Sei sulla pagina 1di 71

Inspection of HDG

Inspecting Coating Thickness & Continuity

As a final step in the galvanizing process, the hot-dip galvanized coating is inspected for compliance with
specifications. The coating thickness is the single most important component in determining a galvanized
coatings quality. Coating thickness, however, is only one inspection criteria. Coating uniformity,
adherence, and appearance should also be checked. Inspection of the galvanized product can be most
effectively and efficiently conducted at the galvanizers plant where questions can be asked and answered
quickly.
There are a number of simple magnetic gauges used to give a convenient and reliable measurement of the
zinc coating thickness, provided the instruments are properly calibrated. The three most common types of
metal coating thickness gauges are:

Magnetic balance gauges, sometimes called banana gauges, measure variation in the force of
attraction between two ferromagnetic bodies as a function of the distance between them. This type
of gauge has the advantage of being able to measure the coating thickness in a horizontal or
vertical position.

Pull-off magnetic gauges are also based on magnetic attraction to the underlying steel. These
devices are shaped somewhat like a pen and are very convenient to make quick, rough estimates
to determine whether the coating thickness meets specification.

Electronic gauges are the easiest and most accurate coating thickness measurement gauges
available. They have the ability to connect to an assortment of probes, providing the ability to
measure on any orientation.

One of the major advantages to specifying hot-dip galvanized steel is the ease of identifying coating
defects immediately after galvanizing. Any areas that may remain uncoated are easily identifiable. If large
areas see ASTM A 123) of the steel remain uncoated due to residues left on the steel from fabrication,
then the steel must be stripped free of zinc and processed again. If small areas are left ungalvanized, they
can be reconditioned using one of the three accepted methods of touch-up and repair, see ASTM A 780.
Different coating appearance may result when steels of different chemistry or surface condition are
galvanized. However, in most instances this is not a cause for rejection of the material, and does not
affect the long-term corrosion protection. To fully understand how to inspect galvanized steel pieces, and
what is acceptable and rejectable, take the Inspection Course.

Inspection of Hot-Dip Galvanized Steel


1

This course is intended to train individuals on the proper inspection techniques and
requirements for hot-dip galvanized steel products. There are four sections in this course:

Hot-Dip Galvanizing Process


Galvanizing Standards
Types of Inspection
Repair

Upon completion of this course, you should be able to recognize specification requirements and perform
all inspection steps to ensure conformance with the requirements. Additionally, any inspector who
completes the course, and passes the test (80% or better) will receive a printable Certificate of
Completion and will be listed on the AGA website as an inspector.

Disclaimer
The information contained in this course has been compiled by the American Galvanizers Association
(AGA), a not-for-profit trade association whose members represent the after-fabrication hot-dip
galvanizing industry throughout the United States, Canada, and Mexico. The AGA makes no
endorsement and offers no evaluation of any vendors products, whether listed here or not.
Next

Galvanizing Process
The term hot-dip galvanizing is defined as the process of immersing iron or steel in a bath of liquid zinc
to produce a corrosion resistant, multi-layered coating of zinc-iron alloy and zinc metal. The coating is
produced as the result of a metallurgical reaction between the liquid zinc and the iron in the steel. The
coating forms an equal thickness on all surfaces immersed in the galvanizing kettle. This process, similar
to the one seen in Figure 1, has been in use since 1742 and has provided long-lasting, maintenance-free
corrosion protection at a reasonable cost for many years. The three main steps in the hot-dip galvanizing
process are surface preparation, galvanizing, and post-treatment, each of which will be discussed in
detail.

Figure 1: Model of the Hot-Dip Galvanizing Process


Steel structures with visible evidence of corrosion are pictured in the series of photos in Figure 2. Rust
and corrosion can be expensive for business owners and taxpayers because buildings, roads, and bridges,
without sufficient corrosion protection, may need to be repaired often or even rebuilt.
The process is described in more detail later in this section. It is inherently simple, and this simplicity is a
distinct advantage over other corrosion protection methods.

Figure 2: Corroding Steel Structures


Prev | Next

Surface Preparation

Figure 3: Hanging of Steel Products


The first step in the hot-dip galvanizing process is intended to obtain the cleanest possible steel surface by
removing all of the oxides and other contaminating residues. This is achieved by first hanging the steel
using chains, wires, or specially designed dipping racks, as seen in Figure 3, to move the parts through
the process. There are three cleaning steps to prepare the steel for galvanizing.

Degreasing/Caustic Cleaning
First the steel is immersed in an acid degreasing bath or caustic solution in order to remove the dirt, oil,
and grease from the surface of the steel. After degreasing the steel is rinsed with water.

Pickling
Next the steel is immersed in an acid tank filled with either hydrochloric or sulfuric acid, as seen in
Figure 4, which removes oxides and mill scale in a process called pickling. Once all oxidation has been
removed from the steel, it is again rinsed with water and sent to the final stage of the surface preparation.

Figure 4: The Pickling Tank

Fluxing
The purpose of the flux is to clean the steel of all oxidation developed since the pickling of the steel and
to create a protective coating to prevent the steel from any oxidizing before entering the galvanizing
kettle. One type of flux is contained in a separate tank, is slightly acidic, and contains a combination of
zinc chloride and ammonium chloride. Another type of flux, top flux, floats on top of the liquid zinc in
the galvanizing kettle, but serves the same purpose.
After being immersed in the degreasing, pickling, and fluxing tanks, the surface of the steel is completely
free of any oxides or any other contaminants that might inhibit the reaction of the iron and liquid zinc in
the galvanizing kettle.
Prev | Next

Galvanizing

Figure 5: Hot-Dip Galvanizing Kettle


Once the steel has been completely cleaned, it is ready for immersion in the liquid zinc. The galvanizing
kettle contains zinc specified to ASTM B 6, a document that specifies any one of three different grades of
zinc that are each at least 98% pure. Sometimes other metals may be added to the zinc melt in order to
promote certain desirable properties in the galvanized coating.
The galvanizing kettle, like the one seen in Figure 5, is typically operated at a temperature ranging from
820-860 F (438-460 C), at which point the zinc is in its liquid state. The steel products are immersed into
the galvanizing kettle and remain in the kettle until the temperature of the steel has reached the
temperature required to form a hot-dip galvanized coating. Once the interdiffusion reaction of iron and
zinc is completed, the steel product is withdrawn from the zinc kettle. The entire dip usually lasts less
than ten minutes, depending upon the thickness of the steel.
The coating, as seen in the micrograph in Figure 6, is typical for low silicon steels with silicon impurities
less than 0.04% and where the thickness of the coating is limited by the interdiffusion of iron and zinc.

Figure 6: Photomicrograph of the galvanized coating

Post-Treatment

Filing Zinc Drips


When the steel is removed from the galvanizing kettle, it may receive a post-treatment to enhance the
galvanized coating. One of the most commonly used treatments is quenching. The quench tank contains
mostly water but may also have chemicals added to create a passivation layer that protects the galvanized
5

steel during storage and transportation. Other finishing steps include removal of zinc drips, or icicles, by
grinding them off.
Prev | Next

Time to First Maintenance


The estimated time to first maintenance for a hot-dip galvanized coating that experiences common
atmospheric exposure can be seen in Figure 7. Time to first maintenance is defined as the time to 5%
rusting of the substrate steel. The time to first maintenance of hot-dip galvanized steel is directly
proportional to the zinc coating thickness.

Figure 7: Time to First Maintenance Chart for Hot-Dip Galvanized Coatings


Prev | Next

Other Corrosion Protection Systems


There are many other types of corrosion protection, such as coating steel with oil, grease, tar, asphalt,
polymer coatings or paints, or corrosion protection materials such as stainless and weathering steel,
sacrificial anodes, plating systems and impressed current systems. These are some of the most commonly
used corrosion protection materials and systems and are sometimes used together with hot-dip galvanized
steel. Most of these materials rely on barrier protection, while some of them rely on cathodic properties to
prevent corrosion of the steel. The most effective type of corrosion protection that provides both barrier
and cathodic protection is hot-dip galvanizing.
There are also a wide variety of zinc coatings used for corrosion protection. Many people use
galvanizing to describe all of these coatings, but each has its own unique characteristics and
performance. These coatings have several applications based on their properties and respective
thicknesses. The corrosion protection offered by a zinc coating is linearly related to its coating thickness.
The most commonly used coatings are hot-dip galvanized, metallized, zinc-rich paint, galvannealed or
galvanized sheet, and electroplated. The relative thickness for each of these zinc coatings can be seen in
the photomicrograph (Figure 8). Below is a brief explanation of each type of zinc coating.
6

Figure 8: Photomicrograph of Zinc Coatings Thicknesses

Metallizing
Metallizing is the general name for the technique of spraying a metal coating on the surface of nonmetallic or metallic objects. This process is accomplished by feeding zinc in either wire or powder form
into a heated gun, where it is melted and sprayed onto the surface to be coated using combustion gases
and/or auxiliary compressed air to provide the necessary velocity. The limitations of this process include
a difficulty in reaching recesses, cavities, and hollow spaces, even coating thickness and cost.

Zinc-Rich Paint
Zinc-rich paint is applied to a clean, dry steel surface by either a brush or spray and usually contains an
organic binder pre-mix. Paints containing zinc dust are classified as organic or inorganic, depending on
the binder that they contain, and are discussed in more detail later in this course.

Continuous Galvanizing

Figure 9: Continuous Galvanizing Plant


The continuous galvanizing process is a hot-dip process where a steel sheet, strip, or wire is cleaned,
pickled, and fluxed on a processing line approximately 500 feet (154 m) in length, and running at speeds
between 100 to 600 feet per minute (30 to 185 m per minute). In the coating of a steel sheet or strip, the
galvanizing kettle contains a small amount of aluminum, which suppresses the formation of the zinc-iron
alloys, resulting in a coating that is mostly pure zinc. A post-galvanizing, in-line heat treatment process
known as galvannealing can also be used to produce a fully alloyed coating. Galvannealing is usually
ordered by those wanting to paint over the zinc surface because the presence of alloy layers on the steel
surface promotes paint adhesion. A photo of a continuous galvanizing plant is seen in Figure 9 and the
common plant setup is shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10: Example of a Continuous Process

Electroplating
The electroplating process, or zinc-plated coating, has a dull gray color, a matte finish, and a thin coating
that ranges up to one mil (25 m) thick. This very thin coating restricts the use of zinc-plated products to
indoor exposures. The specification ASTM B 633 lists the classes of zinc-plated steel coatings as Fe/Zn
5, Fe/Zn 8, Fe/Zn 12, and Fe/Zn 25, where Fe represents iron and Zn represents zinc, while the number
indicates the coating thickness in microns. The main uses for this type of coating include screws, light
switch plates, and other small products or fasteners.
Prev | Next

ASTM Specifications
There are certain specifications that have been developed for hot-dip galvanizing in order to produce a
high-quality coating. The most commonly used specifications design engineers and fabricators should
become familiar with in order to promote a high-quality coating and ensure their steel design is suitable
for hot-dip galvanizing are:

ASTM A 123/A 123M: Standard Specification for Zinc (Hot-Dip Galvanized) Coatings on Iron
and Steel Products
Single pieces of steel or fabrications with different types of steel products
ASTM A 153/A 153M: Standard Specification for Zinc Coating (Hot-Dip) on Iron and
Hardware
Fasteners and small products that are centrifuged after galvanizing to remove excess zinc
ASTM A 767/A 767M: Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Bars for
Concrete Reinforcement
Reinforcing steel or rebar
ASTM A 780: Standard Practice for Repair of Damaged and Uncoated Areas of Hot-Dip
Galvanized Coatings
Touch-up procedures for coating bare spots on an existing hot-dip galvanized product
8

Other commonly used specifications in the hot-dip galvanizing industry include:

ASTM A 143/A 143M: Standard Practice for Safeguarding Against Embrittlement of Hot-Dip
Galvanized Structural Steel Products and Procedure for Detecting Embrittlement
ASTM A 384/A 384M: Standard Practice for Safeguarding Against Warpage and Distortion
During Hot-Dip Galvanizing of Steel Assemblies
ASTM A 385/A 385M: Standard Practice for Providing High-Quality Zinc Coatings (Hot-Dip)
ASTM B 6: Standard Specification for Zinc
ASTM D 6386: Standard Practice for Preparation of Zinc (Hot-Dip Galvanized) Coated Iron
and Steel Product and Hardware Surfaces for Paint
ASTM E 376: Standard Practice for Measuring Coating Thickness by Magnetic-Field or EddyCurrent (Electromagnetic) Examination Methods
CAN/CSA G 164: Hot-Dip Galvanizing of Irregularly Shaped Articles
ISO 1461 Hot-Dip Galvanized Coatings on Fabricated Iron and Steel Assemblies
Specifications and Test Methods

Lets examine a few of these specifications in more detail.


Prev | Next

ASTM A 123 for Structural Steel Products

Figure 11: Single Fabrication with Multiple Material Categories


The ASTM A 123/A 123M specification covers individual steel pieces as well as assemblies of various
classes of material. The four material categories covered in ASTM A 123/A 123M include structural steel
and plates, strips and bars, pipes and tubing, and wires. A fabrication can have more than one material
category such as a frame assembly. Any combination of these products can be assembled into a single
fabrication and then can be hot-dip galvanized, as seen in Figure 11.
It is the responsibility of the designer and fabricator to ensure the product has been properly designed and
built before the hot-dip galvanizing process. The galvanizer should be made aware of any necessary
special instructions or requests in advance of shipping the materials to the galvanizing plant. These
requests should be stated on the purchase order for the hot-dip galvanizing.
It is the responsibility of the galvanizer to ensure compliance with the specifications as long as the
product has been designed and fabricated in accordance with the referenced specifications. However, if
the galvanizer has to perform additional work in order to prepare the product for hot-dip galvanizing,
such as drilling holes to facilitate drainage or venting, it must be approved by the customer. Once the
material has been hot-dip galvanized, it can be fully inspected at the galvanizing plant prior to shipment.
Any materials rejected by the inspectors for reasons other than embrittlement may be stripped,
regalvanized, and resubmitted for inspection. The ASTM specifications A 143/A 143M, ASTM A 384/A
384M, and ASTM A 385 provide guidelines for preparing products for hot-dip galvanizing. The
9

requirements listed in ASTM A 123/A 123M include coating thickness, finish, appearance, and
adherence. These are each defined below and discussed in more detail later in this course.

ASTM A 123/A 123M Requirements

Coating Thickness / Weight dependent upon material category and steel thickness
Finish continuous, smooth, uniform
Appearance free from uncoated areas, blisters, flux deposits and gross dross inclusions as well
as having no heavy zinc deposits that interfere with intended use
Adherence the entire coating should have a strong adherence throughout the service life of
galvanized steel

The hot-dip galvanized coating is intended for products fabricated into their final shape that will be
exposed to corrosive environmental conditions. Once a product has been hot-dip galvanized, any further
fabrication, which very rarely occurs, may have negative effects on the corrosion protection of the
coating. The coating grade is defined as the required thickness of the coating and is given in microns. All
coating thickness requirements in specification ASTM A 123/A 123M, as seen in Tables 1 & 2, are
minimums; there are no maximum coating thickness requirements in either specification.

Table 1: Minimum Average Coating Thickness Grade by Material Category (From ASTM A123)

Table 2: Coating Thickness Grade (From ASTM A 123)


The time to first maintenance of hot-dip galvanized steel is directly proportional to the thickness of the
hot-dip galvanized coating. With all other variables held constant, the thicker the zinc coating, the longer
the life of the steel. The aim of the finish and appearance requirements is to ensure no coatings have
problem areas that are deficient of zinc or have surface defects that would interfere with the intended use
of the product. In addition, the coating should have a strong adherence throughout the service of the hotdip galvanized steel.
Prev | Next

10

ASTM A 153 for Hardware


The specification ASTM A 153/A 153M applies to hardware products such as castings, fasteners, rolled,
pressed and forged products, and miscellaneous threaded objects that will be centrifuged, spun, or
otherwise handled to remove the zinc, as seen in Figure 12.

Figure 12: Galvanized Fasteners


The requirements for ASTM A 153/A 153M are very similar to those reported earlier for ASTM A 123/A
123M, except for the addition of threaded products and embrittlement requirements.

ASTM A 153/A 153M Requirements

Coating Thickness/Weight depends on the material category and steel thickness, values are
listed in Table 3
Threaded Products areas with threads are not subject to the coating thickness requirement
Finish continuous, smooth, uniform
Embrittlement high tensile strength fasteners (>150ksi) and castings can be subject to
embrittlement
Appearance free from uncoated areas, blisters, flux deposits and gross dross inclusions as well
as having no heavy zinc deposits that interfere with intended use
Adherence the entire coating should have a strong adherence throughout the service life of hotdip galvanized steel

There are fabrication steps that may impair the corrosion protection of the hot-dip galvanized coating,
however, flaking or damage to the coating because of this is not case for rejection. In all cases, good steel
selection results in the formation of a higher quality coating and finish on the product. The corrosion
protection coating for threaded products is applied after the product has been fabricated and further
fabrication may compromise the corrosion protection system. The one exception to this rule is the
internal threads of a nut that should be over-tapped after the coating is applied in order to accommodate
the coating thickness change on the thread of the bolts. In this case, the zinc on the bolt threads provides
the corrosion protection to the uncoated threads in the nut.
There are certain fabrication techniques that can induce stresses into the steel and lead to brittle failure.
There are precautions given in ASTM A 143/A 143M that should be taken in order to prevent
embrittlement. In addition, selecting steels with appropriate chemistries can help prevent embrittlement
of malleable castings. A reproduction and summary of the table given in ASTM A 153/A 153M, which is
seen in Table 3, gives the different classes of products and the minimum coating thickness required by the
specification.

11

Table 3: Minimum Average Coating Thickness by Material Class (From ASTM A 153)
Prev | Next

ASTM A 767 for Reinforcing Steel


The specification ASTM A 767/A 767M is applicable exclusively to the hot-dip galvanizing of
reinforcing steel, otherwise known as rebar, as seen in Figure 13, and is applicable to all types of rebar,
both smooth and deformed. However, wire is not included.

Figure 13: Hot-Dip Galvanized Rebar


The requirements in ASTM A 767/A 767M are also intended to produce a high quality zinc coating for
corrosion protection.

ASTM A 767/A 767M Requirements

Identity the galvanizer is responsible for consistent material tracking if necessary


Coating Thickness/Weight material category and steel thickness
Chromating to prevent reaction between cement and recently galvanized material
Finish continuous, smooth, and uniform
Appearance free from uncoated areas, blisters, flux deposits and gross dross inclusions as well
as having no heavy zinc deposits that interfere with intended use
Adherence should be tightly adherent throughout intended use of the product
Bend Diameters flaking and cracking due to fabrication after the hot-dip galvanizing process
are not rejectable

Once rebar is delivered to be hot-dip galvanized, it is the galvanizers responsibility to track and maintain
the identity of the product throughout the hot-dip galvanizing process until shipment of the finished
product. Again, the analogous coating requirements in the areas of coating thickness, finish, and
adherence are present in ASTM A 767/A 767M. However, this single product specification introduces a
few new requirements that apply solely to hot-dip galvanized rebar. In ASTM A 767/A 767M, the coating
requirement is given in mass of the zinc coating per surface area. A summary of the table given in
12

ASTM A 767/A 767M and the minimum required coating thickness / weight of the classes is seen in
Table 4.

Table 4: Mass of Zinc Coating (From ASTM A 767)


This specification also introduces a new requirement to the galvanized coating known as chromating.
Newly galvanized steel can react with wet cement and potentially form hydrogen gas as a product. As this
evolved hydrogen gas travels through the concrete matrix toward the surface, voids can be created which
weaken the bonding with the concrete or disturb the smoothness of the concrete surface. In order to help
prevent and suppress this reaction, hot-dip galvanized rebar is dipped into a weak chromate quench
solution after being removed from the galvanizing kettle.
The finish requirement for rebar is along the same lines as the finish requirements given in specifications
ASTM A 123/A 123M and A 153/A 153M. The coating is intended for corrosion protection, so
deficiencies that affect the coatings corrosion performance are grounds for rejection. In addition, since
rebar is handled frequently during its installation, any tears or sharp spikes that make the material
dangerous to handle are grounds for rejection.
Rebar is commonly bent prior to the hot-dip galvanizing process. The table below gives
recommendations for bend diameters based upon the bare steel bar diameter before coating. Steel
reinforcing bars that are bent cold prior to hot-dip galvanizing should be fabricated to a bend diameter
equal to or greater than the specified values. However, steel reinforcing bars can be bent to diameters
tighter than specified in Table 5 providing they are stress relieved at a temperature of 900 to 1050 F (480
to 560 C) for one hour per inch (25 mm) of diameter.

Table 5: Minimum Finished Bend Diameters (From ASTM A 767)


Prev | Next

13

Other Galvanizing Standards


There are Canadian and international specifications that could be used to specify hot-dip galvanizing on a
project. The differences in these specifications and the ASTM specifications are minimal, and for the
most part, only differ slightly in the minimum coating thickness/weight required for each type and
thickness of product being hot-dip galvanized.

Other Specifications for Hot-Dip Galvanizing (Taken from


CAN/CSA and ISO Standards)
CAN/CSA-G164 Hot Dip Galvanizing of Irregularly Shaped Articles
Scope
1. This standard specifies the requirements for zinc coating (galvanizing) by the hot-dipping process
on iron and steel products made from rolled, pressed, or forged shapes such as structural sections,
plates, bars, pipes, or sheets 1 mm thick or thicker.
2. Applies to both unfabricated and fabricated products such as assembled steel products, structural
steel fabrications, large hollow sections bent or welded before galvanizing, and wire work
fabricated from uncoated steel wire.
3. Applies to steel forgings and iron castings that are to be galvanized separately or in batches.
4. Does not apply to continuous galvanizing of chain link fence fabric, wire, sheet, and strip.
5. Does not apply to pipe and conduit that are normally hot dip galvanized by a continuous or semi
continuous automatic process.
6. The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard. The values in parentheses are
imperial units and are included for information only.

ISO 1461 Hot Dip Galvanized Coatings on Fabricated Iron and Steel Articles
Scope: This Standard specifies the general properties of and methods of test for coatings applied by hot
dipping in zinc (containing not more than 2% of other metals) on fabricated iron and steel articles.
It does not apply to:
1. Sheet and wire continuously hot dip galvanized;
2. Tube and pipe hot dip galvanized in automatic process;
3. Hot dip galvanizing products for which specific standards exist and which may include additional
requirements or requirements different from those of this European Standard.
4. After-treatment/over coating of hot dip galvanized articles is not covered by this standard.
NOTE Individual product standards can incorporate this standard for the coating by quoting its number,
or may incorporate it with modifications specific to the product.
Prev | Next

Types of Inspection
In this section, the type of inspections performed on hot-dip galvanized steel will be discussed. The
various inspections are used to verify the necessary specifications for the galvanized product are met.
14

These techniques for each test method are specified in ASTM A 123/A 123M, A 153/A 153M, or A 767/A
767M, depending upon the type of product being inspected. The most common inspections, listed below,
range from a simple visual inspection to more sophisticated tests to determine embrittlement or adhesion.

Coating Thickness magnetic gauges, optical microscopy


Coating Weight weigh-galvanize-weigh, and weigh-strip-weigh
Finish and Appearance visual inspection
Additional Tests
o Adherence stout knife
o Embrittlement similar bend radius, sharp blow, and steel angle
o Chromating spot test
o Bending minimum finished bend diameter table
Sampling

Prev | Next

Coating Thickness
The term coating thickness refers to the thickness of zinc applied to steel, while coating weight refers to
the amount of zinc applied to steel for a given surface area. Two different methods are used in order to
measure the coating thickness of hot-dip galvanized steel.

Figure 14: Pencil-Style Gauge


The first method to measure coating thickness involves using magnetic thickness gauges. There are three
different types of magnetic thickness gauges and all can be used quite easily in the galvanizing plant or in
the field.
The first type of magnetic thickness gauge is very small and utilizes a spring-loaded magnet encased in a
pencil-like container, as seen in Figure 14. The tip of the gauge is placed on the surface of the steel and is
slowly pulled off in a continuous motion. When the tip of the gauge is pulled away from the surface of
the steel, the magnet, near the tip, is attracted to the steel. A graduated scale indicates the coating
thickness at the instant immediately prior to pulling the magnet off the surface of the steel. The accuracy
of this gauge requires it to be used in the true vertical plane because, due to gravity, there is more error
associated with measurements taken in the horizontal plane or overhead positions. The measurement
should be made multiple times because the absolute accuracy of this type of gauge is below average and
it is difficult to determine the true coating thickness when only one reading is taken.

15

Figure 15: Banana Gauge


A banana gauge, as seen in Figure 15 is the second type of thickness gauge. With this gauge, coating
thickness measurements are taken by placing the rubber magnet housing on the surface of the product
with the gauge held parallel to the surface. A scale ring is rotated clockwise to bring the tip of the
instrument in contact with the coated surface and rotated counter-clockwise until a break in contact can
be heard and felt. The position of the scale ring when the magnetic tip breaks from the coated surface
displays the coating thickness. This type of gauge has the advantage of being able to measure coating
thickness in any position, without recalibration or interference from gravity.

Figure 16: Electronic/Digital Thickness Gauge


The electronic or digital thickness gauge, as seen in Figure 16 is the most accurate and arguably, the
easiest thickness gauge to operate. The electronic thickness gauge is operated by simply placing the
magnetic probe onto the coated surface and then a digital readout displays the coating thickness.
Electronic gauges have the advantage of not requiring recalibration with probe orientation, but do require
calibration with shims of different thicknesses in order to verify the accuracy of the gauge at the time it is
being used. These shims are measured and the gauge is calibrated according to the thickness of the shim,
and then this process is repeated for shims of different thicknesses until the gauge is producing an
accurate reading in all ranges of thickness.

ASTM E 376
The specification ASTM E 376 contains information for measuring coating thickness using magnet or
electromagnetic current. It also provides some tips for obtaining measurements with the greatest
accuracy, as well as describing how the physical properties, the structure, and the coating can interfere
with the measurement methods. The requirements for ASTM E 376, as seen below, are intended to make
the coating thickness measurements using magnet or electromagnetic current as accurate as possible.
ASTM E 376 Requirements

Measurements on large products should be made at least four inches from the edge to avoid edge
effects
Measurement readings should be as widely dispersed as possible

There are some general guidelines, as seen below, for reducing error and ensuring the most accurate
readings are being collected when using magnetic thickness gauge instruments.
Guidelines for Reducing Error
16

Recalibrate frequently, using non-magnetic film standards or shims above and below the expected
thickness value
Readings should not be taken near an edge, a hole, or inside corner
Readings taken on curved surfaces should be avoided if possible
Test points should be on regular areas of the coating
Take at least five readings to obtain a good, true value which is representative of the whole
sample

Figure 17: Optical Microscopy


The second method used to measure the coating thickness involves optical microscopy, as seen in Figure
17. This is a destructive technique and is typically only used for inspection of the coating of single
specimen samples that have failed magnetic thickness readings or for research studies. Since it is not a
common method, the accuracy is highly dependent on the expertise of the operator.
Prev | Next

Coating Weight
The term coating weight refers to the amount of zinc applied to a product for a given surface area. Two
different methods can be used to measure the coating weight of hot-dip galvanized steel.

The first method to measure the coating weight involves using a process called
weigh-galvanize-weigh, and is only appropriate for single specimen samples. The zinc coating weight
from this technique is underestimated because the actual coating is made up of both iron and zinc and this
method will only measure the added zinc weight in the coating. In addition, it can be very difficult to
measure and calculate the surface area of a complex steel fabrication, and this makes coating weight
values even less accurate.
Weigh-strip-weigh is the second method used to measure coating weight, and again is only appropriate
for single specimen samples. This method is destructive since it removes the hot-dip galvanized coating
during the measurement. This process involves first weighing the specimen, stripping it of all zinc
coating that was added, and then weighing it again. The difference in the weights is then equal to the
amount of coating added during the galvanizing process. However, this method is usually only used on
very small products like nails, and can be inaccurate because when the coating is stripped there may be
17

some base metal stripped along with the coating. This means that there may be extra iron included in the
weight measurement, making for a higher than actual zinc coating weight.
Prev | Next

Finish & Appearance

The inspection of finish and appearance is done with an unmagnified visual


inspection. This inspection is performed by fully observing all parts and pieces of a hot-dip galvanized
product to ensure all necessary components and specifications have been met. It is done in order to
observe surface conditions, both inside and out, and check all contact points, as well as welds, junctions,
and bend areas.

Appearance
The appearance of the hot-dip galvanized coating can vary from piece to piece, and even section to
section of the same piece. There are a number of reasons for the non-uniform appearance, but it is
important to note appearance has no bearing on the corrosion protection of the galvanized piece. This
section will overview the reasons for differences in appearance.

Finish
This section will review a number of possible surface defects visible on the galvanized coating. Some of
these surface defects are rejectable, as they will seriously lower the corrosion protection, while others
have little or no effect on the corrosion performance and are acceptable.
Prev | Next

Different Appearances
The appearance of hot-dip galvanized steel immediately after galvanizing can be bright and shiny,
spangled, matte gray, or a combination of these. There are a number of reasons for the difference in
appearance, as explored here, but regardless if the piece is shiny or dull, the appearance has no effect on
the corrosion performance. And in time after exposure to the environment, all galvanized coatings will
take on a uniform matte gray appearance.

Reasons for Different Appearances


Steel Chemistry
The most common reason for galvanized steel to have different appearances is the chemistry of the steel
pieces. There are two elements of steel chemistry which most strongly influence the final appearance;
silicon and phosphorous. Both silicon and phosphorous promote coating growth, and this thicker coating
is responsible for the differing appearance.

18

The amount of silicon added during the steel making process to deoxidize the steel can create differences
in appearance of galvanized products. The recommended silicon composition is either less than 0.04% or
between 0.15% and 0.25%. Any steels not within these ranges are considered reactive steels and are
expected to form zinc coatings that tend to be thicker.
In addition to producing thicker coatings, highly reactive steels tend to have a matte gray or mottled
appearance instead of the typical bright coating. This difference in appearance is a result of the rapid
zinc-iron intermetallic growth that consumes all of the bright, pure zinc. This growth of the intermetallic
layer is generally out of the galvanizers control, because they usually do not have prior knowledge of the
steels composition. However, this increased coating thickness can be beneficial in some respects because
time to first maintenance is directly proportional to coating thickness.
In Figure 18, the micrograph on the left shows a regular zinc-iron alloy, while the micrograph on the right
shows an irregular zinc-iron alloy. These clearly show the microscopic level differences that can occur
due to the amount of silicon in the steel being hot-dip galvanized.

Figure 18: Regular vs. Irregular Zinc-Iron Alloy Layers


The Sandelin curve, as seen in Figure 19, compares the zinc coating thickness to the mass percentage of
silicon in the steel. The area on the graph labeled I is called the Sandelin area and the coatings tend to
be thick and dull gray as a direct result of the percentage of silicon present in the base steel. This area is
known as the Sandelin range since Dr. Sandelin, a metallurgist, performed the experimental work to show
this behavior of galvanized steel. The Sandelin area is roughly between 0.05% and 0.15% silicon. The
area on the graph labeled II, which represents a steel content of greater than 0.25% silicon, shows the
coating thickness increases with increased silicon content and then starts to level off at around 0.4%
silicon.

Figure 19: Sandelin Curve

19

Figure 20: Coating Due to Phosphorous


In addition to silicon, the presence of phosphorus influences the reaction between the liquid zinc and the
steel, as seen in Figure 20. Phosphorus is generally considered an impurity in steel except where its
beneficial effects on machinability and resistance to atmospheric corrosion are desired. Some steels such
as ASTM A 242 Type 1 present problems because they may contain both a high level of phosphorus and a
high level of silicon. The presence of phosphorus generally produces smooth dull coating areas and
ridges of a thicker coating where there is increased intermetallic growth. The end-result is a rough surface
with ridges appearance.
Figure 21 is an example of products with separate galvanized pieces that have very different appearances
due to the difference in steel chemistry. However, all of these products still have an equal amount of
corrosion resistance throughout and are acceptable.

Figure 21: Shiny vs. Dull

Cooling Rate

Figure 22: Coating Appearance Due to Cooling Rate Difference


A visually dull or shiny coating on a product can be caused by the different rate of cooling of a product.
In Figure 22, the outer edges were cooled rapidly, which allowed free zinc or an eta layer to form on top
of the intermetallic layers. The zinc in the center of the product that would have formed the eta layer was
consumed in the reaction with the iron after the part was removed from the galvanizing kettle and formed
an intermetallic layer that gives the dull gray look. Eventually as the product weathers, the differences in
appearance will disappear and it will become a dull gray color throughout.

20

Steel Processing

Figure 23: Coating Appearance Due to Steel Processing


In addition to temperature and chemistry of the steel, the processing of the steel can also create a bright or
dull appearance in galvanized products. The top rail in Figure 23 has a winding pattern of dull gray areas
corresponding to processing during the tube making. The stresses in the steel affect the intermetallic
formation and can create this striped look. The corrosion protection is not affected and these parts are
acceptable.
Prev | Next

Finish: Visual Defects


As stated before, the hot-dip galvanized coating could have any number of surface defects. This section
will review the various defects and discuss whether or not they are cause for rejection according to the
specification. The surface defects reviewed are:

AC

Bare Spots
Blasting Damage
Chain and Wire Marks
Clogged Holes
Clogged Threads

DE

Delamination
Distortion
Drainage Spikes
Dross Inclusions
Excess Aluminum in Galvanizing Bath

FO

Fish Boning
Flaking
Flux Inclusions
Oxide Lines

PR

Products in Contact
Rough Surface Condition
Runs
Rust Bleeding
21

ST

Sand Embedded in Casting


Striations
Steel Surface Condition
Surface Contaminant
Touch Marks

UZ

Weeping Weld
Welding Blowouts
Welding Spatter
Wet Storage Stain
Zinc Skimmings
Zinc Splatter

Prev | Next

Visual Defects: A-C


Bare Spots
Bare spots, defined as uncoated areas on the steel surface, are the most common surface defect and occur
because of inadequate surface preparation, welding slag, sand embedded in castings, excess aluminum in
the galvanizing kettle, or lifting aids that prevent the coating from forming in a small area. Only very
small areas, less than 1 inch in the narrowest dimension with a total of no more than 0.5% of the
accessible surface area, may be renovated using ASTM A 780. This means narrow, bare areas may be
repaired; however, if they are greater than one inch-square areas, the product must be
regalvanized. In order to avoid bare spots, like those seen in Figure 24, the galvanizer must ensure the
surfaces are clean and no contaminants are present after pretreatment. If the size of the bare spot or total
surface area causes rejection, the parts may be stripped, regalvanized, and then re-inspected for
compliance to the standards and specifications.

Figure 24: Bare Spots

22

Figure 25: Blasting Damage

Blasting Damage
Blasting damage creates blistered or flaking areas on the surface of the galvanized product. Blasting
damage follows abrasive blasting prior to painting of the galvanized steel. It is caused by incorrect
blasting procedures creating shattering and delamination of the alloy layers in the zinc coating. Blasting
damage, as seen in Figure 25, can be avoided when careful attention is paid to preparation of the product
for painting. In addition, blast pressure should be greatly reduced according to ASTM D 6386. Since
blasting damage is induced by a post-galvanizing process, the galvanizer is not responsible for the
damage.

Figure 26: Chain and Wire Marks

Chain and Wire Marks


Another type of surface defect occurs when steel is lifted and transported around the galvanizing plant
using a chain or wire. These lifting aids can leave uncoated areas on the finished product that will need to
be repaired. The superficial marks, like those seen in Figure 26, left on the galvanized coating from the
lifting attachments are not grounds for rejection as long as marks can be repaired. ASTM specifications
do not allow any bare spots on the finished galvanized part.

23

Figure 27: Clogged Holes

Clogged Holes
Clogged holes are holes partially or completely clogged with zinc metal. A good example is the screen
shown in Figure 27. The zinc was trapped because liquid zinc will not drain easily from holes less than
3/10 (8mm) in diameter due to its high surface tension. Clogged holes can be minimized by making all
holes as large as possible. The trapped zinc can be removed by using active fettling when the part is in the
galvanizing kettle, vibrating the cranes to jostle the parts, or blowing compressed air onto the galvanized
products. This condition is not a cause for rejection, unless it prevents the part from being used for its
intended purpose.

Figure 28: Clogged Threads

Clogged Threads
Clogged threads are caused by poor drainage of a threaded section after the product is withdrawn from
the galvanizing kettle. These clogged threads, as seen in Figure 28, can be cleaned by using postgalvanizing cleaning operations such as a centrifuge or by heating them with a torch to about 500 F (260
C) and then brushing them off with a wire brush to remove the excess zinc. Clogged threads must be
cleaned before the part can be accepted.
Prev | Next

Visual Defects: D-E

24

Figure 29: Delamination

Delamination
Delamination or peeling creates a rough coating on the steel where the zinc has peeled off. There are a
number of causes for zinc peeling. Many large galvanized parts take a long time to cool in the air and
form zinc-iron layers after they have been removed from the galvanizing kettle. This continued coating
formation leaves behind a void between the top two layers of the galvanized coating. If there are many
voids formed, the top layer of zinc can separate from the rest of the coating and peel off the part. If the
remaining coating still meets the minimum specification requirements, then the part is still acceptable. If
the coating does not meet the minimum specification requirements then the part must be rejected and
regalvanized. If delamination, as seen in Figure 29, occurs as a result of fabrication after galvanizing,
such as blasting before painting, then the galvanizer is not responsible for the defect.

Figure 30: Distortion

Distortion
Distortion, as seen in Figure 30, is defined as the buckling of a thin, flat steel plate or other flat material
such as wire mesh. The cause of this is differential thermal expansion and contraction rates for the thin,
flat plate and mesh than the thicker steel of the surrounding frame. In order to avoid distortion, use a
thicker plate, ribs, or corrugations to stiffen flat sections or make the entire assembly out of the same
thickness steel. Distortion is acceptable, unless distortion changes the part so that it is no longer suitable
for its intended use.

25

Figure 31: Drainage Spikes

Drainage Spikes
Drainage spikes or drips are spikes or tear drops of zinc along the bottom edges of the product. These
result when the surfaces of the product are processed horizontal to the galvanizing kettle, preventing
proper drainage of the zinc from the surface as the product is withdrawn from the kettle. Drainage spikes,
as seen in Figure 31, are typically removed during the inspection stage by a buffing or grinding process.
Drainage spikes or drips are excess zinc and will not affect corrosion protection, but are potentially
dangerous for anyone who handles the parts. These defects must be removed before the part can be
accepted.

Dross Inclusions
Dross inclusions are a distinct zinc-iron intermetallic alloy that becomes entrapped or entrained in the
zinc coating. This is caused by picking up zinc-iron particles from the bottom of the kettle. Dross, as seen
in Figure 32, may be avoided by changing the lifting orientation or redesigning the product to allow for
proper drainage. If the dross particles are small and completely covered by zinc metal, they will not affect
the corrosion protection and are acceptable. If the dross particles are large, then the dross must be
removed and the area repaired.

Figure 32: Dross Inclusions

26

Figure 33: Excess Aluminum in Galvanizing Bath

Excess Aluminum in Galvanizing Bath


Another type of surface defect, shown in Figure 33, is caused by an excess amount of aluminum in the
galvanizing bath. This creates bare spots and black marks on the surface of the steel. The excess
aluminum can be avoided by ensuring proper control of the aluminum level in the galvanizing bath by
means of regular sampling and analysis, and by adjusting the levels in a regular and controlled manner.
For small areas of bare spots, the part may be repaired as detailed in the specification. If this condition
occurs over the entire part, then it must be rejected and regalvanized.
Prev | Next

Visual Defects: F-O

Figure 34: Fish Boning

Fish Boning
Fish boning is an irregular pattern over the entire surface of the steel part. This is caused by differences in
the surface chemistry of a large diameter steel piece and variations in the reaction rate between the steel
and zinc. These reaction differences cause the thickness of the galvanized coating to vary in sharply
defined zones across the surface. Fish boning, as seen in Figure 34, has no effect on the corrosion
protection provided by the zinc coating and is not cause for rejection of the hot-dip galvanized part.

27

Figure 35: Micrograph of Flaking

Flaking
Flaking results when heavy coatings develop in the galvanizing process, usually 12 mils or greater. This
generates high stresses at the interface of the steel and the galvanized coating and causes the zinc to
become flaky and separate from the surface of the steel. Flaking can be avoided by minimizing the
immersion time in the galvanizing kettle and cooling of the galvanized steel parts as quickly as possible.
Figure 35 shows a micrograph of flaking. In addition, using a different steel grade, if possible, may also
help avoid flaking. If the area of flaking is small, it can be repaired and the part can be accepted;
however, if the area of flaking is larger than allowed by the specifications, the part must be rejected and
regalvanized.

Figure 36: Flux Inclusion

Flux Inclusions
Flux inclusion can be created by the failure of the flux to release during the hot-dip galvanizing process.
If this occurs, the galvanized coating will not form under this flux spot. If the area is small enough, it
must be cleaned and repaired; otherwise, the part must be rejected. Flux spots can increase if the flux is
applied using the wet galvanizing method, which is when the flux floats on the zinc bath surface. Flux
deposits on the interior of a hollow part, such as a pipe or tube, as seen in Figure 36, cannot be repaired,
thus the part must be rejected. Any flux spots or deposits, picked up during withdrawal from the
galvanizing kettle do not warrant rejection if the underlying coating is not harmed, and the flux is
properly removed.

28

Figure 37: Oxide Lines

Oxide Lines
Oxide lines are light colored oxide film lines on the galvanized steel surface. Oxide lines are caused when
the product is not removed from the galvanizing kettle at a constant rate. This may be due to the shape of
the product or the drainage conditions. Oxide lines, as seen in Figure 37, will fade over time as the entire
zinc surface oxidizes. They will have no effect on the corrosion performance; only the initial appearance
will be affected. This condition is not a cause for rejection of the hot-dip galvanized parts.
Prev | Next

Visual Defects: P-R

Figure 38: Products in Contact

Products in Contact
Another type of surface defect is caused by products that come in contact with each other or are stuck
together. This usually occurs when many small products are hung on the same fixture, which creates the
chance products may become connected or overlapped during the galvanizing process, as seen in Figure
38. The galvanizer is responsible for proper handling of all products in order to avoid this defect. In
addition, if the surface of a product has a larger bare area than the specified repair requirement allows,
then that product must be rejected and regalvanized.

Rough Surface Condition


Rough surface condition or appearance is a uniformly rough coating with a textured appearance over the
entire product. The cause for this rough surface condition is hot-rolled steel with a high level of silicon
content. This can be avoided by purchasing steel with a silicon content less than 0.03% of the steel by
weight. Rough surface condition, as seen in Figure 39, can actually have a positive effect on corrosion
performance because of the thicker zinc coating produced. One of the few situations where rough coating
is cause for rejection is if it occurs on handrails. The corrosion performance of galvanized steel with
rough coatings is not affected by the surface roughness.

29

Figure 39: Rough Surface Condition

Figure 40: Runs

Runs
Runs are localized thick areas of zinc on the surface. Runs occur when zinc freezes on the surface of the
product during removal from the zinc bath. This is more likely to occur on thinner sections with large
surface areas that cool quickly. In order to avoid runs, as seen in Figure 40, adjustments of the dipping
angles can be made, if possible, to alter the drainage pattern to a more acceptable mode. If runs are
unavoidable and will interfere with the intended application, they can be buffed. Runs are not cause for
rejection.

Rust Bleeding
Rust bleeding appears as a brown or red stain that leaks from unsealed joints after the product has been
hot-dip galvanized. It is caused by pre-treatment chemicals that penetrate an unsealed joint. During
galvanizing of the product, moisture boils off the trapped treatment chemicals leaving anhydrous crystal
residues in the joint. Over time, these crystal residues absorb water from the atmosphere and attack the
steel on both surfaces of the joint, creating rust that seeps out of the joint. Rust bleeding, as seen in
Figure 41, can be avoided by seal welding the joint where possible or by leaving a gap greater than
3/32 (2.4mm) wide in order to allow solutions to escape and zinc to penetrate during hot-dip
galvanizing. If bleeding occurs, it can be cleaned up by washing the joint after the crystals are
hydrolyzed. Bleeding from unsealed joints is not the responsibility of the galvanizers and is not cause for
rejection.

30

Figure 41: Rust Bleeding


Prev | Next

Visual Defects: S-T

Figure 42: Sand Embedded in Casting

Sand Embedded in Casting


Another type of surface defect occurs when sand becomes embedded in the castings and creates rough or
bare spots on the surface of the galvanized steel. Sand inclusions are not removed by conventional acid
pickling, so abrasive cleaning should be done at the foundry before the products are sent to the
galvanizer. This type of defect also leaves bare spots and must be cleaned and repaired or the part must be
rejected, stripped, and regalvanized. Sand embedded in a casting can be seen in Figure 42.

Figure 43: Striations

31

Striations
Striations are characterized by raised parallel ridges in the galvanized coating, mostly in the longitudinal
direction. This can be caused when sections of the steel surface are more highly reactive then the areas
around them. These sections are usually associated with segregation of steel impurities, especially
phosphorous, created during the rolling process in steel making. Striations, as seen in Figure 43, are
related to the type of steel galvanized and while the appearance is affected, the performance of the
corrosion protection is not. Striations are acceptable on most parts; however, if the striations happen
to occur on handrails, then the parts must be rejected and regalvanized. Sometimes
regalvanizing does not improve the striations and the handrail must be refabricated out of better quality
steel.

Figure 44: Surface Contaminents

Surface Contaminant
When surface contaminants create an ungalvanized area where the contaminant was originally applied, a
surface defect may occur. This is caused by paint, oil, wax, or lacquer not removed during the
pretreatment cleaning steps. Surface contaminants, as seen in Figure 44, should be mechanically removed
prior to the galvanizing process. If they result in bare areas, then the repair requirements apply and small
areas may be repaired, but a large area is grounds for rejection and the entire part must be regalvanized.

Figure 45: Touch Marks

Touch Marks
Another type of surface defect is known as touch marks, which are damaged or uncoated areas on the
surface of the product. Touch marks are caused by galvanized products resting on each other or by the
material handling equipment used during the galvanizing operation. Touch marks, as seen in Figure 45,
32

are not cause for rejection if they meet the size criteria for repairable areas. They must be repaired before
the part is accepted.
Prev | Next

Visual Defects: U-Z

Figure 46: Weeping Weld

Weeping Weld
Weeping welds stain the zinc surface at the welded connections on the steel. They are caused by
entrapped cleaning solutions that penetrate the incomplete weld. In order to avoid weeping welds for
small overlapping surfaces, completely seal weld the edges of the overlapping area. For larger
overlapping areas, the area cannot be seal welded since the volume expansion of air in the trapped area
can cause explosions in the galvanizing kettle. To avoid weeping welds in large overlapping areas, the
best plan is to provide a 3/32 (2.4mm) or larger gap between the two pieces when welding them
and let the zinc fill the gap between the pieces. This will actually make a stronger joint when the process
is complete. Weeping welds, as seen in Figure 46, are not the responsibility of the galvanizer and are not
cause for rejection.

Figure 47: Welding Blowouts

Welding Blowouts
Welding blowout is a bare spot around a weld or overlapping surface hole. These are caused by pretreatment liquids penetrating the sealed and overlapped areas that boil out during immersion in the liquid
zinc. This causes localized surface contamination and prevents the galvanized coating from forming. In
order to avoid welding blowouts, as seen in Figure 47, check weld areas for complete welds to insure
there is no fluid penetration. In addition, products can be preheated prior to immersion into the
galvanizing kettle in order to dry out overlap areas as much as possible. Welding blowouts cause bare
areas that must be repaired before the part is acceptable.
33

Figure 48: Welding Spatter

Welding Spatter
Welding spatter appears as lumps in the galvanized coating adjacent to weld areas. It is created when
welding spatter is left on the surface of the part before it is hot-dip galvanized. In order to avoid welding
spatter, welding residues should be removed prior to hot-dip galvanizing. Welding spatter, as seen in
Figure 48, appears to be covered by the zinc coating, but the coating does not adhere well and can be
easily removed. This type of defect can leave an uncoated area or bare spot if the zinc coating is damaged
and must be cleaned and properly repaired.

Wet Storage Stain


Wet storage stain is a white, powdery surface deposit on freshly galvanized surfaces. It is caused by
newly galvanized surfaces being exposed to fresh water, such as rain, dew, or condensation that react with
the zinc metal on the surface to form zinc oxide and zinc hydroxide. It is found most often on tightly
stacked and bundled items, such as galvanized sheets, plates, angles, bars, and pipes. Wet storage stain
can have the appearance of light, medium, or heavy white powder on the galvanized steel product. Each
of these appearances can be seen from right to left in Figure 49.
One method to avoid wet storage stains is to passivate the product after galvanizing by using a chromate
quench solution. Another precaution is to avoid stacking products in poorly ventilated, damp conditions.
Light or medium wet storage stain will weather over time in service and is acceptable. In most cases, wet
storage stain does not indicate serious degradation of the zinc coating, nor does it necessarily imply any
likely reduction in the expected life of the product. However, heavy wet storage stain should be removed
mechanically or with appropriate chemical treatments before the galvanized part is put into service.
Heavy storage stain must be removed or the part must be rejected and regalvanized.

Figure 49: Wet Storage Stain


34

Figure 50: Zinc Skimming Inclusions

Zinc Skimmings
Skimming deposits are usually caused when there is no access to remove the skimmings during the
withdrawal of the steel from the galvanizing kettle. The skimmings on the liquid zinc surface are trapped
on the zinc coating. In order to remove zinc skimmings without harming the soft zinc coating underneath,
lightly brush them off the surface of the galvanized steel during the in-house inspection stage with a
nylon-bristle brush. Zinc skimmings, as seen in Figure 50, are not grounds for rejection. The zinc coating
underneath is not harmed during their removal and it meets the necessary specifications.

Figure 51: Zinc Splatter

Zinc Splatter
Zinc splatter is defined as splashes and flakes of zinc that loosely adhere to the galvanized coating
surface. Zinc splatter is created when moisture on the surface of the galvanizing kettle causes liquid zinc
to pop and splash droplets onto the product. These splashes create flakes of zinc loosely adherent to the
galvanized surface. Zinc splatter, as seen in Figure 51, will not affect the corrosion performance of the
zinc coating and is not cause for rejection. The splatter does not need to be cleaned off the zinc coating
surface, but can be if a consistent, smooth coating is required.
Prev | Next

Additional Tests
35

Adherence Test

Figure 52: Stout Knife Test


Testing of the zinc coating adherence to the steel is achieved using a stout knife. The steps used in this
test are listed below and a photo of the test being performed can be seen in Figure 52. The coating shall
be deemed not adherent if it flakes off and exposes the base metal in advance of the knifepoint. The test
is not an attempt to pare or whittle the zinc coating. If the coating is adherent the knife should put a slight
mark in the zinc metal surface, but should not cause any delamination of the coating layers.
Adhesion Test with a Stout Knife

Push down point of stout knife


Coating must not flake off exposing the base metal
Do not perform at edges or corners of the product
No paring or whittling with knife is acceptable

Bending Test
The hot-dip galvanized coating on a steel bar must withstand bending without flaking or peeling when the
bending test is preformed in accordance with the specifications in ASTM A 143. There are various tests
used to assess the ductility of steel when subjected to bending. One test may include the determination of
the minimum radius or diameter required to make a satisfactory bend. Another test may include the
number of repeated bends that the material can withstand without failure when it is bent through a given
angle and over a definite radius.
Rebar is commonly bent prior to the hot-dip galvanizing process. Steel reinforcing bars bent cold prior to
hot-dip galvanizing should be fabricated to a bend diameter equal to or greater than the specified value in
ASTM A 767/A 767M. However, steel reinforcing bars can be bent to diameters tighter than the specified
values if they are stress relieved at a temperature of 900 to 1050 F (480 to 560 C) for one hour per inch
(25mm) of diameter.

Chromating Test
The specification to determine the presence of chromate on zinc surfaces is ASTM B 201. This test
involves placing drops of a lead acetate solution on the surface of the product, waiting 5 seconds, and
then blotting it gently. If this solution creates a dark deposit or black stain, then there is unpassivated zinc
present. A clear result indicates the presence of a chromate passivation coating.

Embrittlement Test
When there is suspicion of potential embrittlement of a product, it may be necessary to test a small group
of the products to measure the ductility. These tests are usually destructive to the zinc coating and
possibly to the product as well. Products suspected of embrittlement shall be tested according to the
specification ASTM A 143. Depending on the service conditions the product will be exposed to, one of
36

three embrittlement tests may need to be performed. These embrittlement tests include the similar bend
radius test, sharp blow test, and steel angle test. The embrittlement test uses a known force to provide a
stress that should be lower than the yield stress of the part. If there is a fracture or permanent damage
created during the testing process, the parts must be rejected.
Prev | Next

Sampling
A sampling protocol has been developed by ASTM to ensure high quality products because the inspection
of the coating thickness for every piece of material galvanized in a project would not be practical. ASTM
A 123/A 123M states for a unit of products whose surface area is equal to or less than 160 in (1032 cm),
the entire surface of each test product constitutes a specimen. In the case of a product containing more
than one material category or steel thickness range, that product will contain more than one specimen. In
addition, products with surface areas greater than 160 in (1032 cm) are multi-specimen products. There
are four important terms used in the ASTM specifications and each is defined below.

Sampling Terms

Lot unit of production or shipment from which a sample is taken for testing
Sample a collection of individual units of product from a single lot
Specimen the surface of an individual test product or a portion of a test product which is a
member of a lot or a member of a sample representing that lot
Test Product an individual unit of product that is a member of the sample

For single specimen products, each randomly selected product is a specimen. In thickness measurement
tests, five measurements are taken widely dispersed over the surface area of the specimen in order to
represent the total coating thickness. The mean value of the five coating thicknesses for one specimen
must have a minimum average coating thickness grade of not less than one grade below the minimum
average coating thickness for the material category. In Figure 53, the separation of a lot into a sample and
individual specimen is shown.

Figure 53: Single Specimen Product Sampling


A multi-specimen product is defined as having a surface area that may be larger than 160 in (1032 cm),
have multiple steel thicknesses, or contain more than one coating category. In order to test coating
thickness of products whose surface area is greater than 160 in (1032 cm), they are subdivided into
three continuous local sections with equivalent surface areas, each of which constitutes a unique
specimen. In the case of any such local section containing more than one material category or steel
thickness range, that section will contain more than one specimen. In Figure 54, the separation of a lot
into a sample and individual specimen is shown.

37

Figure 54: Mutli-Specimen Product Sampling


For products hot-dip galvanized to either ASTM A 123/A 123M or A 153/A 153M, Table 6 is used to
determine the minimum number of specimens for sampling from a given lot size.
No. of Pieces in Lot
3 or less
4 to 500
501 to 1200
1201 to 3200
3201 to 10,000
10,001+
Table 6: Minimum Number of Specimens

No. of Specimens
All
3
5
8
13
20
for ASTM A 123 and A 152

For rebar hot-dip galvanized according to ASTM A 767, the information below is used to determine the
minimum number of samples per lot, measurements per sample, and the total number of measurements
required for each of the different coating thickness measurement techniques.

Magnetic Thickness:
o 3 samples per lot
o 5 or more measurements per sample
o 15 measurements, at the minimum, comprise the average
Microscopy Method:
o 5 samples per lot
o 4 measurements per sample
o 20 measurements, at minimum, comprise the average
Stripping and Weighing:
o 3 samples per lot

The minimum average coating thickness for a lot is the average of the specimen values and must meet the
minimum for the material category. The minimum for an individual specimen is one grade below the
minimum for the material category. An individual measurement has no minimum, but bare areas are not
allowed on the part. The final inspection of a part shall include thickness measurements and visual
inspection. All parts that do not meet the requirement must be resorted and reinspected or rejected and
then regalvanized.
Prev | Next
38

Repair
If the galvanized product does not meet all of the requirements of the specification, it must be repaired or
rejected along with the lot it represents. When repair of the product is allowed by the specification or bare
spots are present, the galvanizer is responsible for the repair unless directed otherwise by the purchaser.
The specifications allow for some retesting of products that represent lots or retesting after the lot has
been sorted for non-conformance. The coating thickness of the repaired area must match the coating
thickness of the surrounding area. However, if zinc-rich paint is used for repair, the coating thickness
must be 50% higher than the surrounding area, but not greater than 4.0 mils because mud cracking tends
to result when the paint coating is too thick. The maximum sizes for allowable areas that can be repaired
during in-plant production are defined in the specifications as summarized below.

Maximum Size of Repairable Area

ASTM A 123/A 123M:


o One inch or less in narrowest dimension
o Total area can be no more than 0.5% of the accessible surface area to be coated or 36
square inches per piece, whichever is less
ASTM A 153/A 153M:
o The bare spots shall have an area totaling no more than 1% of the total surface area to be
coated, excluding threaded areas of the piece
ASTM A 767/A 767M:
o No area given
o If the coating fails to meet the requirement for finish and adherence, the bar may be
stripped, regalvanized, and resubmitted
o Damage done to the coating due to fabrication or handling shall be repaired with a zincrich formulation
o Sheared ends shall be coated with a zinc-rich formulation

Repair Methods
Any repairs made to galvanized products must follow the requirements of ASTM A 780, which defines
the acceptable materials and the required procedures. Repairs are normally completed by the galvanizer
before the products are delivered, but under certain circumstances, the purchaser may perform the repairs
on their own. The touch-up and repair materials are formulated to deliver an excellent color that matches
either brightly coated, newly galvanized products or matte gray, aged galvanized products. Materials used
to repair hot-dip galvanized products include zinc-based solder, zinc-rich paint, and zinc spray
metallizing, and are explained in the following sections.
Prev | Next

Zinc-Based Solder

39

Figure 55: Zinc-Based Solder


Soldering with zinc-based alloys is achieved by applying zinc alloy in either a stick or powder form. The
area being repaired needs to be preheated to approximately 600 F (315 C). The most commonly used
solders for repair, as seen in Figure 55; include zinc-tin-lead, zinc-cadmium, and zinc-tin-copper alloys.

Surface Preparation
According to ASTM A 780, the surface to be reconditioned shall be wire brushed, lightly ground, or
mildly blast cleaned. In addition, if wire brushing or light blasting is inadequate, all weld flux and spatter
must be removed by mechanical methods. The cleaned area also needs be preheated to 600 F (315 C) and
wire brushed while heated. Pre-flux may also be necessary to provide chemical cleaning of the bare spot.
Finally, special care should be given to insure that the surrounding galvanized coating is not overheated
and burned by the preheating.

Application
The soldering method is the most difficult of the three repair methods to complete. A high level of caution
must be taken while heating the bare spot to prevent oxidizing the exposed steel or damaging the
surrounding galvanized coating. Solders are typically not economically suited for touch-up of large areas
because of the time involved in the process and because heating of a large surface area to the same
temperature is very difficult. When the repair has been completed, the flux residue needs to be removed
by rinsing the surface with water or wiping with a damp cloth.

Final Repaired Product


The final coating thickness for this repair shall be agreed upon between the galvanizer and the purchaser,
and is generally in the 1 to 2 mil range. The thickness shall be measured by any of the methods in ASTM
A 123/A 123M that are non-destructive. Zinc-based solder products closely match the surrounding zinc
and blend in well with the existing coating appearance.
Prev | Next

Zinc-Rich Paint

40

Figure 56: Zinc-Rich Paint


Zinc-rich paint is applied to a clean, dry steel surface by either a brush or spray as seen in Figure 56, and
usually contains an organic binder pre-mix. Zinc-rich paints must contain either between 65% to 69%
metallic zinc by weight or greater than 92% metallic zinc by weight in dry film. Paints containing zinc
dust are classified as organic or inorganic, depending on the binder they contain. Inorganic binders are
particularly suitable for paints applied in touch-up applications around and over undamaged hot-dip
galvanized areas.

Surface Preparation
According to ASTM A 780, the surface to be repaired shall be blast cleaned to SSPC-SP10/NACE No.2
near white metal for immersion applications and SSPC-SP11 near bare metal for less aggressive field
conditions. When blasting or power tool cleaning is not practical, hand tools may be used to clean areas
to be reconditioned. The blast cleaning must extend into the surrounding, undamaged, galvanized coating.

Application
This method of repairing galvanized surfaces must take place as soon as possible after preparation is
completed and prior to the development of any visible oxides. The spraying or brushing should be in an
application of multiple passes and must follow the paint manufacturers specific written instructions. In
addition, proper curing of the repaired area must occur before the product is put through the final
inspection process. This repair can be done either in the galvanizing plant or on the job site and is the
easiest repair method to apply because limited equipment is required. Zinc-rich painting should be
avoided if high humidity and/or low temperature conditions exist because adhesion may be adversely
affected.

Final Repaired Product


The coating thickness for the paint must be 50% higher than the surrounding coating thickness, but not
greater than 4.0 mils, and measurements should be taken with either a magnetic, electromagnetic or eddy
current gauge. Finally, the surface of the painted coating on the repaired area should be free of lumps,
coarse areas, and loose particles.
Prev | Next

Zinc Spray Metallizing

41

Figure 57: Zinc Spray Metallizing


Zinc spray, which is also referred to as metallizing, is done by melting zinc powder or zinc wire in a
flame or electric arc and projecting the liquid zinc droplets by air or gas onto the surface to be coated, as
seen in Figure 57. The zinc used is nominally 99.5% pure or better and the corrosion resistance of the
wire or powder is approximately equal.

Surface Preparation
According to ASTM A 780, the surface to be reconditioned shall be blast cleaned to SSPC-SP5/NACE
No.1 near white metal and must be free of oil, grease, weld flux residue, weld spatter and corrosion
products. The blast cleaning must extend into the surrounding, undamaged, galvanized coating.

Application
Zinc spraying of the clean, dry surface must be completed by skilled workers and should take place
within four hours after preparation or prior to development of visible oxides. Spraying should also be
done in horizontal overlapping lines, which yield a uniform thickness more consistent than the crosshatch
technique. The zinc coating can be sealed with a thin coating of low viscosity polyurethane, epoxyphenolic, epoxy, or vinyl resin. The details of the application sequence and procedures can be found in
ANSI/AWS C2.18-93. The application of zinc spray can be done either in the galvanizers plant or at the
job site. In addition, if high humidity conditions exist during spraying, adhesion may be degraded.

Final Repaired Product


The renovated area shall have a zinc coating thickness at least as thick as that specified in ASTM A
123/A 123M for the thickness grade required for the appropriate material category. These thickness
measurements should be taken with either a magnetic or an electromagnetic gauge for best results. The
plain zinc sprays or the sprays with aluminum additives both provide a good match for newly galvanized,
bright surfaces. Finally, the surface of the sprayed zinc coating should be free of any lumps, coarse areas,
and loose particles.
Prev | Next

Course Outline

Introduction
Galvanizing Process
o Surface Preparation
o Galvanizing
o Time to First Maintenance
42

Other Corrosion Protection Systems


Galvanizing Standards
o ASTM A 123/ A 123M
o ASTM A 153/A 153M
o ASTM A 767/A 767M
o Other Galvanizing Standards
Types of Inspection
o Coating Thickness
o Coating Weight
o Finish & Appearance
Different Appearances
Finish: Visual Defects
o Additional Tests
o Sampling
Repair
o Zinc-Based Solder
o Zinc-Rich Paint
o Zinc Spray Metallizing
Test
o

Instructions
This course is intended to train individuals on the proper inspection techniques and requirements for hotdip galvanized steel products. The course is expected to take 2-4 hours, so it should be taken when you
can devote that amount of time to learning. There are four sections in this course:

Hot-Dip Galvanizing Process


Galvanizing Standards
Types of Inspection
Repair

To complete course:

Work through the course from start to finish (Introduction to Repair)


Take the Inspection Course Test by clicking the Test link
Upon successful completion of the test (80% or better), you will receive a Certificate of
Completion you can print or save for your records, and you will be listed on the American
Galvanizers Associations website as an inspector of hot-dip galvanized steel
If the test is not completed successfully, you will have the opportunity to retake the test 2 more
times. After 3 tries, if the test is not completed successfully, you will have to retake the course.

Frequently Asked Questions


The following is a list of frequently asked questions about hot-dip galvanizing. Click on the question to
be taken to the answer listed further down on the page. If you do not see your question listed here, try
searching using the links above, the search engine on the top right of the page, or contact the AGA for
assistance.
1. How does galvanizing protect steel from corrosion?
43

2. What are the steps in the galvanizing process?


3. How does the cost of hot-dip galvanizing compare to other corrosion protection systems, such as
paints?
4. How long can I expect my galvanized steel project to last in service?
5. Does the galvanized steel coating of zinc resist abrasion?
6. What causes wet storage stain and how can it be prevented?
7. Why do galvanized steel appearances differ from project to project and galvanizer to galvanizer
and is there any difference in the corrosion protection offered by the different appearing coatings?
8. Can galvanized steel in service withstand high temperatures for long periods of time?
9. Why would you want to paint over galvanized steel?
10. What are the specifications governing hot-dip galvanized steel?
11. Isnt galvanizing more expensive than paint?
12. What if the article to be galvanized is larger than the dimensions of the galvanizers kettle? Can it
still be galvanized?
13. What is the difference between hot-dip galvanized fasteners and zinc-plated fasteners?
14. How long will hot-dip galvanizing protect my steel from corrosion?
15. Are there any special design and fabrication considerations required to make steel ready for hotdip galvanizing?
16. Where are galvanized steel products used?
17. What are the size limitations of steel that is to be galvanized?
18. What types of products can be galvanized?
19. Sometimes the galvanized coating is shinier in some places than others. Why is that?
20. Is the zinc coatings thickness consistent over the entire piece?
21. What can I do to minimize possible warping & distortion? Is it possible to determine prior to
galvanizing which pieces might be prone to this occurrence?
22. Can I paint right over the galvanized coating? If so, what procedure should be followed?
23. How much weight will my material gain from galvanizing?
24. Are slip-critical connections a concern when the steel is to be galvanized?
25. Im interested in specifying hot-dip galvanizing for reinforcing steel. Are there any concerns with
fabricating rebar after galvanizing?
26. Can I specify how much zinc to put on the steel?
27. What does it mean to double-dip steel?
28. What is the reason for incorporating venting & drainage holes into a projects design?
29. If I stitch-weld, will there be uncoated areas after galvanizing?
30. What is white rust and how can it be avoided?
31. Is there a way to provide for intentionally ungalvanized areas?
32. Is there any environmental impact when the zinc coating sacrificially corrodes? Is zinc a safe
metal?
33. Should I be concerned when galvanized steel comes in contact with other metals?
34. What is the difference between hot-dip galvanizing after fabrication and continuous hot-dip
galvanized sheet?
35. What is a G90 or A60 coating?
36. Is a salt spray test in a laboratory appropriate to estimate the corrosion rate of zinc coated steel?
37. Can galvanized steel in service withstand high temperatures for long periods of time?
38. Can I specify how much zinc to put on the steel?
39. What is cold galvanizing?

1. How does galvanizing protect steel from corrosion?


Zinc metal used in the galvanizing process provides an impervious barrier between the steel substrate and
corrosive elements in the atmosphere. It does not allow moisture and corrosive chlorides and sulfides to
attack the steel. Zinc is more importantly anodic to steel meaning it will corrode before the steel, until
the zinc is entirely consumed.
44

2. What are the steps in the galvanizing process?


There are four steps:
1. Pre-inspection where the fabricated structural steel is viewed to ensure it has, if necessary, the
proper venting and draining holes, bracing, and overall design characteristics necessary to yield a
quality galvanized coating
2. Cleaning steel is immersed in a caustic solution to remove organic material such as grease and
dirt, followed by dipping in an acid bath (hydrochloric or sulfuric) to remove mill scale and rust,
and finally lowered into a bath of flux that promotes zinc & steel reaction and retards further
oxidation of the steel (steel will not react with zinc unless it is perfectly clean)
3. Galvanizing the clean steel is lowered into a kettle containing 850 F molten zinc where the steel
and zinc metallurgically react to form three zinc-iron intermetallic layers and one pure zinc layer
4. Final inspection the newly galvanized steel is sight-inspected (if it looks good, it is), followed
up by measurement of coating thickness with a magnetic thickness gauge

View animation in Flash

Back to Top

3. How does the cost of hot-dip galvanizing compare to other corrosion protection
systems, such as paints?
When compared with paint systems, hot-dip galvanizing after fabrication has comparable initial
application costs and, almost always, lower life-cycle costs. In fact, the lower life-cycle costs of a hot-dip
galvanized project make galvanizing the smart choice for today and tomorrow.

View animation in Flash

Back to Top

4. How long can I expect my galvanized steel project to last in service?


Hot-dip galvanized steel resists corrosion in numerous environments extremely well. It is not uncommon
for galvanized steel to last more than 70 years under certain conditions. To get a good idea of how long
your project will last, see the service-life chart.
Back to Top

5. Does the galvanized steel coating of zinc resist abrasion?


The three intermetallic layers that form during the galvanizing process are all harder than the substrate
steel and have excellent abrasion resistance.
Back to Top

6. What causes wet storage stain and how can it be prevented?


Zinc on newly galvanized steel is very reactive and wants to form zinc oxide and zinc hydroxide
corrosion products that eventually become the stable zinc carbonate. When galvanized steel is tightly
stacked or stored in wet boxes that dont allow for free flowing air, the zinc forms excessive layers of
zinc hydroxide, otherwise known as wet storage stain. Most wet storage stain can be easily removed with
a cleaner or nylon brush. To prevent wet storage stain, store galvanized steel indoors or block it so that
there is ample free flowing air between each galvanized article.
45

Back to Top

7. Why do galvanized steel appearances differ from project to project and


galvanizer to galvanizer and is there any difference in the corrosion
protection offered by the different appearing coatings?
The steel chemistry is the primary determinant of galvanized coating thickness and appearance.
Continuously cast steel produced by the steel companies has a wide variety of chemistries, thus the
different coating appearances.
There are several different additives that galvanizers may put in their zinc kettle to enhance the coating
appearance by making it shiny, spangled or matte gray. The appearance of the coating (matte gray, shiny,
spangled) does nothing to change the corrosion protection of the zinc coating.
Back to Top

8. Can galvanized steel in service withstand high temperatures for long periods of
time?
Constant exposure to temperatures below 3900F (2000C) is a perfectly acceptable environment for hotdip galvanized steel. Good performance can also be obtained when hot-dip galvanized steel is exposed to
temperatures above 3900F (2000C) on an intermittent basis.
Back to Top

9. Why would you want to paint over galvanized steel?


Called duplex coatings, zinc and paint in combination (synergistic effect) produce a corrosion protection
approximately 2X the sum of the corrosion protection that each alone would provide. Additionally,
duplex coatings make for easy repainting, excellent safety marking systems, and good color-coding.
Painting over galvanized steel that has been in service for many years also extends the life of the zinc
coating.
Back to Top

10. What are the specifications governing hot-dip galvanized steel?


Structural steel (plate, wide-flange beams, angles, channels, pipe, tubing) are galvanized to ASTM A
123/A 123M. Fasteners and small parts that fit into a centrifuging basket are galvanized to ASTM A
153/A 153M. Reinforcing steel is galvanized to ASTM A 767/A 767M.
Back to Top

11. Isnt galvanizing more expensive than paint?


Depending on the product mix, square feet per ton, and condition of the steel surface, galvanizing is often
less expensive on an initial cost basis. However, as with any purchase, the lifetime costs should be
considered when making a project decision on the corrosion prevention system to utilize. And, with
galvanizing, the life cycle cost, i.e. the cost per year to maintain, is almost always less than a paint
system. Paint systems require maintenance, partial repainting and full repainting several times over a 30year project life. The costs can be staggering, making the decision to paint a costly one in the long run.
Back to Top
46

12. What if the article to be galvanized is larger than the dimensions of the
galvanizers kettle? Can it still be galvanized?
Galvanizers can progressively dip such a fabrication or article of steel. They dip one half in the molten
zinc bath, remove it, turn it around or over and immerse the other half in the zinc. This method is often
erroneously referred to as double dipping.
Back to Top

13. What is the difference between hot-dip galvanized fasteners and zinc-plated
fasteners?
Hot-dip fasteners generally have about 10 times as much zinc on the surface and are suitable for use in all
exterior and interior applications. Zinc-plated fasteners will provide a disappointing performance if used
outside, especially when used to connect hot-dip galvanized structural steel members.
Back to Top

14. How long will hot-dip galvanizing protect my steel from corrosion?
The corrosion rate of zinc and how long it will provide protection is a function of the coating thickness
and the amount of corrosive elements in the atmosphere. For example, in rural settings where there is less
automotive/truck exhaust and plant emissions, galvanized steel can easily last for 100 150 years without
maintenance. Industrial and marine locations contain significantly more aggressive corrosion elements
such as chlorides and sulfides and galvanized steel may last for 50 100 years in those cases. The
relationship between coating thickness and atmospheric conditions is contained in a popular graph
developed by the AGA. Please see the publication Hot-Dip Galvanizing for Corrosion Protection: A
Specifiers Guide on this web site.
Back to Top

15. Are there any special design and fabrication considerations required to make
steel ready for hot-dip galvanizing?
Yes. Specifically, fabricated steel must allow for easy flow of the cleaning chemicals and molten zinc
metal over and through it. This means that gussets must be cropped, holes put in the proper location for
draining and venting of zinc from tubular configurations, weld flux removed, overlapping surfaces must
be seal-welded, and light gauge material temporarily braced. The details of design and fabrication are
contained in the AGA publication The Design of Products to be Hot-dip Galvanized After Fabrication,
found on this web site.
Back to Top

16. Where are galvanized steel products used?


First of all, the variety of things galvanized is broad. Structural steel (angles, channels, wide-flange
beams, I-beams, H-beams), grating, expanded metal, corrugated sheets, wire, cables, plate, castings,
tubing, pipe, bolts & nuts. The industries that utilized hot-dip galvanized steel range from bridge &
highway (reinforcing steel for decks and column concrete, girders, stringers, light and signposts,
guardrail, fencing), water & wastewater treatment plants (walkway grating/expanded metal, handrails)
architectural (facades, exposed structural steel, lentils), parking garages (reinforcing steel for concrete
decks, exposed structural steel columns and barriers), pulp & paper plants (structural steel, walkways,
handrail), OEMs (motor housings, electrical cabinets, frames, heat exchanger coils), electrical utilities
47

(transmission towers, distribution poles, substations, wind turbine poles), communication (cell towers),
rail transportation (poles, switchgear, miscellaneous hardware), chemical/petro-chemical (pipeline
hardware, manufacturing buildings, storage tanks, walkways), recreation (boat trailers, stadiums, arenas,
racetracks), and many more.
Back to Top

17. What are the size limitations of steel that is to be galvanized?


The hot-dip galvanizing process can accommodate various different shapes and sizes of steel. Kettle sizes
vary in dimensions from one galvanizer to the next. You can view the online listing of all the galvanizers
in North America and their kettle sizes.
Back to Top

18. What types of products can be galvanized?


Numerous different fabrications for a variety of applications are galvanized each year. To view a list of
the different types of products that have been hot-dip galvanized click here.
Back to Top

19. Sometimes, the galvanized coating is shinier in some places than others. Why
is that?
The galvanized coating appearance may either be bright and shiny resulting from the presence of an outer
layer of pure zinc, or duller, matte gray as the result of the coatings intermetallic layers being exposed.
Performance is not affected. Coating appearance depends on the amount of zinc in the coating.

View animation in Flash

Back to Top

20. Is the zinc coatings thickness consistent over the entire piece?
Coating thickness depends on the thickness, roughness, chemistry, and design of the steel being
galvanized. Any or all of these factors could produce galvanized coatings of non-uniform thickness.
Members of the American Galvanizers Association galvanize to ASTM standards, which define minimum
average coating thickness grades for various material categories.

View animation in Flash

Back to Top

21. What can I do to minimize possible warping & distortion? Is it possible to


determine prior to galvanizing which pieces might be prone to this
occurrence?
Minimizing potential warpage and distortion is easily done in the projects design stages by selecting
steel of equal thicknesses for use in every separate subassembly that is to be hot-dip galvanized, using
symmetrical designs whenever possible, and by avoiding the use of light-gage steel (<1/16 / 1.6 mm).
Some structures may benefit from the use of temporary bracing to help maintain their shape and/or
alignment.
48

View animation 1 in Flash


View animation 2 in Flash

Back to Top

22. Can I paint right over the galvanized coating? If so, what procedure should be
followed?
Galvanized coatings can be easily and effectively painted, not only for aesthetics but also to extend the
structures service life. The age and extent of weathering of the galvanized coating dictate the extent of
surface preparation required to produce a quality paint system over galvanized steel. ASTM D 6386,
Practice for Preparation of Zinc (Hot-Dip Galvanized) Coated Iron and Steel Product and Hardware
Surfaces for Painting, should be consulted for suggested surface preparation methods for galvanized
coatings of varying ages.
Back to Top

23. How much weight will my material gain from galvanizing?


As an average, the weight of the article will increase by about 3.5% due to zinc picked up in the
galvanizing process. However, that figure can vary greatly based on numerous factors. The fabrications
shape, size, and steel chemistry all play a major role, and other factors like the black weight, the different
types of steel that get welded together, and the galvanizing bath chemistry can also have an effect.
Back to Top

24. Are slip-critical connections a concern when the steel is to be galvanized?


When galvanized parts are used for slip-critical connections, they must either be brushed, abrasive
blasted, or painted with zinc-silicate paint to increase the surface roughness and, thus, the slip factor.

View animation in Flash

Back to Top

25. Im interested in specifying hot-dip galvanizing for reinforcing steel. Are there
any concerns with fabricating rebar after galvanizing?
Rebar is commonly fabricated after galvanizing. In order to minimize the possibility for coating damage,
avoid bending the rebar at a radius of more than 8 times its radius. ASTM A 767, Specification for ZincCoated (Galvanized) Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement, has a table that provides maximum bend
diameters for various-sized rebar.

View animation in Flash

Back to Top

26. Can I specify how much zinc to put on the steel?


No, the steel chemistry and surface condition are the primary determinants of zinc coating thickness.
Leaving the steel in the molten zinc a little longer than optimal may have one of two effects: 1) it may
increase the coating thickness, but only marginally; 2) it may significantly increase the coating thickness
and cause a brittle coating.
49

Back to Top

27. What does it mean to double-dip steel?


Double-dipping is the progressive dipping of steel that is too large to fit into the kettle in a single dip.
Double-dipping cannot be used to produce a thicker hot-dip galvanized coating.

View animation in Flash

Back to Top

28. What is the reason for incorporating venting & drainage holes into a projects
design?
The primary reason for vent holes is to allow otherwise trapped air and gases to escape; the primary
reason for drain holes is to allow cleaning solutions and molten zinc metal to flow entirely into, over, and
throughout the part, and then back into the tank or kettle.

View animation in Flash

Back to Top

29. If I stitch-weld, will there be uncoated areas after galvanizing?


When stitch-welding is used, there is a possibility of gas release between gaps, which will prevent the
galvanized coating from forming in these areas. By leaving at least a 3/32 (2.4 mm) gap between the
contacting surfaces, gases are allowed to escape and cleaning solutions and molten zinc are allowed to
flow in between the surfaces for a complete and uniform coating.

View animation in Flash

Back to Top

30. What is white rust and how can it be avoided?


White rust is the term mistakenly applied to wet storage stain, which actually is a milder corrosion
product than white rust. Wet storage stain can be avoided by properly stacking freshly galvanized articles,
avoiding unprotected exposure to wet or humid climates, or by using a surface passivation treatment after
galvanizing. Wet storage stain typically weathers away once the part is in service. (True white rust is
most commonly associated with galvanized cooling towers.)

View animation in Flash

Back to Top

31. Is there a way to provide for intentionally ungalvanized areas?


Yes, but because masking or stop-off materials may not be 100% effective, contact your galvanizer for
suggestions.

View animation in Flash

Back to Top
50

32. Is there any environmental impact when the zinc coating sacrificially
corrodes? Is zinc a safe metal?
There are no known studies to suggest zinc corrosion products cause any harm to the environment. Zinc
is a naturally occurring element (25th most abundant element in the earth), and necessary for all
organisms to live. It is a recommended part of our diet (RDA 15 mg) and necessary for reproduction. It is
used in baby ointments, vitamins, surgical instruments, sunscreens and cold lozenges.
Back to Top

33. Should I be concerned when galvanized steel comes in contact with other
metals?
Zinc is a noble metal and will sacrifice itself (i.e. corrode, give up its electrons and create a bi-metallic
couple) to protect most metals. So, it is recommended to insulate galvanized steel so that it doesnt come
in direct contact with dissimilar metals. Rubber or plastic, both non-conductive, are often used to provide
this insulation.
Back to Top

34. What is the difference between hot-dip galvanizing after fabrication and
continuous hot-dip galvanized sheet?
The process steps are similar but the production equipment is very different. After fabrication galvanizing
is a more manual process where structural steel (fabricated plate, wide-flange beams, angles, channels,
tube, pipe, fasteners) is suspended by wire, chain or hook from crane hoists and immersed in the cleaning
solutions and zinc. Continuous sheet galvanizing involves uncoiling sheet, passing it through the cleaning
steps and molten zinc bath at speeds up to 500 feet per minute, drying and recoiling.
The uses of after-fabrication galvanized steel are usually exterior in nature because the zinc coating is
relatively thick (3.0 6 mils, 75 150 microns, 1.7 to 3.6 oz/sq. ft.) and will protect steel from corrosion
in most atmospheric conditions for 50 to 100 years. Galvanized sheet is suitable for interior applications
because of the relatively thin coating (0.45 oz on each side), unless it is painted after galvanizing.
Back to Top

35. What is a G90 or A60 coating?


G90 is a grade of galvanized sheet produced to ASTM A653. It has 0.90 oz/sq. ft. of zinc overall or 0.45
oz/sq. ft. per side. A60 is also a grade, has 0.30 oz/sq. ft. per side, and has been annealed after galvanizing
to produce a surface that promotes good adhesion of paint.
Back to Top

36. Is a salt spray test in a laboratory appropriate to estimate the corrosion rate of
zinc coated steel?
In order for zinc to develop its protective patina of zinc carbonate that is very stable and non-reactive, it
requires a wetting and drying cycle like that produced by nature. Salt spray tests keep the zinc wet and
essentially wash the zinc corrosion products off as they develop, inflating the corrosion rate of zinc. This
lab test is not reflective of real-world performance of zinc coatings.
Back to Top
51

37. Can galvanized steel in service withstand high temperatures for long periods
of time?
Constant exposure to temperatures below 390 F (200 C) is a perfectly acceptable environment for hot-dip
galvanized steel. Good performance can also be obtained when hot-dip galvanized steel is exposed to
temperatures above 390 F (200 C) on an intermittent basis.
Back to Top

38. Can I specify how much zinc to put on the steel?


No, the steel chemistry and surface condition are the primary determinants of zinc coating thickness.
Leaving the steel in the molten zinc a little longer than optimal may have one of two effects: 1) it may
increase the coating thickness, but only marginally; 2) it may significantly increase the coating thickness
and cause a brittle coating.
Back to Top

39. What is cold galvanizing?


There is no such thing as cold galvanizing. The term is often used in reference to painting with zinc-rich
paint. Galvanizing by definition means a metallurgical reaction between zinc and iron to create a bond
between the zinc and the steel of approximately 3600 psi. There is no such reaction when zinc-rich paints
are applied and the bond strength is only several hundred psi.

The HDG Coating


Coating Structure
Galvanizing forms a metallurgical bond between the zinc and the underlying steel or iron, creating a
barrier that is part of the metal itself. During galvanizing, the molten zinc reacts with the surface of the
steel or iron article to form a series of zinc/iron alloy layers. The figure below is a photomicrograph of a
galvanized steel coating cross-section and shows a typical coating microstructure consisting of three alloy
layers and a layer of pure metallic zinc.
Progressing from the underlying steel surface outward, these are:

The thin Gamma layer composed of an alloy that is 75% zinc and 25% iron
52

The Delta layer composed of an alloy that is 90% zinc and 10% iron
The Zeta layer composed of an alloy that is 94% zinc and 6% iron
The outer Eta layer that is composed of pure zinc

To learn more about the hot-dip galvanized coating, select one of the categories below:

Bond Strength
Coating Uniformity
Coating Thickness

Bond Strength

Below the name of each layer in the figure above (magnified cross-section
of hot-dip galvanized coating) appears its respective hardness, expressed by a Diamond Pyramid Number
(DPN). The DPN is a progressive measure of hardness; the higher the number, the greater the hardness.
Typically, the Gamma, Delta and Zeta layers are harder than the underlying steel. The hardness of these
inner layers provides exceptional protection against coating damage by abrasion. The Eta layer is quite
ductile, providing the coating with some impact resistance. The galvanized coating is adherent to the
underlying steel on the order of several thousand pounds per square inch (psi). Other coatings typically
offer adhesion rated at several hundred psi at best. Hardness, ductility and adherence combine to provide
the galvanized coating with unmatched protection against damage caused by rough handling during
transportation to and/or at the job site, as well as in service. The toughness of the galvanized coating is
extremely important since barrier protection is dependent upon the integrity of the coating.
Back to Top

Coating Uniformity
The galvanizing process naturally produces coatings that are at least as thick at the corners and edges as
the coating on the rest of the article. As coating damage is most likely to occur at the edges, this is where
added protection is needed most. Brush- or spray-applied coatings have a natural tendency to thin at the
corners and edges. The figure below is a photomicrograph showing a cross-section of a corner of a
galvanized piece of steel.

Because the galvanizing process involves total immersion of the material,


all surfaces are coated. Galvanizing provides protection on both exterior and interior surfaces of hollow
structures. Hollow structures that are painted (but not galvanized) have no corrosion protection on the
inside.
53

The inspection process for galvanized items is simple and fast and requires minimal labor. This is
important because the inspection process required to assure the quality of many brush- and spray-applied
coatings is highly labor-intensive and uses expensive skilled labor.
Galvanizing takes place in a factory regardless of weather or humidity conditions. Most brush- and sprayapplied coatings depend upon proper weather and humidity conditions for correct application. This
dependence on atmospheric conditions often translates into costly construction delays. The galvanizers
ability to work in any type of weather allows a higher degree of assurance of on-time delivery. Working
under these circumstances, galvanizing can be completed quickly and with short lead times. A turnaround
time of two or three days for galvanizing is common.
Back to Top

Coating Thickness
The American Society of Testing and Materials International (ASTM), the Canadian Specification
Association (CSA) and the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) specifications establish minimum standards for thickness of galvanized coatings on various
categories of items. These minimum standards are routinely exceeded by galvanizers due to the nature of
the galvanizing process.
Factors influencing the thickness and appearance of the galvanized coating include chemical composition
of the steel, steel surface condition, cold-working of steel prior to galvanizing, bath temperature, bath
immersion time, bath withdrawal rate, and steel cooling rate.
The chemical composition of the steel being galvanized is very important. The amount of silicon and
phosphorus in the steel strongly influences the thickness and appearance of the galvanized coating.
Silicon, phosphorous or combinations of the two elements can cause thick, brittle galvanized coatings.
The coating thickness curve shown in the figure below relates the effect of silicon in the base steel to the
thickness of the zinc coating. The carbon, sulfur and manganese content of the steel also may have a
minor effect on the galvanized coating thickness.

The combination of elements mentioned above, known as reactive steel in the galvanizing industry,
tends to accelerate the growth of zinc-iron alloy layers. This may result in a finished galvanized coating
consisting entirely of zinc-iron alloy. Instead of a shiny appearance, the galvanized coating will have a
dark gray, matte finish. This dark gray, matte coating will provide as much corrosion protection as a
galvanized coating having a bright appearance.
54

It is difficult to provide precise guidance in the area of steel selection without qualifying all of the grades
of steel commercially available. The guidelines discussed below usually result in the selection of steels
that provide good galvanized coatings.

Levels of carbon less than 0.25%, phosphorus less than 0.04%, or manganese less than 1.35% are
beneficial
Silicon levels less than 0.04 % or between 0.15% and 0.25% are desirable

Even though it is not a part of the controlled composition of the steel,


silicon may be present in many steels commonly galvanized. This occurs primarily because silicon is
used in the deoxidization process in steel making and is found in continuously cast steel. The phosphorus
content should never be greater than 0.04% for steel that is intended for galvanizing. Phosphorus acts as a
catalyst during galvanizing, resulting in rapid growth of the zinc-iron alloy layers. This growth is
virtually uncontrollable during the galvanizing process.
As the galvanizing reaction is a diffusion process, higher zinc bath temperatures and longer immersion
times generally will produce somewhat heavier alloy layers. Like all diffusion processes, the reaction
proceeds rapidly at first and then slows as layers grow and become thicker. However, continued
immersion beyond a certain time will have little effect on further coating growth. When galvanizing
reactive steels, the diffusion process proceeds at a faster rate, producing thicker coatings.
The thickness of the outer pure zinc layer is largely dependent upon the rate of withdrawal from the zinc
bath. A rapid rate of withdrawal causes an article to carry out more zinc and generally results in a thicker
coating.
ASTM, CSA and AASHTO specifications and inspection standards for galvanizing recognize that
variations occur in both coating thickness and compositions. Thickness specifications are stated in
average terms. Further, coating thickness measurements must be taken at several points on each inspected
article to comply with ASTM A 123/A 123M for structural steel and A 153/A 153M for hardware.
Click a topic below to explore the different properties and coatings associated with hot-dip galvanized
steel:

Physical Properties
Zinc Coatings
Enhancements

Physical Properties
Physical Properties of the HDG Coating
The superior corrosion protection provided by hot-dip galvanizing is the most important reason for
specifying zinc coatings. However, some other factors have an impact on the appearance and use of
galvanized steels.
55

Appearance
Abrasion resistance/Resistance to mechanical damage
Corrosion Protection and the Zinc Patina
High Temperature Exposure
Surface Reflectivity

Appearance
Galvanized coatings are generally bright and shiny but within a year will weather to a uniform dull gray
appearance. The basic finish requirements of the galvanized coating are that it be relatively smooth,
continuous, and free from gross surface imperfections. Smoothness is an ambiguous term; the products
end use must be the determining factor in setting tolerances for smoothness. The galvanized coating is
continuous and provides optimum corrosion protection.

Handling techniques for galvanizing may require the use of chain slings, wire or other holding devices to
lower material into the galvanizing kettle if suitable lifting features are not available on the item. Chains,
wires, and special jigs used to handle the items may leave a mark on the galvanized item. These marks
are not detrimental to the coating, nor are they cause for rejection. If considered necessary, or expose bare
steel, these areas can be easily touched up using the procedures described in ASTM A 780.
Differences in the luster and color of galvanized coatings do not significantly affect corrosion resistance.
The presence or absence of spangle has no affect on coating performance. The well-known spangled
effect found on galvanized products is a crystallization process that is dependent upon the zinc bath
chemistry, the rate of cooling, the method of pickling, the steel chemistry, and the thickness of the
coating. Dull gray or patchy matte gray galvanized coatings give a service life equal to bright or spangled
coatings since the service life depends on the zinc coating thickness. Variations in coating appearance or
finish are important only to the extent that they will affect the intended use of the article. The primary
function of the galvanized coating is corrosion protection.
Back to Top

Abrasion Resistance/Resistance to Mechanical Damage


Other coatings damage easily during shipment or through rough handling on the job site. Experts will
argue that all organic forms of barrier protection (such as paint) by their nature are permeable to some
degree. Galvanized coatings are impermeable. Furthermore, if the galvanized coating is physically
damaged, it will continue to provide cathodic protection to the exposed steel. If individual areas of
56

underlying steel or iron become exposed by as much as 1/4 in diameter, the surrounding zinc will
provide these areas with cathodic protection for as long as the coating lasts.
Figure 1 below shows how corrosion will begin and immediately progress at a scratch or gap in a paint
coating. Figure 2 shows how corrosion will be prevented at a scratch or gap in a zinc coating.

Figure 1

Figure 2

Back to Top

Corrosion Protection and the Zinc Patina

57

Freshly galvanized steel progresses through a natural weathering


process. During the first few weeks after an article has been galvanized, it develops a natural protective
patina. If allowed to develop properly, the patina itself provides a corrosion protection layer for the active
zinc metal.
The formation of the zinc patina begins with the development of a thin layer of zinc oxide particulates on
the freshly coated surface. These particulates react with water, from rainfall or dew, to form a porous,
gelatinous zinc hydroxide. During drying, this product reacts with carbon dioxide present in the
atmosphere and converts into a thin, compact and tightly adherent layer of corrosion products consisting
mainly of basic zinc carbonate. The rate of patina formation varies according to the environmental
conditions.
Typically, it takes approximately 6-12 months to fully develop.
Handling and storage conditions can inhibit the formation of the patina. Storage areas that are high in
humidity and lack air circulation tend to promote excessive growth of zinc oxide and zinc hydroxide.
Adequate ventilation must be provided so that the build-up and retention of excessive water on the
surface of the galvanized steel are avoided.
Back to Top

High Temperature Exposure


There are some concerns with using hot-dip galvanized steel in an elevated temperature environment. The
industry has recommended the service temperature for conventional coatings to be less than 390F
(200C) for long-term exposure. The problems that arise from long-term use at temperatures above 390F
(200C) include peeling, some changes in mechanical properties, and obvious reduction in corrosion
protection.
In an air environment, conventional galvanized coatings may withstand long-term continuous exposure of
up to several months at 390F (200C) without separation of the outer zinc layer. The incidence of such
failure will depend on the micro-structural characteristics of the coating. Higher temperatures
progressively accelerate the separation process to the point where it requires only a few hours at 570F
(300C) to cause peeling.

58

As discussed, peeling does occur at temperatures above 390F (200C) and is dependent on the rise in
temperature and the duration exposed. But this does not mean that there isnt any corrosion protection.
During peeling, only the outer free zinc layer has become detached, leaving the zinc-iron alloy layers to
provide corrosion protection to the steel.
Back to Top

Surface Reflectivity
The bright shiny appearance of a newly galvanized coating is sometimes not desired depending on the
application. Some government agencies require that the surface of coated steel products not exceed
certain reflectivity values. In the early 1970s there were four separate power companies/agencies that
demanded galvanized products be dulled, that is, their reflectivity needed to be reduced to a range of 12%
to 18% before field installation.

A newly-galvanized part with the normal pure zinc layer on the outside has a natural reflectivity of over
70% in the visible range. If the outer surface of the part has an intermetallic layer, rather than the normal
pure zinc layer, the reflectivity is greatly reduced. This reflectivity change will also happen over time as
the galvanized part weathers and the zinc oxides and carbonate films form on the surface of the part.
However, if the surface must be dulled immediately, there have been some treatments used in the past that
59

have proven successful. If surface reflectivity is an issue, contact your local galvanizer to discuss possible
options to producing the desired coating appearance.
Back to Top

Zinc Coating

Zinc metal has a number of characteristics that make it well suited for use
as a coating for protecting iron and steel products from corrosion. Its excellent corrosion resistance in
most environments accounts for its successful use as a protective coating on a variety of products and in
many exposure conditions. The excellent field performance of zinc coatings results from their ability to
form dense, adherent corrosion product films and a rate of corrosion considerably below that of ferrous
materials, some 10 to 100 times slower, depending upon the environment. While a fresh zinc surface is
quite reactive when exposed to the atmosphere, a thin film of corrosion products develops rapidly, greatly
reducing the rate of further corrosion. Click here to view a chart depicting the expected service life to first
maintenance (5% red rust) of iron and steel based on the zinc coating thickness and the environment.
A number of different types of methods of applying zinc coatings to steel are commercially available,
each of which has unique characteristics. The products produced by each of these processes have
different uses depending on their applicability, relative economics and expected service life. To find out
more about the various zinc coatings click one of the topics below.

High Temperature Galvanizing


In-line, Continuous (sheet) Galvanizing
Electro galvanizing
Zinc Plating
Metallizing
Mechanical Plating
Painting
Selection of Zinc Coatings

60

High Temperature Galvanizing


Production Process
High-temperature galvanizing is very similar to batch hot-dip galvanizing at a conventional temperature
(830F). The steel is run through a batch process beginning with multiple chemical pretreatment tanks
used to clean residues from the steel. The pretreatment of the steel begins with a degreasing to remove
dirt and oils from the steel. This stage is then followed by an immersion in an acid pickling tank that
removes oxides and mill scale from the surface of the steel. After the steel has been adequately cleaned, it
is submerged in a tank containing a flux solution, which provides protection against oxidation prior to
entering the galvanizing kettle.
The difference between this process and the normal hot-dip galvanizing process exists in the galvanizing
kettle. Not only is it run at higher temperatures, typically 1020 to 1040F (550 to 560C), but also the
vessel holding the zinc is usually much smaller than the conventional process. Due to the high
temperatures that the holding vessel is operated at, it must also be constructed of ceramics. Due to the
poor heat conductivity of the ceramic, the vessel is normally top-heated using fossil fuel burners, electric
radiant elements, induction heating, or immersion burners.

The high temperature galvanizing process is commonly used for small


hardware items such as nuts and bolts. The coatings produced are extremely uniform and allow for easy
assembly without zinc buildup on the threads. Another advantage of the high temperature process is the
ability to control coating thickness on silicon-rich or reactive steels. The coatings produced on these
steels are thinner and more tightly adherent than coatings produced in the conventional galvanizing
process. Size limitations on steel that can be galvanized at high temperatures exist due to the smaller size
of the galvanizing kettle.

61

Coating Characteristics
The coating produced by high temperature galvanizing is very similar to that of the conventional hot-dip
galvanizing process, but with the absence of the Eta layer. The coatings produced are typically duller than
conventional galvanized coatings because the reaction between iron and zinc goes to completion, mostly
forming a coating of intermetallic iron-zinc alloy. The thickness of the coating is highly dependent on the
temperature. Coatings produced at temperatures of approximately 1030F (555C) are typically 4 mils
thick, depending on the immersion time in the galvanizing bath. The corrosion performance of this
coating is similar to the coatings produced by conventional galvanizing and is strictly dependent on the
coating thickness. To view a service-life chart on the performance of zinc coatings, click here.
Back to Top

In-line, Continuous (Sheet) Galvanizing


Production Process

The continuous sheet galvanizing process is also a hot-dip process. Steel


sheet, strip or wire is cleaned, pickled, and de-oxidized on a processing line 500 feet in length, running at
speeds of over 300 feet per minute. In the coating of sheet or strip, the zinc bath contains larger amounts
of aluminum than used in conventional hot-dip galvanizing (0.15 to 0.25%). The aluminum (Al)
suppresses the formation of the zinc-iron alloys, resulting in a coating that is mostly pure zinc. In-line
heat treatment can be used to produce a fully alloyed (Fe-Zn) coating, called galvannealed steel.
Sheet products continuously coated with zinc-aluminum alloys are also commercially available. Two
alloy compositions currently in use are 55% Al-43.6% Zn-1.4% Si and a 95% Zn-5% Al-trace mischmetal
(cerium, lanthanum). These coatings are used to enhance the product life for certain applications.

Coating Characteristics
After galvanizing, the continuous zinc coating is physically wiped using air knives to produce a uniform
coating across the width of the strip. A variety of coating weights and types is available, ranging up to just
under 2 mils (50 mm) per side. One of the most common coatings is Class G90, which has 0.9 oz./ft2 of
sheet (total both sides) or about 0.75 mils (18 mm) thickness per side.
Continuously galvanized sheet steels are used to make cars, appliances, corrugated roofing and siding,
and culvert pipe. The coated product can be suitably treated for painting for aesthetics or to increase
service life. Because of the thin coating, this product normally is used for interior applications or where
exposure to corrosive elements is mild.
Back to Top

Electro galvanizing
62

Production Process
Electro galvanized coatings are applied to steel sheet and strip by electro-deposition. Electro galvanizing
is a continuous operation where the steel sheet is fed through suitable entry equipment, followed by a
series of washes and rinses, into the zinc plating bath.
The most common zinc electrolyte-anode arrangement uses lead-silver, or other insoluble anodes, and
electrolytes of zinc sulfates. Soluble anodes of pure zinc are also used. In this process, the steel sheet is
the cathode. The coating is developed as zinc ions in the solution are electrically reduced to zinc metal
and deposited at the cathode. Grain refiners may be added to help produce a smooth, tight-knit surface on
the steel.

Coating Characteristics
The electrodeposited zinc coating consists of pure zinc tightly adherent to the steel substrate. The coating
is highly ductile and the coating remains intact even on severe deformation. The coating is produced on
strip and sheet materials to coating weights up to 0.2 oz/ft2 (60 g/m2), or thickness of up to 0.14 mils (3.6
mm) per side. On wire, coating weights may range up to 3 oz/ft2 (915 g/m2). Heat-treated and electrocoated wire can be cold drawn to about 95% reduction in area, depending on the chemical composition of
the wire, heat treatment, and diameter.
The electro galvanized coating is paint able with suitable treatment, and the sheet product is used in
automobile and appliance bodies. Due to the extremely thin zinc coating on the sheet, painting or other
top coating is recommended to improve the service life.
Back to Top

Zinc Plating
Production Process
Zinc plating is identical to electro galvanizing in principle in that both are electro deposition processes.
Zinc plating is used for coatings deposited on small parts such as fasteners, crank handles, springs, and
other hardware items. The zinc is supplied as an expendable electrode in a cyanide, alkaline non-cyanide,
or acid chloride salt solution. Cyanide baths are the most operationally efficient, but they potentially
create a pollution and hazardous material problem.
After alkaline or electrolytic cleaning, pickling to remove surface oxides, and rinsing, the parts are loaded
into a barrel, rack, or drum and immersed in the plating solution. Various brightening agents may be
added to the solution to add luster, but careful control of the bath and brightener is needed to ensure a
quality product. Post-plating treatments may be used to passivate the zinc surface and at the same time
impart various translucent colors to the coating. These post-plating treatments may be used to provide a
desired color or to extend the life of the plated coating.

Coating Characteristics
The normal zinc-plated coating is dull gray in color with a matte finish, although whiter, more lustrous
coatings can be produced, depending on the process or agents added to the plating bath or through posttreatments. The coating is thin, ranging up to 1 mil (25 mm), restricting zinc-plated parts to very mild
(indoor) exposures. ASTM Specification B 633 lists four classes of zinc plating: Fe/Zn 5, Fe/Zn 8, Fe/Zn
12 and Fe/Zn 25. The number indicates the coating thickness in microns. The coating finds application in
screws and other light fasteners, light switch plates and other small parts. Materials for use in moderate or
severe applications must be chromate conversion coated.
63

The coating is entirely pure zinc, which has a hardness about one-third to one-half that of most steels.
Back to Top

Metallizing

Production Process
The sprayed zinc coating is rough and slightly porous, with a specific gravity of 6.4, compared to zinc
metal at 7.1. Zinc corrosion products tend to fill the pores as the zinc corrodes in the atmosphere. The
coating adherence mechanism is mostly mechanical, depending on the kinetic energy of the sprayed
particles of zinc. No zinc-iron alloy layers are present.

Coating Characteristics
The coating can be applied in the shop or field; it gives good coverage of welds, seams, ends and rivets,
and can be used to produce coatings in excess of 10 mils (250 mm). Coating consistency is dependent on
operator experience and coating variation is always a possibility. Coatings may be thinner on corners or
edges and the process is not suitable for coating recesses and cavities.

Mechanical Plating
Production Process
Small iron and steel parts may be coated by drum tumbling with a mixture of proprietary promoter
chemicals, zinc powder and glass beads. After cleaning, the parts, which are usually limited in size to
about 8-9 inches (200-300 mm), and weighing less than one pound (0.5 kg), are flash copper coated and
loaded into a plating barrel. The barrel is then filled with chemicals, glass beads and zinc powder, then
tumbled. The tumbling action causes the beads to peen the zinc powder onto the part. Thickness is
regulated by the amount of zinc charged to the plating barrel and the duration of tumbling time. After
coating, the parts are dried and packaged, or post-treated with a passivating film, then dried and
packaged.
Materials mechanically plated must be simple in design. Complex designs with recesses or blind holes
may not be thoroughly coated because of inaccessibility to the peening action of the glass beads. The
media used as the compaction agent is also important: it must be large enough to avoid being lodged in
any cavities, recesses or small threads in the parts.

64

Coating Characteristics
The mechanically plated coating consists of a flash coating of copper followed by the zinc coating.
Coating thickness requirements contained in ASTM Specification B 695 range from 0.2-4.3 mils (5 to
110 mm). While thicker coatings are possible, the common thickness on commercial fasteners is 2 mils
(50 mm). The coating has a density of about 0.45 oz./ft2/mil compared to the hot-dip galvanized coating
density of about 0.6 oz./ft2/mil. The hot-dip coating has over 30% more zinc per unit volume than the
mechanical coating.
The coating, upon micro cross-section, appears to consist of flattened particles of zinc loosely bonded
together. The bond between zinc and steel, and zinc-to-zinc, being mechanical in this process, is weaker
than the metallurgical bond found in hot-dip galvanizing. Edge, corner and thread coating thicknesses are
usually lower at these sharp radii areas due to minimal peening action at these locations.
Back to Top

Painting (zinc-rich)
Production Process

Zinc-rich paints contain 65-94% metallic zinc in the film of the paint after
it dries. The paints are usually applied by brushing or spraying onto steel that has been cleaned by
sandblasting. While white metal blasting (NACE No. 1) is preferred, near white (SSPC-SP 10) or
commercial blast cleaning (SSPC-SP 6) are acceptable.
When the zinc dust is supplied as a separate component, it must be mixed with a polymeric-containing
vehicle to provide a homogenous mixture prior to application. Application is usually by air spray,
although airless spray also can be used. The paint must be constantly agitated and the feed line kept as
short as possible to prevent settling of the zinc dust. Uneven film coats may develop if applied by brush
or roller, and cracking may occur if too thick a paint coating is applied.
Zinc-rich paints are classified as organic or inorganic, depending on the binder, and must be applied over
clean steel.

Coating Characteristics
Organic or inorganic zinc-rich paints usually are applied to a dry film thickness of 2.5 to 3.5 mils (64-90
mm). Organic zinc paints consist of epoxies, chlorinated hydrocarbons and other polymers. Inorganic
zinc paints are based largely on organic alkyl silicates. The zinc dust must be at a concentration high
enough to provide for electrical continuity in the dry film. Otherwise, cathodic protection will not occur.
65

Even so, there is some question as to whether cathodic protection is possible at all due to the
encapsulation of the zinc particles in the binder.
Adhesion bond strengths of zinc-rich paints are in the order of a few hundred pounds per square inch
(psi), while galvanized coatings measure in the several thousand psi range. Zinc-rich painting is similar to
metallizing in that large articles can be coated in either the shop or field. Limitations include cost,
difficulty in applying, lack of coating uniformity (particularly at corners and edges), and the requirement
for a clean steel surface. Zinc-rich paints should be top coated in severe environments.
Inorganic zinc-rich paints that adhere by mild chemical reactivity with the substrate have good solvent
resistance and can withstand temperatures up to about 375C (700F). Cleanup is easier than with
organics, and they do not chalk, peel, or blister readily, and are easy to weld through.
Zinc contents of inorganic zinc-rich paints range up to about 0.35 oz. zinc/ft2/mil or about one-half less
zinc per mil than hot-dip galvanized coatings.
The properties of organic zinc-rich paints depend on the solvent system. Multiple coats may be applied
within 24 hours without cracking. Zinc-rich paints are often used to touch up galvanized steel that has
been damaged by welding or severe mechanical impact.
Organic zinc-rich paints do not have the temperature resistance of inorganic zincs, being limited to 200 to
300F, are subject to ultraviolet (sunlight) degradation, and are not as effective as inorganics in length of
corrosion prevention.
Zinc dust/zinc oxide paints (MZP) are classified under Federal Specification TT-P-641G as Type I, Type
II, or Type III, depending on the vehicle. The vehicles used are linseed, alkyd resin, and phenolic resin,
respectively. These paints are widely used as either a primer or topcoat and show good adhesion to
galvanized steel, making them the logical choices for painting that substrate. Type I is good for outdoor
applications, Type II for heat-resistant applications and Type III for water immersion or severe moisture
conditions. Because of their lower metallic zinc content, zinc dust/zinc oxide paints (MZP) cannot
provide sacrificial protection to the base steel. When used as a coating over galvanized steel, the service
life of the galvanized coating is extended because of the increased barrier protection of the paint. The
service life of the paint is extended in the event of a scratch or cut through the paint, since the volume of
the zinc corrosion product, being considerably less than that of rust, reduces the incidence of lifting and
separation of the paint film. MZPs can be top-coated with a variety of paint types if colors other than
gray, green or tan (from pigmented additives) are required.
Back to Top

Selection of Zinc Coatings


After the decision is made to use a zinc coating for corrosion protection, some factors must be considered
to ensure that the proper coating is selected for the intended application and service environment.
Obviously, zinc coating processes that are limited to small parts such as fasteners or other small
hardware, or operations limited to continuous lines in steel mills, such as continuous galvanizing and
electrogalvanizing, cannot be considered for the protective coating of structural steel members.
The figure below lists the different types of zinc coatings and representative applications for each. While
a coating is not limited to those uses listed, the applications represent the most common types of products
coated by the process.
Zinc Coatings
Method

Process

Specification

Coating

Applications
66

Thickness
Interior. Appliance
Electrogalvanizing Electrolysis ASTM A 879 Up to 0.28 mils1 panels, studs, acoustical
ceiling members.
Zinc Plating

Electrolysis

ASTM B
633

0.2 to 1.0 mils2

Interior or Exterior.
Fasteners and hardware
items

Mechanical
Plating

Peening

ASTM B
695

0.2 to 4.3 mils2

Interior or Exterior.
Fasteners and hardware
items.

3.3 to 8.3 mils

Interior or Exterior. Items


that cannot be galvanized
because of size or
because on-site coating
application is needed.

Zinc Spraying
(Metallizing)

Continuous Sheet
Galvanizing

Batch Hot-Dip
Galvanizing

Zinc Painting

Hot Zinc
Spray

Hot-Dip

AWS C2.2

ASTM A 653 Up to 4.0 mils

Interior or Exterior.
Roofing, gutters, culverts,
automobile bodies.

Hot-Dip

ASTM A 123
ASTM A 153 A minimum of
ASTM A 767 1.4 to 3.9 mils3
CSA G 164

Interior or Exterior.
Nearly all shapes and
sizes ranging from nails,
nuts and bolts to large
structural assemblies,
including rebar.

Spray
Roller
Brush

SSPC-PS
Guide 12.00,
22.00
0.6 to 5.0
SSPC-PS
mils/coat
Paint 20
SSPC-PS
12.01

Interior or Exterior. Items


that cannot be galvanized
because of size or
because on-site coating
application is needed.
Large structural
assemblies. Aesthetic
requirements.

Total for both sides of sheet


Range based on ASTM minimum thicknesses for all grades, classes, etc., encompassed by the
specifications.
3
Range based on ASTM and CSA minimum thicknesses for all grades, classes, etc., encompassed by the
specifications.
2

Coating Thickness vs. Coating Weight


The usual criterion for determining the expected service life of zinc coatings is thickness: the thicker the
coating, the longer the service life. This is an acceptable criterion when comparing zinc coatings
produced by the same process.
When comparing zinc coatings produced by different processes, the thickness criterion cannot be used
without considering the amount of available zinc per unit volume. It is also important to keep in mind
various ASTM or other specifications as they relate to coating weight or thickness, and reduce the coating
requirements to a common denominator prior to making a comparison of different zinc coatings.

67

While the coating densities for some of the different types of zinc coatings are nearly identical, others
differ considerably. The coating densities, in terms of thickness required to equal 1 oz. of zinc per square
foot of surface, are:
Hot-dip galvanizing (batch or continuous), electrogalvanizing, zinc plating
Zinc Spraying (Metallizing)
Mechanical plating
Zinc-rich paint

1.7 mils (43 m)


1.9 mils (48 m)
2.2 mils (55 m)
3-6 mils (75 150 m)

Each of these thicknesses, representing the same weight per unit area of zinc, would be expected to
provide equivalent service life; i.e. 1.7 mils of hot-dip galvanized would give about the same service life
as 2.2 mils of mechanical plating or 3-6 mils (depending on the paint formulation) of zinc-rich paint,
assuming bond strength and edge protection are not factors.
It is also important to remember that for all continuous galvanized sheet materials, including electro
galvanized, the coating weight is given in weight per unit area of sheet. To obtain the amount of zinc per
unit area of surface, the weight given must be divided by two, assuming equal distribution on both sides.
For example, an ASTM A 653 Class G90 sheet contains 0.90 oz. zinc/ft2 of sheet or about 0.45 oz./ft2 on
a surface. A G210 (2.10oz/ft2) sheet would have to be specified to obtain about 1 oz/ft2 on each side of
the sheet.

Economic Considerations
Selection from the wide range of coatings available for steel will normally depend on the suitability of the
coating for the intended use and the economics of the protective system. Factors that affect the economics
for a particular application include:

Initial cost of the coating


Coating life to first maintenance
Cost of maintenance
Hidden costs, such as accessibility of the site, production loss due to maintenance re-coating, and
rising wages for labor-intensive coatings, such as metal spraying and painting

The choice of the most economical system should include both an initial and life-cycle cost analysis. The
American Galvanizers Association has developed an online calculator, which taking data from a paint
industry survey conducted by KTA Tator, Inc. and a galvanized industry survey conducted by AGA, will
provide an initial and life-cycle cost comparison of hot-dip galvanizing to a number of paint systems.
Visit http://www.galvanizingcost.com to run your own analysis.

68

69

70

71

Potrebbero piacerti anche