as dc equivalent to ac T/F with a
continously variable turns ratio. Like a T/F it can be used as step down or step up a dc voltage source.
Choppers are widely used for traction motor control in electronic automobiles, trolley cars, marine hoists.
They provide smooth acceleration control, high efficiency and fast dynamic responce. Choppers can be used
in regenerative breaking of dc motor to return energy back into the supply and this feature results in energy
saving for transportation system with frequent stop. Chopper is also used in dc voltage regulators and also
used with inductor to generate a dc current source.
D. C. chopper is a solid state circuit which provides a variable voltage dc output from a constant voltage
dc source. It is used to control dc motor of electric automobile, trolley cars, forklift trucks, marine hoists, etc.
It is also used for battery charging and it is essential in battery operated vehicles. As any other semiconductor
circuit, chopper provides smooth and fast acceleration and efficient power control. There are two types of
chopper : (1) step down chopper is used to reduce the output voltage. Its output voltage is less than the input
voltage and (2) step up chopper is used to increase the voltage above input level.
7.1. STEP DOWN CHOPPER
Chopper is basically a series switch, which is turned on and turned off at high frequency to get square
pulse train. Average voltage can be controlled by varying the ratio of turn on and turn off periods. Fig. 7.1.
shows the basic circuit of step down chopper. Transistor, thyristor or GTO can be used as series switch.
Usually load is inductive. Therefore, a freewheeling diode is connected across the load for circulation of load
current when the transistor is turned o f f .
Chopper is basically a series switch, which is turned on and turned off at high frequency to get
square pulse train.
At the beginning of on period, Ton, the transistor is turned on. During this period, load voltage, v0, is
equal to Vs and the load current rises exponentially. When the transistor is turned o f f , the load current
circulates through freewheeling diode, DFW. Because of conduction of freewheeling diode, the load voltage
drops to zero. The energy stored in the load inductance is gradually dissipated in the load resistance, hence,
load current decays exponentially.
350
POWER ELECTRONICS
TJO
T
v0dt
...(7.1)
...(7.2)
= aK
where r is the time period of chopping and a is the duty cycle which is equal to the time ratio Ton/T.
By controlling duty cycle, a, load voltage can be controlled from 0 to V. The load voltage can be less
than or equal to the source voltage and the power flows from the dc source to the load. The chopper is called
step down chopper. During on state inductorabsorbs the energy and during freewheeling period it releases the
stored energy. Therefore, average energy (in the load inductance) per cycle is zero. Consequently average
voltage across the inductor is also zero. If I{ and /2 are the average values of the input and load currents, then
...(7.3)
Vsh^Voh
or
...(7.4)
The relations expressed in above equations are equivalent to the relations of a transformer. Duty cycle,
a, of the chopper corresponds to the turns ratio of a transformer. DC chopper can be considered as dc
transformer whose turns ratio, a, can be varied by controlling the time ratio.
7.2. Step Up Chopper
The basic circuit which can produce an output voltage greater than the source voltage is shown in
Fig. 7.2. At the beginning of the on period, transistor, T, is closed. The inductor current begins to rise linearly.
The rate of rise of the current is equal to Vs/L.
tn step up chopper circuit which can produce an output voltage greater than the source voltage
351
CHOPPER
Assuming that the inductor is large enough to minimise the current ripple, the source current, iv can
be considered equal to average current Iv Energy stored in the inductor during on state is V II Ton. Also
assuming that the capacitance, C, is large enough to minimise the voltage ripple, the instantaneous load
voltage, v 0 , can be considered equal to the average voltage , VQ. During off period, Toff, energy transferred
by the inductor is equal to (V0 -Vs)I]To{r The circuit components are considered ideal. According to the law
of energy conservation, following relation is established :
...(7.5)
^Fon + T0ff )
or
1
l-.o
...(7.6)
Where
P=
1
>1
1-a
POWER ELECTRONICS
352
From the above eqn. (7.6) it is clear that the output voltage is more than the input voltage, therefore,
the circuit acts as a step up chopper.
7.3. CONTROLTECHNIQUES OF CHOPPERS
Output voltage of chopper can be varied by controlling the duty cycle, a. There are different methods
to change the value of a.
(a) Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
In this method the frequency or the time period of chopping is kept constant and on or off period is
controlled, thus TQn/T is varied between 0 and 1. This is also called time ratio control (TRC).
(b) Variable Frequency Control
The on period, Ton,, is kept constant and the time period, T, is controlled. Generally PWM is used,
however, Ton cannot be reduced below a minimum on period,
In that case, Ton is equal to r min and T is
increased to further reduce the time ratio, TIT.
'
on
353
CHOPPER
354
POWER ELECTRONICS
Operation of Ty and Dy provides first quadrant operation, while T2 and D2 provide second quadrant
operation. When base current of T0 is blocked then operation of T{ and Dx provides first quadrant operation.
Similarly when Tx is blocked then operation of T2 and D2 provides second quadrant operation. Operating
regions are shown in Fig. 7.6.
Important feature of this circuit is that the operation of motor can be switched from forward motoring
mode to forward regenerative mode without any mechanical switch. This change-over is quick and smooth.
CHOPPER
355
Fourth quadrant operation cannot be independently provided if the load is passive, i.e., there is no emf
source on load side. However, for passive type load, operation of the circuit can be transferred from first
quadrant to fourth quadrant. When both transistors are turned o f f , positive load current flows through D{
source and Dr The load voltage is reversed and stored energy is supplied to the source, which permits faster
decay of the current of a load of long time constant such as field coil of a dc motor. The operation is not possible
with purely resistive load.
t>urth quadrant operation cannot be independently provided if the load is passive, i.e., there is
no emf source on load side.
P.I. : T} and T2
F.I. : Ti and D l
T 2 and D 2
J
+
t r v
A,.
2\;D2
Load
/
b
P.I.: D2 and D2
F.I.: D[ and Ti or
Do and T>
(a)
Fig. 7.7. Type - D chopper.
POWER ELECTRONICS
356
...(7.7)
n=1
Where
(2VAl . ,
x . (2nn
vn = ^ j - s m ( / i 7 i a ) s i n ^ / + (
where n is the order of the harmonic, a is the duty cycle and J is the time period. V0 is the average value
of the output.
RMS value of nth harmonic is given by
-(7-8)
nth harmonic current is given by
nt
j n =~ VZ.
Where,
ac voltage ripple, Vr, is given by
Zn = ^R2 + (2nfriL)2
V = JV2 ~Vn
y
y
v v rms
Where V^ is the rms value of the output voltage. It can be shown that ac ripple is maximum for a = 0.5.
7.10.2. Time Domain Analysis
Repeated on,and off operation of the transistor (Fig. 7.1) results in generation of square pulse output.
Consequently, the load current fluctuates. During on period it rises exponentially from an initial value Ip and
during freewheeling period it falls from /2 as shown in Fig. 7.9.
357
CHOPPER
I +Ixe
...(7.9)
i(t') = I2 e
t' = t~T
THYRISTORISED CHOPPERS
Though transistorised choppers are simple and cheap, they are suitable only for medium power control.
For Higher power applications, thyristorised choppers are used. As thyristor is not a self turn off device, forced
commutation is employed. Voltage and current commutation techniques are normally used.
* Transistorised choppers are simple and cheap, they are suitable only for medium power control.
For higher power applications, thyristorised choppers are used.
7.11. VOLTAGE COMMUTATED CHOPPER
A charged capacitor is used to apply a reverse voltage across the conducting thyristor. Normally auxiliary commutation is used, however, in some cases complementary commutation is also used. Fig.7.10 (a) shows
a chopper with complementary commutation. Fig.7.10 (b) shows the circuit with R-L load. A freewheeling
diode is needed to circulate load current when T* is commutated.
Dpw
Zl
^ Load
"
-it
Fig. 7.10(a) Two thyristor chopper.
362
POWER ELECTRONICS
Current commutation is achieved by injecting a reverse current, into a conducting thyristor, from
a L-C resonant circuit.
Before triggering T, the capacitor is charged to a voltage (with the polarity shown in figure) through L and
load. When J is triggered, it carries load current as well as the capacitor discharge current, iQ. Waveforms are
shown in Fig. 7.18.
CHOPPER
363
Mode l.( tQ to tx): Discharge current is positive, hence, net current through thyristor is sum of the load
current and discharge current.
Mode 2 (t x to t2): In this mode discharge current flows in the reverse direction. At t2 thyristor current falls
to zero and it is turned o f f .
Mode 3 (t 2 to f 3 ) : In this mode constant load current flows through L and C. The capacitor is charged
linearly and at t3, v c is equal to + V.
Mode 4(t3 to t4): As capacitor is charged to +Vs, D^ is forward biased and it begins to freewheel load
current. Due to stored energy in the inductance, current through the capacitor continues to flow until r4,
therefore, it is overcharged. After t4, Dm carries full load current. For a given load current, conduction period
of the thyristor is constant. Output voltage can be varied by controlling the frequency of chopping.
7.17. MORGAN CHOPPER
The Morgan chopper shown in Fig. 7.18 is also an example of single thyristor chopper. A saturable
reactor is used which behaves as a switch. In the linear region of B-Hcurve, magnetising current required by
the reactor is negligible, therefore, inductance offered by it is very large. As a result, peak discharge current
Vs
ver
saturated then it offers very small inductance. Consequently, peak discharge current Vs
is very large
and half time period n^LsC is drastically reduced. Initially the capacitor is charged to + Vs through reactor and
load. When 7 is turned on, it carries load current as well as discharge current.
In Morgan Chopper saturable reactor is used which behaves as a switch.
*DFW