2013 08 30 TB C4 307 Resonance and Ferroresonance in Power Networks Final For SC

RESONANCE AND
FERRORESONANCE IN
POWER NETWORKS
WG C4.307
Members
Zia Emin, Convenor (GB)
Manuel Martinez-Duro, Task Force Leader (FR), Marta Val Escudero, Task Force Leader (IE)
Robert Adams (AU), Herivelto S Bronzeado (BR), Bruno Caillault (FR), Nicola Chiesa (NO), David Jacobson (CA),
Lubomir Kocis (CZ), Terrence Martinich (CA), Stephan Pack (AT), Juergen Plesch (AT), Michel Rioual (FR), Juan A
Martinez-Velasco (ES), Yannick Vernay (FR), Francois Xavier Zgainski (FR)
Contributions have also been received from Tim Browne (NZ).
Copyright 2013
Ownership of a CIGRE publication, whether in paper form or on electronic support only infers
right of use for personal purposes. Are prohibited, except if explicitly agreed by CIGRE, total
or partial reproduction of the publication for use other than personal and transfer to a third
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Disclaimer notice
CIGRE gives no warranty or assurance about the contents of this publication, nor does it
accept any responsibility, as to the accuracy or exhaustiveness of the information. All implied
warranties and conditions are excluded to the maximum extent permitted by law.
ISBN : (To be completed by CIGRE)
Resonance and Ferroresonance in Power Networks
ISBN : (To be completed by CIGRE)
Page 1
Acknowledgements
The convenor wishes to express his thanks and gratitude to Nicola Chiesa, Manuel Martinez Duro, Marta Val
Escudero, and Terrence Martinich for their enduring hard work during the preparation of this technical brochure.
Page 2
Resonance and Ferroresonance in

Power Networks
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................. 6
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO RESONANCE AND FERRORESONANCE ........................................... 8
CHAPTER 2
UNDERSTANDING RESONANCE AND FERRORESONANCE ........................................... 11
2.1
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1.4
2.1.5
2.1.6
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.3
2.4
Introducing Resonance ..................................................................................................................... 11

Resonance in Electric Circuits ........................................................................................................... 11
Series and Parallel Resonance ......................................................................................................... 11
Duality of Series and Parallel Resonant Circuits ................................................................................ 12
Free Oscillations in Electric Circuits................................................................................................... 17
Ideal Series Resonant Circuit ............................................................................................................ 19
Damped Series Resonant Circuit ...................................................................................................... 21
Introducing Ferroresonance .............................................................................................................. 23
Effect of circuit capacitance ............................................................................................................... 26
Effect of source voltage ..................................................................................................................... 27
Effect of circuit losses ....................................................................................................................... 28
Physical Description of a Ferroresonant Oscillation ........................................................................... 29
Types of Ferroresonance Oscillations................................................................................................ 33
CHAPTER 3
3.1
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.2
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 35
Typical circuit capacitances ............................................................................................................... 36
Typical circuit reactances .................................................................................................................. 37
Potentially Risky Configurations ........................................................................................................ 37
Shunt-Compensation and Uneven Phase Operation.......................................................................... 37
Shunt-Compensation and Three-Phase Switching in Multi-Circuit Rights of Way ............................... 39
Distribution Embedded Generation Islanded with Transmission Circuit .............................................. 43
CHAPTER 4
4.1
4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.3
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.4
4.4.1
TYPICAL NETWORK TOPOLOGIES LEADING TO RESONANCE IN TRANSMISSION

CIRCUITS ............................................................................................................................ 35
RESONANCE IN SHUNT COMPENSATED TRANSMISSION CIRCUITS ............................. 44
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 44
Line Resonance in Uneven Open-Phase Conditions.......................................................................... 45
Physical description .......................................................................................................................... 45
Approximate Steady State Analytical Solution ................................................................................... 47
Effect of Various Design Parameters ................................................................................................. 56
Detailed Analysis of Line Resonance in Uneven Open-Phase conditions using Time-Domain
Simulation ......................................................................................................................................... 61
Steady State Analysis ....................................................................................................................... 61
Temporary Overvoltage Analysis ....................................................................................................... 64
Summary of Parameters Affecting Line Resonance in Open-Phase Conditions ................................. 70
Line Resonance in Multiple-Circuit Rights of Way .............................................................................. 71
Physical description .......................................................................................................................... 71
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4.4.2 Discussion on Circuit Parameters...................................................................................................... 75
4.4.3 Case Study ....................................................................................................................................... 76
4.4.4 Summary and commentary of resonance issues associated with shunt-compensated multiplecircuit rights of way............................................................................................................................ 83
4.5
Practical Consequences of Line Resonance ...................................................................................... 84
4.6
Mitigation Options ............................................................................................................................. 85
CHAPTER 5
NETWORK CONFIGURATIONS LEADING TO FERRORESONANCE................................. 88
5.1
5.1.1
5.1.2
5.1.3
5.1.4
5.2
5.2.1
5.2.2
Ferroresonance in voltage transformers (VT)..................................................................................... 88

VT and Circuit Breaker Grading Capacitors ....................................................................................... 89
Line VTs ........................................................................................................................................... 89
VT and Double Circuit Configuration ................................................................................................. 90
VT in Ungrounded Neutral Systems with Low Zero-Sequence Capacitance ....................................... 90
Ferroresonance in power transformers .............................................................................................. 93
Transformer Terminated Transmission Line in Multi-Circuit Right of Way........................................... 93
Lightly Loaded Transformer Energized via Cable or Long Line from a Low Short-Circuit Capacity
Network ............................................................................................................................................ 94
5.2.3 Transformer energized in one or two phases ..................................................................................... 95
5.2.4 Transformer connected to a series compensated line ........................................................................ 97
CHAPTER 6
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.3.1
6.3.2
6.3.3
6.3.4
6.3.5
6.4
6.4.1
6.4.2
6.4.3
Analytical Solution Methods .............................................................................................................. 99

Digital Simulation Methods .............................................................................................................. 100
Modelling of Network Components .................................................................................................. 102
Extent of the Network Model ........................................................................................................... 102
Overhead Line Model ...................................................................................................................... 102
Transformers .................................................................................................................................. 103
Shunt Reactors ............................................................................................................................... 104
Other Substation Equipment ........................................................................................................... 104
Sensitivity to Parameters................................................................................................................. 105
Effect of Magnetising Curve ............................................................................................................ 105
Influence of Circuit Breaker Closing Times ...................................................................................... 108
Influence of the Damping in the Circuit ............................................................................................ 108
CHAPTER 7
7.1
7.1.1
7.1.2
7.1.3
7.1.4
7.1.5
7.2
MODELLING AND STUDYING ........................................................................................... 99
MITIGATION OF FERRORESONANCE ............................................................................ 109
Mitigation of VT Ferroresonance ..................................................................................................... 109

Secondary Open Delta Resistor ...................................................................................................... 109
Secondary Wye Resistor............................................................................................................... 110
Secondary Wye Resistor in Series with a Saturable Reactor ......................................................... 111
Other Mitigation Options.................................................................................................................. 112
Mitigation of VT Ferroresonance in Ungrounded Neutral Systems ................................................... 112
Mitigation of Power Transformer Ferroresonance ............................................................................ 114
CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................................. 116
ANNEX A
RESONANCE EXAMPLES ................................................................................................. 124
A1.
A.2
A.3
A.4
Resonance Associated with Single-phase Autoreclose Switching of 275 kV Shunt Reactor ............. 124
Line Resonance experienced in 275 kV Double Circuit as a result of System Expansion ................. 127
Line Resonance Experienced in 400 kV and 225kV Subnetwork De-energized for Black-Start
Test ................................................................................................................................................ 133
High Temporary Overvoltages When A Distribution-Connected Generator Energizes An Isolated
Ungrounded & Faulted High Voltage System ................................................................................... 140
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ANNEX B
B.1
B.2
B.3
B.4
B.5
B.6
FERRORESONANCE EXAMPLES...................................................................................... 146
Power Transformer Terminated Line Ferroresonance ...................................................................... 146

Power Transformer Ferroresonance Teed from a Multi-Circuit Right of Way .................................... 150
Ferroresonance of a VT in Ungrounded Neutral Configuration ......................................................... 152
Ferroresonance with Power Transformer Connected to Series Compensated Line .......................... 156
Ferroresonance of a Line VT with Circuit Breaker Grading Capacitors ............................................. 162
Ferroresonance on Transformer Energization from a Weak Network ............................................... 167
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Resonance and ferroresonance are a subset of a broad phenomena group that can cause temporary overvoltages
(TOV) in power systems. Common causes of TOV include system faults, load rejection, line energization, line
dropping/fault clearance, reclosing, and transformer energization. Other special cases of TOV include parallel line
resonance, uneven breaker poles in shunt-compensated circuits, ferroresonance and back-feeding [1]. These
TOVs have detrimental effects on power quality and can lead to dielectric or thermal failure of equipment. Cigre
WG 33.11 originally covered this subject in a series of publications between 1990 and 2000 [1] - [4].
Significant research has been carried out since the previous work from Cigre WG 33.11 was published, especially
on numerical analysis techniques. Hence, a new Cigre WG C4.307 was established with the objective of expanding
the research and documenting in detail special cases of TOV. This particular Technical Brochure (TB) concentrates
on resonance conditions at power frequency and on the special case of ferroresonance. Harmonic resonances
excited by transformer energization have also been studied by WG C4.307 and are the subject of a companion TB.
This TB presents a comprehensive review of the main aspects related to two special sources of TOV: (i) resonance
associated with the use of shunt compensation and (ii) ferroresonance. Neither resonance nor ferroresonance are
new phenomena, and a comprehensive list of technical references is provided in this document. However this
information is very scattered and not always readily available to practising power system engineers. The objective
of this TB is to compile that knowledge in a simple and concise document that can serve as a guideline for planning
engineers and technical consultants to identify potentially dangerous network topologies, to carry-out detailed
studies and to assess mitigation options. Comprehensive theory background and methods of analysis are provided
within the document as well as a list of typical topologies prone to each phenomenon and practical examples of
recent incidents experienced in power systems. A companion TB produced by the same WG is devoted to the
related topic of transformer energization phenomena.
The scope of this TB is:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Compilation of technical documentation related to the phenomena of resonance and ferroresonance in

power networks.
Provide a detailed physical explanation of the phenomena of resonance and ferroresonance in power
networks.
Highlight typical network topologies that present high risk of resonance or ferroresonance.
Illustrate methods of analysis for resonance and ferroresonance.
Provide mitigation options.
Present practical examples of resonance and ferroresonance incidents in transmission networks.
The document is structured in eight Chapters, followed by two Annexes the first one containing the resonance
cases and the second one for ferroresonance cases. Each Chapter is self-contained and provides different degrees
of technical detail and complexity, in such a way that it is not necessary to read all chapters sequentially to acquire
an overview of all the issues covered in the TB. For instance, if the reader is only interested in an overview of
typical network topologies with a high risk of resonance (Chapter 3), then Chapter 4 may be skipped as it covers a
very comprehensive theoretical treatment of the phenomenon. On the other hand, the detailed theoretical analyses
may be of great interest to electrical engineering students or to planning engineers tasked with the analysis and
solution of resonant or ferroresonant problems.
The topics covered by each Chapter are as follows:
Chapter 1 provides a high-level introduction to the phenomena of line resonance and ferroresonance and
highlights some changes that are shaping the development of modern power networks, which may increase the
risk of resonance and ferroresonance conditions if these phenomena are overlooked at the design stages. A
comprehensive review of technical literature is provided in this Chapter and some past incidents are highlighted.
Finally, consequences on operational reliability, costs, safety, and stress on equipment are also discussed.
Chapter 2 introduces the theory behind the phenomena of linear resonance and ferroresonance. The Chapter
starts with a review of the well known series and parallel R-L-C circuits and gradually builds the theoretical analysis
Page 6

to cover more complex combinations of series and parallel elements, as representative of many practical cases in
actual power systems. The complex topic of ferroresonance is subsequently introduced by considering the series
resonant R-L-C circuit driven by a voltage source, where the inductor is nonlinear. A distinctive characteristic of a
ferroresonant circuit is the existence of several stable solutions. Graphical solutions are provided as useful
visualisation tools of the steady state behaviour of the linear resonant case as well as the ferroresonant circuit. The
Chapter concludes with a description of the different types of ferroresonant oscillations, including the representative
voltage waveforms and frequency spectrum.
Chapter 3 gives an overview of typical network topologies that can give rise to resonance associated with the use
of shunt-reactors in transmission circuits or substations. It is emphasised that the risk of resonance is not restricted
to normal operating conditions and special precautions should be taken during unusual network configurations
such as black-start restoration operations or maintenance/testing of sectionalised parts of the network. By
increasing awareness of the potential risky topologies it is expected that hazardous incidents of resonance can be
prevented or mitigated.
Chapter 4 provides a comprehensive theoretical and practical treatment of the resonant phenomena encountered
in shunt-compensated transmission circuits. Approximate steady state equations are presented, which enable initial
screening of the risk of resonance for a particular topology and set of parameters. A comparison of the results of
the approximate steady state analysis to detailed EMT-type simulations shows very good agreement. The effects of
design parameters such as tower design, neutral reactor, magnetic core construction, line transposition, magnetic
core saturation, etc are explored and a summary table is included ranking their importance. A practical example is
provided of surge arrester failure due to over-voltage on a long 500kV transmission line having 72% shunt
compensation which, due to breaker failure, resulted in a prolonged two open-pole condition. This topology resulted
in a resonant condition almost perfectly tuned to power frequency. Finally, practical consequences of line
resonance are discussed and a range of active and passive mitigation options is given as a tool-box to assist
power systems engineers in the selection of the most cost-effective scheme for each particular application.
Chapter 5 gives an overview of typical network topologies that can give rise to ferroresonance. By increasing
awareness of the potential risky topologies, it is expected that hazardous incidents of ferroresonance can be
prevented or mitigated. The Chapter is divided in two main sections, one devoted to inductive voltage transformers
and another one dedicated to power transformers.
Chapter 6 introduces various analytical approaches as well as digital simulation techniques for the study of
ferroresonant circuits. A brief discussion is provided on various nonlinear dynamic analysis tools such as phasespace, Poincar section, and bifurcation diagram techniques. Equally, comprehensive suggestions and guidelines
are presented for the modelling of various electrical items of plant in EMT-type simulation tools that can be used
both in resonance and ferroresonance studies. The sensitivity of the study results to various model and simulation
parameters is discussed.
Chapter 7 is devoted to presenting and discussing possible mitigation techniques for ferroresonance. These
measures range from selection of design parameters to avoid risky scenarios (for instance magnetic cores with low
flux density), special relaying schemes, special switching procedures, introduction of damping, etc.
Chapter 8 summarises the conclusions of this work, followed by a list of technical references.
Finally, the Annexes include a compilation of resonance and ferroresonance examples in transmission networks.
These comprise four cases of resonance and six cases of ferroresonance. Field measurements and simulations
are given in combination with descriptions of the investigations carried out and the adopted solutions. These
examples will provide practising power system engineers with a broad picture of the hazards associated with
resonance and ferroresonance and options to deal with them in a cost-effective manner.
Page 7
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO RESONANCE AND FERRORESONANCE
Ambitious targets for CO2 emissions reductions and integration of renewable generation in power systems are
driving the need for significant reinforcement of existing transmission grids worldwide, in particular new high
capacity corridors are required to transfer large amounts of power from remote areas with high natural resources
(i.e. wind, wave, tidal, etc) to the demand centres. At the same time, increasing public opposition to the
construction of new overhead transmission infrastructure is driving the need for new pylon designs that minimise
visual impact resulting, in many cases, in smaller structures with reduced clearances. Where possible, existing
corridors are being upgraded and operated at higher voltage levels with minimum modifications to the towers, thus
increasing its transfer capability. Furthermore, the use of underground cable circuits at HV and EHV transmission
levels is steadily increasing, not only in congested urban areas, but also in remote rural locations in order to reduce
the environmental impact of new circuits in specific designated zones and to accelerate the connections of wind
farms to the transmission grids. These fundamental changes in the design and technology used for new
transmission circuits are resulting in an increased system capacitance that is shifting the network natural resonant
frequencies closer to the power frequency (50/60 Hz).
Generally, resonance occurs in electric circuits that are able to periodically transform energy from an electric field
into a magnetic field and vice versa. It is the characteristic of such a circuit that if some single energy is delivered
into it (either of electric or magnetic type), the circuit then starts to oscillate with the so called free oscillations.
Generally, electric circuits are more complex, consisting of many capacitances and inductances that can exchange
energy between them via various paths and their free oscillations are composed from several frequencies.
It is important to note that resonance referred to in this document applies to fundamental frequency resonance only
and that if harmonics are present, either due to saturation of transformers or reactors, the resonance conditions
may change significantly.
A large section of this document is dedicated to resonance conditions in shunt compensated transmission circuits.
This is not a new phenomenon, described in technical publications as early as 1962 [68]. However, available
literature dealing with this type of resonance, reporting field experiences and assessing or recommending
mitigation actions is very scattered and not always readily available to utility planning engineers and technical
consultants. This Technical Brochure aims to compile that knowledge in a simple and concise document that can
serve as a guideline for planning engineers and consultants to identify dangerous topologies associated with the
use of shunt compensation in transmission circuits, to carry-out detailed studies and to assess mitigation options.
A second phenomenon covered in this document is ferroresonance. In its simplest terms ferroresonance can be
described as a non-linear oscillation due to the interaction of an iron core inductance with a capacitance.
Ferroresonance is a harmful low frequency oscillation where a non-linear reactance can be driven into saturation
and oscillate with the circuit capacitance giving rise to severe overvoltages, with almost no damping when the
amplitude is moderate, and in some circumstances, excessive overcurrents. If enough energy provided by the
source is coupled to compensate for the circuit losses, this oscillation can be sustained indefinitely.
The phenomenon of ferroresonance came to light in 1920 when it was first reported by P. Boucherot [5] to describe
an oscillation between a power transformer and a capacitance. Ferroresonance became a problem in the early part
of the century when small isolated systems were interconnected by long transmission lines [6] [7], but at that time
the cause of the problem was not understood. In the 1940's and 1950's the phenomenon recurred as the electricity
supply industry expanded and longer overhead distribution systems were introduced into service. The terms
neutral instability [8] and voltage displacement [9] were also used in the 1940s referring to the same or very
similar phenomenon, although the term ferroresonance has prevailed. In 1966 it was discovered that, for cable
connected transformers, ferroresonance can occur even on circuits as short as 200 metres [10], [11]. Since that
time many studies and investigations have been carried out and a number of papers have been published on the
subject.
Ferroresonance has focussed the attention of numerous researchers over the years with the outcome of extensive
literature addressing the subject, proposing analysis methods and reporting cases experienced by various utilities.
However, despite the vast amount of research and technical documentation available, it still remains widely
unknown today and is somehow misunderstood by many power network utilities. It is especially feared by power
Page 8

systems operators, as it seems to occur randomly, normally resulting in the catastrophic destruction of electrical
equipment and the consequent adverse effect on the reliability of power network. This general lack of awareness
means that ferroresonance is, by and large, overlooked at the planning and design stages or, at the other extreme,
held responsible for inexplicable equipment failures [12]. However, use of non linear tools enabled a better
understanding of the behaviour and these networks [87] and the determination of the different solutions (harmonic,
pseudo-periodic and even chaotic) along with the importance of the magnetic flux as a crucial state variable, even if
some areas have to be investigated further, especially when transformers are highly non linear.
Sustained overvoltages seen under resonance or ferroresonance conditions could stress equipment such as
transformers and breakers, and would cause surge arresters to conduct over extended period of time exceeding
their energy dissipation capabilities. A catastrophic failure of a surge arrester for example could damage other key
equipment in a substation and could also cause injury to personnel if they happen to be around at the time.
Therefore resonance and ferroresonance primarily pose a health and safety hazard to the substation personnel
due to the risk of explosion in the work place. An example of such threat is reported in [13], where a 230 kV voltage
transformer failed catastrophically due to ferroresonance causing damage to equipment up to 33 meters away.
Nobody was injured in this instance but the experience illustrates the danger that site operators are exposed to.
Although not very common, some cases of line resonant incidents can be found in literature. A recent example is
discussed in section 4.2.2.4 of this document, where two 500kV surge arresters failed as a result of resonance in a
shunt-compensated circuit following an uneven circuit breaker operation. A similar case was reported in the
discussions of [82], where surge arrester failures were observed in a shunt-compensated 765 kV line also following
uneven circuit breaker operations. Many more examples of plant equipment destruction caused by ferroresonance
have been documented in the literature. A very interesting case is reported in [14] where 72 voltage transformers
were destroyed in a 50 kV network in Norway. An investigation revealed that all the damaged voltage transformers
were from the same manufacturer whereas voltage transformers from other two manufacturers which were also in
service survived the incident. The catastrophic destruction of a 230 kV voltage transformer in a cogeneration
substation is reported in [15]. The failure of a 275 kV voltage transformer in UK is reported in [16]. Other typical
examples include the explosive failure of a 115 kV voltage transformer in Canada [17], the explosive failure of
voltage transformers in France [12] and the total destruction or partial damage of six 345 kV voltage transformers
as reported by a USA utility [18].
From an operational point of view, resonant and ferroresonant oscillations represent a potential threat to power
network plant integrity. The large current pulses caused by transformer saturation may overheat the transformer
primary winding and might, eventually, cause insulation damage. The large voltage oscillations, temporary or
sustained, can also cause severe stresses on the insulation of all the equipment connected to the same circuit.
Surge arresters are normally the most vulnerable apparatus in substations due to their low TOV withstand
capabilities [19].
Resonance and ferroresonance can also have an adverse effect on the reliability of the power network. The forced
outage of part of a substation due to an equipment failure can cause severe overloading in other parts of the
network that could evolve into a cascade tripping [20] or result in extended outage of major power network assets.
From an economic perspective, resonance and ferroresonance could represent unaccounted costs to electric
power utilities. The cost could be twofold: on the one hand, there is an explicit cost associated with the replacement
of damaged or destroyed electrical plant, and on the other hand, there are high or perhaps even severe costs
associated with a reduced network security and possible disconnection of some customers. Quantification of the
latter is not a straightforward task and could only be fully quantified if performed on an individual case basis.
Ferroresonant waveforms are highly distorted, with a large content of harmonics and sub-harmonics. This in turn
results in a degraded power quality and possible misoperation of some protection relays [21]. Transformer
overheating may also occur under Ferroresonant conditions due to excessive flux densities. Since the core is
saturated repeatedly, the magnetic flux finds its way into the tank and other metallic parts. This can cause charring
or bubbling of paint in the tank [22].
In general, it is possible to distinguish temporary overvoltages from ferroresonance; in the former, the amplitude
may be very high initially but decreases rapidly in most cases. As harmonics are involved, the fluxes circulating in
Page 9

the iron core may lead to overheatings in the core, and especially affecting the insulation between laminations.
These points are not covered by the IEC 60071-1, describing the standard tests to be performed, when addressing
stresses linked to insulation coordination issues. IEC 60071-1 enables the specification and subsequent purchase
of transformers for new installations, but does not address particular aspects related to the behaviour of the
equipment under operating conditions such as transformer energization.
As resonance and ferroresonance may induce a long duration phenomena, the overvoltages may affect the aging
of the insulation through overheating of the iron core, but may not lead to the insulation breakdown of the bushing,
as an example, in the case when the amplitude of the overvoltage is moderate.
It is interesting to note that ferroresonance is normally accompanied by a very loud and characteristic noise caused
by magnetostriction of the steel and vibrations of the core laminations. This noise has been described in [22] as
the shaking of a bucket of bolts or a chorus of thousand hammers pounding on the transformer from within.
Although difficult to describe, the noise is definitely different from and louder than that heard under normal
operating conditions at rated voltage and frequency.
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CHAPTER 2
UNDERSTANDING RESONANCE AND FERRORESONANCE
2.1 Introducing Resonance

2.1.1 Resonance in Electric Circuits
The phenomenon of resonance exists in a large diversity of physical systems and arises when the system is
affected by periodical excitation with a frequency similar to its natural frequency of oscillation. When a system is
excited, it tends to oscillate at its natural frequency. If the excitation source has the same frequency as the
systems natural frequency, the systems response to that excitation can be very large. In order to have resonance
in a system, it is necessary to have two forms of energy storage, with energy being periodically transformed from
one form to the other, and vice versa: in mechanical systems these are kinetic and potential energy, in electrical
systems these are electrical and magnetic energy. Thus, electrical circuits with magnetic and electric fields have
the capability of resonating. Electrical resonance occurs when the magnetic and electric energy requirements are
equal, just as a mechanical system resonates when kinetic and potential energy requirements are balanced.
The phenomenon of resonance has very useful applications in some fields. For instance, in telecommunications,
resonant circuits are used to select a group of frequencies from a broader group. Such application, as an example,
can be part of a radio filter that selects one station for reception, rejecting all others, by means of a variable
capacitor.
A useful application of resonance in electrical power systems is the design of filters for the suppression of harmful
harmonics. However, the phenomenon of resonance can also be very destructive in power systems. Special
caution is required in the design and operation of the power network to avoid the occurrence of resonance at the
power frequency (50/60 Hz). Such resonance occurrence would lead to uncontrolled system overvoltages that
could stress and damage equipment.
Electrical resonance occurs in a circuit when the capacitive reactance (1/ C) equals the inductive reactance ( L) at
the driving frequency. This frequency, also called natural frequency, is given by Eq. 2-1.
Eq. 2-1
2.1.2 Series and Parallel Resonance

There are two types of resonance: series and parallel. A basic scheme of series resonance is in Figure 2-1 (a) and
parallel in Figure 2-1 (b).
For every combination of L and C, there is only one frequency (in both series and parallel circuits) that causes XL to
exactly match XC; this frequency is known as the natural or resonant frequency (Eq. 2-1). When the resonant
frequency is fed to a series or parallel circuit, XL becomes equal to XC, and the circuit is said to be resonant at that
frequency.
In the case of series resonance all circuit elements are in one branch with common current (Figure 2-1 (a)). The
circuit impedance is given by Eq. 2-2. At low frequencies, the reactance of the capacitor dominates and the phase
angle approaches 90, with current leading voltage. As the frequency increases, the inductive reactance becomes
significant and, at the resonant frequency (Eq. 2-1), it grows to the point of cancelling the reactance of the
capacitor. At the resonant frequency, the inductor and capacitor series combination becomes invisible and R is the
total impedance of the circuit. Voltages ULS and UCS reach high amplitudes but have opposing phase angles and
cancel each other out. Note that series resonance must be excited by an alternating voltage source. At series
resonance, the circuit current is limited only by the resistor R up to a value I S = US/R. At frequencies above
resonance, the inductor dominates the circuit characteristics and the phase angle approaches 90 lagging.
=R+j
1
C
Eq. 2-2
Page 11

In the case of parallel resonance, all circuit elements are in parallel and they have the same voltage (Figure 2-1
(b)). The circuit admittance is given by Eq. 2-3. At low frequencies, the susceptance of the inductor is large and
dominates the circuit admittance. As frequency is increased, the inductive susceptance diminishes and the
capacitive susceptance grows until they become equal at the resonant frequency (Eq. 2-1). This resonance
frequency is the same for parallel and series circuits. Thus, series and parallel resonance occur at the same
frequency for the same combination of inductor and capacitor. At the resonant frequency, the inductor and
capacitor parallel combination becomes invisible and G is the total admittance of the circuit. Currents I CP and ILP
reach high amplitudes but have opposing phase angles and cancel each other out. Note that parallel resonance
must be excited by an alternating current source. At parallel resonance, the circuit voltage is limited only by the
conductance G. As the frequency increases above resonance, the capacitive susceptance dominates the circuit
characteristics. Thus, the circuit admittance reaches its minimum at resonance and becomes very large at low and
high frequencies. In other words, at low and high frequencies, the parallel circuit impedance is very small but it
reaches a maximum at the frequency of resonance. This behaviour is the opposite from the series circuit, where
the impedance reaches its minimum at resonance.
=G+j
1
L
Eq. 2-3
a) Series
b) Parallel
Figure 2-1 Series (a) and parallel (b) resonant circuits
2.1.3 Duality of Series and Parallel Resonant Circuits

In practice, it is very rare to find perfect series or parallel circuits like those illustrated in Figure 2-1. It is more
common to find mixed parallel and series combinations of inductors and capacitors forming series-parallel circuits.
An example of this scheme with a series-parallel combination of two capacitors and one inductor is shown in Figure
2-2 below. The figure to the left - Figure 2-2 (a) is excited with a voltage source whereas the figure to the right Figure 2-2 (a) is excited with a current source. In both cases the circuit parameters and topology are the same. It
will be illustrated next that this circuit has the ability to resonate in two modes: series when excited by a voltage
source and parallel when excited by a current source at the relevant frequencies.
Page 12
a) Excitation by Voltage Source
b) Excitation by Current Source
Figure 2-2 Series-parallel resonant circuit with voltage or current source excitation
To facilitate analysis, the series-parallel circuit shown in Figure 2-3 (a) can be converted into the series circuit of
Figure 2-3 (b) using Thevenin theorem. The series circuit is equivalent to the original series-parallel circuit if its
capacitance is equal to the sum of the series and parallel capacitances and the amplitude of the voltage source is
decreased in ratio of the capacitance divider. This circuit has one series resonant frequency given by Eq. 2-4,
which can only be excited by a voltage source. The same original circuit has one parallel resonant frequency given
by Eq. 2-5, which can only be excited by a current source.
(series) =
(parallel) =
Eq. 2-4
Eq. 2-5
Figure 2-3 Series-parallel resonant circuit with voltage or current source excitation
The examples presented below illustrate the duality behaviour of the series-parallel circuit, depending on the type
of excitation. The following parameters have been assumed for the series-parallel circuit (Figure 2-3 a): L = 1 H,
CS = 1 nF, CP = 1 nF. For these parameters, the resonant frequencies calculated with Eq. 2-4 and Eq. 2-5 are
f n(series) = 3558.81 Hz and fn(parallel) = 5032.92 Hz.
Page 13

The results of a frequency scan are included in Figure 2-4, which shows the driving impedance of the circuit as a
function of frequency. This circuit presents two resonant modes: series resonance at 3.5 kHz and parallel
resonance at 5.03 kHz. At low frequencies, the circuit impedance is very large and capacitive. As the frequency
approaches the first resonant mode (3.5 kHz), the impedance drops and the phase angle starts increasing until the
impedance reaches its minimum value and the phase angle reaches zero (i.e. the circuit behaves in resistive
mode). After that, the impedance starts increasing and becomes inductive. At the second resonant mode (5.03
kHz), the impedance reaches its maximum value and the phase angle drops to zero again. With increasing
frequency, the circuit impedance decreases and the phase angle approaches -90 again, returning to capacitive
mode.
Figure 2-5 illustrates the dual behaviour of this series-parallel circuit when supplied by a voltage or a current
source. In this case, the same circuit has been supplied with a voltage or a current source of variable frequency
and the voltage across the inductor has been monitored. It can be seen that, when the circuit is supplied with a
voltage source (green curve), the voltage across the inductor reaches a maximum at a frequency of 3.5 kHz, which
corresponds to the resonance of (CS + CP ) = 2 nF with L = 1 H. Alternatively, when the circuit is supplied with a
current source (red curve), the voltage across the inductor reaches a maximum at a frequency of 5.03 kHz, which
corresponds to the resonance of CP = 1 nF with L = 1 H. Even though the series-parallel circuit has the capability of
resonating in two different modes, only the series mode is excited by a voltage source and only the parallel mode is
excited by a current source.
It can be argued that ideal voltage and current sources do not exist in practice. Ignoring harmonic current sources,
power systems are entirely supplied by voltage sources. A voltage source placed behind a small source impedance
behaves like an ideal voltage source. However, a voltage source placed behind a high source impedance
behaves more like an ideal current source. Therefore, the required excitation for series or parallel resonances can
be present in a circuit, depending of the network topology and parameters.
The effect of the source impedance on the response of the series-parallel circuit is examined in Figure 2-6. These
simulation results have been obtained by placing a resistive source impedance between the ideal voltage source
and CS in the series-parallel circuit of Figure 2-3 (a) with L = 1 H, CS = 1 nF and CP = 1 nF. The resistive source
impedance has been varied from 0.1 to 5 M and the voltage across the inductor has been plotted as a function
of the source frequency. The simulation results show a clear series resonant peak for low values of source
impedance (i.e. between 0.1 and 10 k ). The amplitude of the series resonant peak decreases as the source
impedance is increased due to its current limiting effect. For a range of source impedance between 10 k and 100
the circuit experiences a transition with a very flat curve and a shifting resonant frequency. Finally, in the 500
to 5 M range, the circuit reaches a new resonant condition at its parallel resonant frequency of 5.03 kHz.
Further increases in the resistive source impedance only improve the quality factor of the parallel resonance, but
there are no more frequency shifts in the resonant behaviour. Thus, this circuit sees the supply as a voltage source
in the 0.1 and 10 k source impedance range and as a current source in the 500 k to 5 M source range,
exciting the two different resonant modes accordingly.
The effect of the series capacitance CS on the response of the series-parallel circuit is examined in Figure 2-7. In
practice, the series capacitance in a circuit, CS, can come from series capacitors, grading capacitors in circuit
breakers, coupling capacitance with parallel circuits or inter-phase capacitances in transmission circuits. The
simulation results shown in Figure 2-7 have been obtained by changing the value of CS in the series-parallel circuit
of Figure 2-3 (a) with L = 1 H and CP = 1 nF. The circuit is supplied by an ideal voltage source, without source
impedance. The value of CS has been varied from 1 nF to 5 pF and the voltage across the inductor has been
plotted as a function of the source frequency. This circuit exhibits a series resonant point at 3.5 kHz for C S = 1 nF.
As the value of series capacitance, CS, is reduced, the resonant frequency increases and converges towards the
parallel resonant frequency of 5.03 kHz. This behaviour can be interpreted in two ways: first, as CS is smaller, (CS +
CP ) CP , therefore the series resonant frequency calculated with Eq. 2-4 converges to the parallel resonant
frequency calculated with Eq. 2-5 and the circuit has only one resonant mode. Second interpretation is that the
small series capacitance CS creates a high source impedance for the ideal voltage source, which then behaves like
a current source exciting the parallel combination of L and C P. Thus, series or parallel resonance is just a
naming tag for the behaviour of this circuit with a single mode of oscillation.
Page 14

And finally, for completeness, the effect of the parallel capacitance CP on the response of the series-parallel circuit
is examined in Figure 2-8. In practice, the parallel capacitance in a circuit, CP, can come from shunt capacitors,
stray capacitance of equipment or phase-to-ground capacitances in transmission circuits. The simulation results of
in Figure 2-8 have been obtained by changing the value of CP in the series-parallel circuit of Figure 2-3 (a) with L =
1 H and CS = 1 nF. The circuit is supplied by an ideal voltage source, without source impedance. The value of CP
has been varied from 1 nF to 5 pF and the voltage across the inductor has been plotted as a function of the source
frequency. This circuit exhibits a series resonant point at 3.5 kHz for CP = 1 nF. As the value of parallel
capacitance, CP, is reduced, the resonant frequency increases and converges towards the parallel resonant
frequency of 5.03 kHz. The amplitude of the resonant voltage naturally increases as CP drops and converges to a
fixed value, in contrast to the behaviour shown in Figure 2-7 for the reduction of CS. This behaviour can again be
interpreted in two ways: first, as CP is smaller, (CS + CP ) CS , therefore the series resonant frequency calculated
with Eq. 2-4 converges to the parallel resonant frequency calculated with Eq. 2-5 and the circuit has only one
resonant mode. Second interpretation is that the small shunt capacitance C P creates a high impedance (1/ CP),
approaching an open circuit, in parallel with L, therefore the circuit effectively becomes a series combination of CS
and L, with only one resonant mode at f = 1/(2 (L.CS). Again, series or parallel resonance is just a naming tag
for the behaviour of this circuit with a single mode of oscillation.
800
[ohm]
700
Magnitude
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0.5
2.4
4.3
6.2
8.1
[kHz]
10.0
4.3
6.2
8.1
[kHz]
10.0
(file current_injection.pl4; x-var f ) v:C_S
80
[]
46
Angle
12
-22
-56
-90
0.5
2.4
(file current_injection.pl4; x-var f) a:C_S
Figure 2-4 Driving impedance of series-parallel circuit as a function of frequency (C S = CP = 1 nF, L = 1 H)
Page 15

800
16
[kV]
[V]
700
14
600
12
500
10
400
300
200
100
0
0.010
1.675
3.340
5.005
6.670
8.335
[kHz]
0
10.000
current_injection.pl4: v:L_____-
Figure 2-5 Response of the Series-Parallel circuit to a voltage source excitation (green trace) and current source
excitation (red trace) Inductor voltage - (C S = CP = 1 nF, L = 1 H)
16
4.0
14
3.5
0.6
3.0
12
[V]
0.5
0.4
2.5
0.3
10
0.2
2.0
0.1
0.0
4400
1.5
4600
4800
5000
5200
5400
5600
0.1ohm_source_impedance.pl4: v:L_____-
1.0
0.5
0.0
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
[Hz]
0.1ohm_source_impedance.pl4: v:L_____-
4
2
0
2000
3000
0.1ohm_source_impedance.pl4: v:L_____2000
3000
10kohm_source_impedance.pl4: v:L_____0.1ohm_source_impedance.pl4: v:L_____50kohm_source_impedance.pl4:
10kohm_source_impedance.pl4:v:L_____v:L_____100kohm_source_impedance.pl4:
50kohm_source_impedance.pl4: v:L_____v:L_____500kohm_source_impedance.pl4: v:L_____-
4000
5000
50kohm_source_impedance.pl4: v:L_____100kohm_source_impedance.pl4: v:L_____500kohm_source_impedance.pl4: v:L_____1Mohm_source_impedance.pl4: v:L_____-
6000
[Hz]
7000
500kohm_source_impedance.pl4: v:L_____1Mohm_source_impedance.pl4: v:L_____3Mohm_source_impedance.pl4: v:L_____5Mohm_source_impedance.pl4: v:L_____-
Figure 2-6 Transition between series and parallel resonance in series-parallel circuit with increased source
impedance Voltage source excitation - (C S = CP = 1 nF, L = 1 H)
Page 16
6000

16
1.2
14
1.0
12
0.8
10
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
4400
4600
4800
5000
5200
5400
[Hz]
5600
2
0
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
[Hz]
7000
2000
3000
voltage_injection_1nF_cs.pl4:
v:L_____voltage_injection_1nF_cs.pl4:
v:L_____-voltage_injection_200pF_cs.pl4: v:L_____voltage_injection_20pF_cs.pl4: v:L_____voltage_injection_500pF_cs.pl4:
v:L_____voltage_injection_100pF_cs.pl4: v:L_____voltage_injection_500pF_cs.pl4:
v:L_____voltage_injection_10pF_cs.pl4: v:L_____voltage_injection_200pF_cs.pl4:
v:L_____voltage_injection_100pF_cs.pl4: v:L_____- voltage_injection_50pF_cs.pl4: v:L_____-voltage_injection_5pF_cs.pl4: v:L_____voltage_injection_20pF_cs.pl4: v:L_____voltage_injection_50pF_cs.pl4: v:L_____-
Figure 2-7 Shifting in resonance frequency in a series-parallel circuit as a function of Cs (CP = 1 nF, L = 1 H)
25
UL
f (resonance) = 5.02 kHz for CP = 5 pF
20
f (resonance) = 3.55 kHz

for C P = 1 nF
15
Reducing C P
10
0
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
[Hz]
6000
voltage_injection_1nF_cp.pl4:
voltage_injection_1nF_cp.pl4:v:L_____v:L_____-voltage_injection_200pF_cp.pl4: v:L_____-voltage_injection_20pF_cp.pl4: v:L_____voltage_injection_500pF_cp.pl4:
voltage_injection_500pF_cp.pl4: v:L_____v:L_____voltage_injection_100pF_cp.pl4: v:L_____-voltage_injection_10pF_cp.pl4: v:L_____voltage_injection_200pF_cp.pl4:
voltage_injection_200pF_cp.pl4: v:L_____v:L_____voltage_injection_50pF_cp.pl4: v:L_____- voltage_injection_5pF_cp.pl4: v:L_____voltage_injection_100pF_cp.pl4: v:L_____voltage_injection_20pF_cp.pl4: v:L_____voltage_injection_50pF_cp.pl4: v:L_____-
Figure 2-8 Shifting in resonance frequency in a series-parallel circuit as a function of CP (C S = 1 nF, L = 1 H)
2.1.4 Free Oscillations in Electric Circuits

Electromagnetic resonance can occur in electric circuits that are able to periodically transform energy from an
electric field into a magnetic field and vice versa. Such circuits experience free oscillations when energy is
delivered to them, either to the electric field or to the magnetic field.
Free oscillations are also called natural oscillations because their frequency is given by passive parameters of a
circuit. For example the circuit shown in Figure 2-9(a) with C = 100 nF and L = 100 H starts to oscillate in an
undamped fashion following the switching (at t = 0.1 sec). In this example the frequency of free oscillation (Eq. 2-1)
Page 17

is f n = 50,33 Hz and the voltage and current waveforms measured in the ideal L-C circuit are shown in Figure
2-9(b).
10.0
[kV]
7.5
1.0
[A]
0.6
5.0
2.5
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-2.5
-5.0
-0.6
-7.5
-10.0
0.08
0.10
0.12
(file Fig_2-1.pl4; x-var t) v:U_L -
0.14
0.16
0.18
[s]
-1.0
0.20
c:U_C -U_L
Figure 2-9 Behaviour of undamped circuit (a) Ideal L-C Circuit
(b) Free oscillations in ideal L-C circuit
In practice, free oscillations are typically damped since part of the electromagnetic energy exchanged between the
inductor and the capacitor is transferred into thermal energy and dissipated in the resistive elements. Resistive
losses in circuits come from the resistance of conductors, corona effect, lossy polarisation in dielectrics or from
alternating magnetisation in ferromagnetic cores (hysteresis and eddy currents). An example of a lightly damped
free oscillation is shown in Figure 2-10 (b), obtained with a resistor R value of 1 k . Figure 2-11 (a) shows another
example with higher losses, illustrating a free oscillation lasting for a few cycles. However, if the circuit losses are
very high, a free oscillation will not occur because all the energy in the circuit is dissipated in the first cycle and the
transient becomes aperiodical, as shown in Figure 2-11 (b).
10.0
1.0
[kV]
[A]
7.5
0.6
5.0
2.5
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-2.5
-5.0
-0.6
-7.5
-10.0
0.08
0.10
(f ile Fig_2-2.pl4; x-v ar t) v :U_L
0.12
-
c:U_R
Figure 2-10 Behaviour of damped circuit (a) R-L-C Circuit
Page 18
0.14
0.16
0.18
-U_L
(b) Damped free oscillations
[s]
-1.0
0.20
10.0
1.00
[kV]
[A]
6.6
0.66
3.2
0.32
-0.2
1.0
[A]
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.02
-3.6
-7.0
0.08
10
[kV]
-0.36
0.10
(f ile f ig_2-3a.pl4; x-v ar t) v :U_L -
0.12
c :U_R
0.14
0.16
0.18
[s]
-0.70
0.20
-2
0.08
0.10
0.12
(f ile f ig_2-3b.pl4; x-v ar t) v :U_L
-U_L
c:U_R
Figure 2-11 Examples of damped oscillations (a) strong damping
0.14
0.16
0.18
[s]
-0.2
0.20
-U_L
(b) aperiodical transient
The following sections introduce various concepts of series resonance in its transient form from zero initial
conditions to the final resonant state, rather than straight into the steady state form, as the former is of more
concern in power networks. In understanding series resonance it is appropriate to choose either the voltage across
the inductor (UL) or the capacitor (UC) as the circuit parameter to monitor. Both are of equal magnitude but with
phase angle shift of 180 between them. UL has been selected in this document.
2.1.5 Ideal Series Resonant Circuit

Figure 2-12 shows the transition of an ideal lossless series oscillatory circuit with natural frequency f n = 50 Hz to
resonance following the connection of a 50 Hz voltage source. As a function of time, the rise of the resonant
voltage amplitude UL (as an envelope) is given by
( )=
Eq. 2-6
If we consider the network frequency as a constant, the rise time of resonant voltage on this basic circuit is
independent of the circuit parameters, except for the magnitude of the excitation voltage US. In this particular
example, the resonant voltage rate of rise is 1570.8 kV/s based on US value of 10 kV and a source frequency of 50
Hz. The capacitor and inductor values used in this resonant circuit were 101.32 nF and 100 H respectively, but the
same result could be obtained for different combinations of capacitor and inductor values with the same product,
such as 1013.2 nF and 10 H respectively.
20
[kV]
15
1.6
[MV]
1.2
10
0.8
0.4
0.0
-5
-0.4
-10
-0.8
-15
-1.2
-20
-1.6
0.0
0.2
(file Fig_2-5.pl4; x-var t) v:U_L -
0.4
Figure 2-12 Ideal series resonance oscillation with
Page 19
0.6
0.8
v:U_S
[s]
1.0
The rate of rise of the resonant current amplitude can be obtained as US/2L and the current is given by
( )=
Eq. 2-7
which is independent of frequency but inversely proportional to inductance L. This implies that various 50 Hz series
resonant circuits with various combinations of LC parts have the same rise time of resonant voltage under similar
excitation conditions, but the currents fed from the voltage source and their rise is inversely proportional to
resonant inductance. In the above example the two LC combinations that give the same resonant voltages UL,
would therefore result in different rise time for the resonant current (50 A/s and 500 A/s). It is of interest to note that
the active impedance of the resonant circuit is also changing in time according to
( )=
( )
Eq. 2-8
Introducing a small difference between the voltage source frequency f s and the free oscillation natural frequency f n,
will result to a phase shift between voltage phasors that will change slowly as shown in Figure 2-13, and the
resonant overvoltage will fluctuate within a sine wave envelope in accordance with:
( )=
)+
)]
and for sufficiently small differences between
( )=
and
Eq. 2-9
it can be simplified to
Eq. 2-10
In the above equation the cosine term represents the main resonant oscillation whereas the sinus term determines
the envelope (or low frequency beat) of the oscillation resulting from the interaction between the source and the
resonant circuit. If fn fs, the angle between phasors moves from 90 to 0 and then to 270 (Figure 2-13 a). For f n
fs the angle between phasors moves from 90 to 180 and then to 270 (Figure 2-13 b). In both cases the energy
exchange has the same periodic time evolution. Initially an energy pump from the source to the resonant circuit is
apparent and as the resonant current starts lagging this exchange decreases and at 90 phase shift it stops. At this
point the exchange of energy is reversed and it flows back to the source as can it can be seen in Figure 2-14 where
a pulsed power is flowing into the resonant circuit (red with +ve polarity) and then back to the source (red with ve
polarity). Integral value of the pulsed power gives the accumulated energy in the oscillatory circuit (green) which
periodically reaches a maximum and then returns back to zero.
Page 20
150
150
[kV]
[kV]
100
100
50
50
-50
-50
-100
-100
-150
0.0
-150
0.1
(f ile Fig_2-6-a.pl4; x-v ar t) v :U_L
0.2
-
0.3
0.4
0.5
[s]
v :U _S
0.6
0.0
0.1
(f ile f ig_2-6-b.pl4; x-var t) v:U_L -
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
[s]
0.6
v:U_S
Figure 2-13 Ideal series resonance oscillation with
40
[kW]
30
1500
[J]
1200
20
10
900
0
600
-10
-20
300
-30
-40
0.05
0.10
0.15
(file fig_2-6-b.pl4; x-var t) p:U_S -XX0001
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
[s]
0
0.45
e:U_S -XX0001
Figure 2-14 Energy exchange between source and resonant circuit
2.1.6 Damped Series Resonant Circuit

In real power networks resonant circuits are never lossless and hence it is important to visualise the effect of losses
on the resonant cases explained in the previous section.
In a damped resonant circuit with f n = f s, the resonant voltage will not increase indefinitely as in ideal lossless
circuits, because the resonant current is limited by the resistance R and the maximum resonant voltage is given by:
( )=
Eq. 2-11
Page 21

An example of this behaviour is given in Figure 2-15, obtained for a series L-C resonant circuit with a 101.32 nF
capacitor and a 100 H inductor with a source voltage of 10 kV, for two different resistance values (300
and
1000 ). In this example the natural frequency of the circuit is the same as the voltage source frequency (f n = fs). It
can be observed that the higher resistance value (green waveform) provides higher limitation on the resonant
voltage developed across the circuit elements.
Introducing a small difference between the excitation frequency fs and the frequency of free oscillation fn results in a
modulated wave. Figure 2-16 illustrates this behaviour for two values of resistance and the following circuit
parameters: L = 114.63 H, C = 101.32 nF, Us = 10kV, fn = 46.70 Hz. The small damping case presents a modulated
wave similar to an ideal lossless circuit but slowly decaying to reach the steady-state resonant voltage (Figure 2-16
(a)). In the higher loss case (Figure 2-16 (b)), the modulated oscillation is quickly damped.
If fn fs, the angle between the source voltage and the resonant voltage phasors moves from 90 to 0 and then,
due to losses, it cant reach 270 but settles to a value between 0and 90 following the non-zero minimum point of
the modulation as seen in Figure 2-17 (a). Similarly, Figure 2-17 (b) shows that for fn fs the angle between
phasors moves from 90 to 180 and then to a value between 0and 90 following the non-zero minimum point of
the modulation.
1.2
[MV]
0.8
0.4
0.0
-0.4
-0.8
-1.2
Figure 2-15 Damped resonant voltage with

UL
[s]
UL
150
150
[kV]
[kV]
100
100
50
50
-50
-50
-100
-100
-150
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
[s]
3.0
-150
0.0
0.5
1.0
a) R = 300
1.5
2.0
b) R = 1000
Figure 2-16 Damped series resonance oscillation with
Page 22
(two different dampings)
2.5
[s]
3.0

120
80
[kV]
[kV]
60
80
40
40
20
0
0
-20
-40
-40
-80
-60
-120
0.1
0.2
(f ile f ig_2-10-a.pl4; x-v ar t) v :U_L -
0.3
0.4
0.5
[s]
0.6
v :U_S
-80
2.95
2.96
(f ile f ig_2-10-a.pl4; x-v ar t) v :U_L -
2.97
2.98
2.99
[s]
3.00
v :U_S
A) fn < fs = 50 Hz
120
80
[kV]
[kV]
80
60
40
40
20
0
0
-20
-40
-40
-80
-60
-120
0.1
0.2
(f ile Fig_2-10-b.pl4; x-v ar t) v :U_L -
0.3
0.4
v :U_S
0.5
[s]
0.6
-80
2.95
2.96
(f ile Fig_2-10-b.pl4; x-v ar t) v :U_L -
2.97
2.98
2.99
[s]
3.00
v :U_S
B) fn > fs = 50 Hz
Red waveform: Voltage across inductor L
Green waveform: Source Voltage
Figure 2-17 First over-swing and steady state of damped resonance (R = 1000
) with
2.2 Introducing Ferroresonance

In simplest terms, ferroresonance can be described as a non-linear oscillation arising from the interaction between
an iron core inductance and a capacitor. In this section, the description of ferroresonance follows from the previous
sections with a basic analysis of a series resonant circuit and gradually increases the level of complexity to provide
a comprehensive explanation of the physical mechanism driving the nonlinear oscillation of ferroresonance. In this
initial description, a very simplified model of the magnetic core is used for a better understanding of the basic
mechanisms driving the oscillation.
As with linear resonance, ferroresonant circuits can be either series or parallel, albeit only series configurations are
typically encountered in transmission networks. It should be noted that parallel ferroresonant configurations are
common in distribution systems with ungrounded or resonant neutral connections. For simplicity and better
understanding, the analysis and explanation that follows is based on series resonant and ferroresonant circuits
only.
A basic series R-L-C circuit is shown in Figure 2-18 which includes the series connection of a voltage source US, to
a capacitor C, an inductor L, and a resistor R. All circuit elements are linear.
Making use of phasor analysis, the equation describing the steady-state behaviour of the above circuit expressed
as:
Page 23
where
is the angular frequency of the voltage source.
Eq. 2-12
Figure 2-18 Linear Series R-L-C circuit

Resonance occurs when the capacitive reactance equals the inductive reactance at the driving frequency. Under
this condition the circuit impedance becomes purely resistive.
Eq. 2-13
The most characteristic feature of a linear R-L-C circuit is that there is only one natural frequency, f n, at which the
inductive and capacitive reactances are equal. This frequency is given in Eq. 2-1.
A graphical solution of Eq. 2-12 is presented in Figure 2-19 [22]. The circuit resistance has been ignored for
simplicity. The voltage-current representation results in two straight lines with slopes equal to the inductive and
capacitive reactances respectively. The intersection of both lines yields the current in the circuit. Figure 2-19 (a)
shows the operating point for a source frequency f S below the circuit natural frequency f n. It can be seen that the
capacitive reactance, XC, exceeds the inductive reactance, XL, resulting in a leading current and a high voltage
across the capacitor. Similarly, Figure 2-19 (c) shows the operating point for a source frequency above the circuit
natural frequency, f n. It can be seen that in this case the inductive reactance, XL, exceeds the capacitive reactance,
XC, resulting in a lagging current and a high voltage across the inductor. Finally, Figure 2-19 (b) shows that, for a
source frequency equal to circuit natural frequency f n, the inductive and capacitive reactances are equal and the
two lines become parallel, yielding a solution of infinite current and voltages.
In practice all circuits have some sort of losses, even if in small amounts. These resistive losses have the effect of
limiting the amplitude of current and voltages in resonance as follows:
Eq. 2-14
Eq. 2-15
Eq. 2-16
Q is normally referred as the circuit quality factor, which gives an indication of the resistive losses and the circuit
gain. It becomes apparent that low circuit losses lead to high capacitor and inductor voltages under resonant
conditions.
Page 24
Figure 2-19 Graphical Solution of Linear Series L-C circuit

Replacing the inductor L of the linear series R-L-C circuit of Figure 2-18 with a saturable magnetic core, a series
ferroresonant circuit can be obtained as shown in Figure 2-20. What differentiates ferroresonance from linear
resonance is that the inductance is not constant; therefore the ferroresonant frequency calculated with Eq. 2-1
becomes a moving target. This means that a range of circuit capacitances can potentially lead to ferroresonance at
a particular source frequency. Another characteristic of ferroresonance is the existence of several solutions. This
distinctive behaviour will be illustrated next.
Figure 2-20 Series Ferroresonant Circuit

An in-depth analysis of the circuit shown in Figure 2-20 is complex and requires the solution of nonlinear differential
equations. The circuit analysis, however, can be simplified considerably and yet provide a thorough conceptual
description of ferroresonance by limiting the calculations to power frequency and steady state [23]. It should be
noted that the presence of the non-linearity introduces harmonics in the current and voltage waveforms. However,
for simplicity, the description that follows assumes perfect sinusoidal voltage and current waveforms oscillating at
power frequency. Furthermore, the resistive losses are also ignored. Under these particular conditions, the
equation describing the steady-state circuit behaviour at power frequency can be expressed as:
( )
( )
Eq. 2-17
where XC is the circuit capacitive reactance at power frequency, S is the source angular frequency and XL(I) is the
variable reactance of the saturable magnetic core. This voltage across the non-linear inductance [UL(I) = I XL(I)] is a
function of the current, which is characteristic of the ferromagnetic inductance and is solely dependent on the
number of turns and the dimensions of the iron core.
Page 25

Eq. 2-17 has been solved graphically in Figure 2-21 [22]. The intersection of the US + I.XC line with the non-linear
I XL(I) curve gives the solution for the current in the circuit. The first distinctive characteristic of this graphical
visualisation is that there are three possible solutions:
Point 1 represents a normal operating point in which the circuit is working in an inductive mode, with
lagging current and low voltages. Voltage and current related by a linear expression. The inductive voltage
is greater than the capacitive voltage by the source voltage. This is a stable solution.
Point 3 represents a ferroresonant state in which the circuit is working in a capacitive mode, with leading
current and high voltages. Voltage and current are related by a non-linear expression. The capacitive
voltage is greater than the inductive voltage by the source voltage. This is also a stable solution.
Point 2 is another circuit solution but it represents an unstable state.
The stability of solutions 1 and 3 can be demonstrated with the following considerations: at point 1, a small
increase or decrease of the current will result in a small linear change in the capacitor voltage. However, the
counteracting inductive voltage changes more intensely with current due to its steeper slope, therefore the current
will return to its original value to find equilibrium. Similarly, at point 3, a small variation in current will result in a
small variation in inductive voltage. The counteracting capacitive voltage changes more intensely due to its steeper
slope, and therefore the current will return to its original value again.
The instability of point 2 can be demonstrated by slightly increasing the current, which results in a small increase in
inductive voltage and a large increase in the capacitive voltage. In this case, the steepness of the capacitive
voltage is higher than the opposing inductive voltage and therefore the current will continue increasing away from
point 2. A similar consideration can be made for a small decrease in current.
IXL(I)
U US + IXC
UL
UL
UL
1
U0
UC
US
US
US
US
UL
I
I
UC
UL
US
UC
Solution at
point 1
-0.06
UC
XC
Solution at
point 2
(unstable)
UC
3
-2000
Solution at
point 3
Figure 2-21 Graphical Solution of the Series Ferroresonant Circuit
2.2.1 Effect of circuit capacitance

Figure 2-22 illustrates the effect of the circuit capacitance on the onset of ferroresonance. It can be seen that as the
capacitance value is reduced, the slope of the US + I.XC line increases and the three possible solutions move
towards the vertical axes. Figure 2-22 (a) shows that there is a critical capacitance value, Ccritical, for which the
operating points 1 and 2 disappear and the only possible solution is a ferroresonant state, point 3. Similarly, Figure
2-22 (b) shows that higher capacitances result in a reduced slope in the US + I.XC line. It is inferred that, for a
large enough capacitance value, the operating points 2 and 3 disappear and the only possible solution is a normal
Page 26

state, point 1. This result has practical implications in transmission substations since it suggests that
ferroresonance can be avoided by the connection of a large capacitance.
Figure 2-22 Graphical Solution Illustrating the Effect of Circuit Capacitance
2.2.2 Effect of sou rce voltage

The effect of the source voltage is illustrated in Figure 2-23. As this voltage is increased, the US + I.XC line moves
upwards to a point in which there is no intersection in the first quadrant. Operating points 1 and 2 disappear and
the only possible solution is point 3, which is a ferroresonant state. Note also that the disconnection of the source
voltage, U, may not result in the elimination of ferroresonance, as illustrated with state 3. As U is removed, the
operating point simply slides to the right, but remains in the saturated region. This statement assumes that the
circuit has no losses, which is not true in reality, but it serves to illustrate the fact that, in theory, the ferroresonant
oscillations can be self-sustained.
Figure 2-23 Graphical Solution Illustrating the Effect of the Source Voltage
Page 27
2.2.3 Effect of circuit lo sses

A more thorough analysis of series ferroresonance can be performed by introducing the damping effect of the
circuits resistive elements. If these losses are considered, the equation describing the steady-state behaviour of
the circuit shown in Figure 2-20 can be written as:
+ (
=(
) +(
( )
()
( )
|=
Eq. 2-18
Eq. 2-19
Eq. 2-20
The first term of Eq. 2-20 is plotted in Figure 2-24 (a). It is shown that multiple solutions are possible when the I.XC
line intersects the UL(I)= IXL(I) curve in the saturation region. To the left of IC the circuit operates in an inductive
mode whereas the region to the right of IC corresponds to a capacitive mode. The second term of Eq. 2-20 is an
ellipse that crosses the horizontal axis at I = US/R and the vertical axis at US. This is plotted in Figure 2-24 (b). The
intersection of this ellipse with the |UL(I)- I.XC| curve gives the current in the circuit. Figure 2-24 (b) shows three
possible solutions for a circuit resistance R1, which represents a low loss scenario. As previously demonstrated,
solution 2 is an unstable state, solution 3 is a ferroresonant state and solution 1 corresponds to a normal state. If
the circuit losses are increased, Figure 2-24 (c) shows that the multiplicity of solutions can disappear. In particular,
if IC > US/R there is only one possible solution which corresponds to a normal operating state. This illustrates that
the onset of ferroresonance can be avoided by increasing the circuit losses.
V
Xc
VC
Inductive
Zone
VL(I)
Capacitive
Zone
VULL X
XCC I I
0
0.00
0.01
VULL XXCCI I
E0
0
0.00
2
2
E 02U s RR II 2
E0
I
IC
E0
R1
2
2
E 20U s RR II 2
0.01
0
0.00
VULL XXCCI I
1
I
E0
R2
IC
0.01
Figure 2-24 Graphical Solution Illustrating the Effect of Circuit Resistance
It should be noted that the above qualitative description is an over simplification of the complex ferroresonant
behaviour that has been limited to steady state and power frequency. It is emphasized that this analysis is not valid
for operation in the saturated region of the inductance, i.e. under ferroresonance, due to the high harmonic content.
The analysis, however, is perfectly valid in the linear region operation and can be used to find the boundary limiting
Page 28

parameters, where the circuit ceases to operate in a linear mode. Despite its limitations, the graphical analysis has
provided a very good intuitive insight into the key features governing a ferroresonant oscillation, as follows:
Multiple steady-states are possible in a ferroresonant circuit.
Jump phenomena, called bifurcations, can occur where the operating point changes drastically for a small
change in circuit parameters, supply voltage or frequency.
The circuit capacitance is critical for the occurrence of a ferroresonant state.
-
Low values of capacitance favour the onset of ferroresonance.
As the capacitance is increased, either ferroresonance or normal operating conditions may arise.
Very high values of capacitance can prevent the onset of ferroresonance.
As the source voltage is increased, the risk of ferroresonance is also increased.

As the circuit losses are increased, the risk of ferroresonance is reduced.
Unlike linear resonance, there is not a single natural frequency of oscillation in a ferroresonant circuit.
Rather, such frequency is variable depending on the intensity of the current and the magnitude of
magnetisation.
The frequency of the ferroresonant waveforms may differ from the source voltage.
2.3 Physical Description of a Ferrores onant Oscillation

The description of ferroresonance presented in the previous section, although good enough as a first
approximation, does not provide a real understanding of the mechanisms driving a ferroresonant oscillation.
Various explanations of the physical behaviour of ferroresonant circuits can be found in [12], [17], [23] and [24]. A
review of those descriptions, expanded for an enhanced understanding of this complex phenomenon, is presented
next.
Figure 2-25 shows a series R-L-C circuit with a nonlinear inductor and a switch. A two-segment piecewise linear
representation is used for the magnetizing impedance. The circuit losses are initially ignored for simplicity. The
prospective current and voltage waveforms under this simplification are presented in Figure 2-26. Initially, the
capacitor charge is equal to U0. At t = 0 sec the switch is closed and the capacitor C starts discharging through the
inductor working in its linear region, Lunsat. The frequency of this oscillation is:
1=
Eq. 2-21
Lunsat C
This is a very slow discharge process due to the large value of Lunsat. Nevertheless, the flux linkage slowly builds up
in the magnetic core until saturation is reached. This is shown in Figure 2-26 at t = t1, when the magnetizing
reactance drops to its saturated value, Lsat.
As Lsat is a few orders of magnitude smaller than Lunsat the capacitor discharges very rapidly. The frequency of this
new oscillation is 2:
2=
Eq. 2-22
Lsat C
Page 29
Lsat
sat
Lunsat
U0
Isat
Figure 2-25 Basic Ferroresonant Circuit

Between t1 < t < t2 all the energy stored in the electric field of the capacitor is transferred into the magnetic field of
the coil. At t = t2 the voltage has dropped to zero and the current reaches its peak. The magnetic field then
collapses and starts charging the capacitor in the opposite polarity. At t = t3 the current through the inductor falls
into the linear region and the capacitor starts charging through Lunsat. As Lunsat is a few orders of magnitude higher
than Lsat, the frequency of this oscillation 1 is much lower than the previous one. The current decreases very
slowly and, consequently, very little variation can be appreciated in the capacitor voltage. At t = t 4 the voltage in the
capacitor reaches U0 and the discharge process starts again. It can be observed that a full ferroresonant period
comprises two full charge-discharge cycles.
Using Faradays law, the flux linkage at any time can be calculated as the area under the voltage-time curve. As
such, the flux linkage from t3 to t5 is equal to the shaded area in Figure 2-26 (a). This can be expressed as:
=2
=
(
Eq. 2-23
Eq. 2-24
)=4
Eq. 2-25
Eq. 2-24 can be used to calculate the period of the ferroresonant oscillation as follows:
=2 (
=
=2
Eq. 2-26
=4
+2
Eq. 2-27
Page 30
Lsat
U0
Lunsat
Lsat
t2
t1
-U 0
Charge L
Charge C Charge L
Discharge C Discharge L Discharge C
t3
Charge C
Discharge L
Lunsat
sat
t
-
t4
t= 0
sat
t5
Isat
-Isat
t
t1 t3
t2
t4
t5
(a) Voltage, Flux and Current Waveforms
(b) Flux-Current relationship
Figure 2-26 Physical Behaviour of a Ferroresonant Circuit without Losses

Eq. 2-27 indicates that the frequency of a ferroresonant oscillation is directly linked to the circuit capacitance, C, the
initial charge of the capacitor, U0, and the non-linear characteristics of the magnetic core: Lsat and sat.
It has been shown that the basic ferroresonant circuit of Figure 2-25 behaves like a two-state oscillator switching
between two frequencies: low frequency during the unsaturated state and high frequency during the saturated
state. In the absence of losses, this process will repeat indefinitely with a period T ferro. In reality, the circuit losses
will cause the amplitude of the oscillation to decay. It is a direct consequence of Faradays law that, the lower the
voltage amplitude applied to the magnetic core, the longer it will take to reach saturation. As a result, the frequency
of the ferroresonant oscillation will decrease gradually until the process dies out. Figure 2-27 illustrates a
ferroresonant oscillation affected by circuit losses. It is shown that the voltage magnitude decreases with each
2
transition of polarity. This is due to the high (I R) losses occurring during the saturated state. These losses are very
low during the unsaturated period due to the low current flow and, hence the voltage remains almost constant.
It has been illustrated that the introduction of losses makes the system dissipative, which causes the amplitude of
the oscillations to decay. In order for the ferroresonant oscillations to be maintained, energy needs to be supplied
externally to counteract the losses. This is shown in Figure 2-28, where a voltage source has been introduced to
represent an external source of energy. It is shown that the combined effect of the source voltage and the
oscillatory trapped charge is to raise the voltage at the reactor terminals just before each transition. If this voltage
rise is enough to compensate for the voltage drop caused by the resistive losses during the transition in polarity,
the oscillations is maintained indefinitely.
Page 31
U
U0 > U1 > U 2 > U3 > .
T0 < T1 < T2 < .
U0
U2
T1
T0
T2
U3
U1
Figure 2-27 Physical Behaviour of a Ferroresonant Circuit with Losses
With regards to the voltage source two situations could arise in a ferroresonant circuit [17]:
1) If the initial ferroresonant frequency calculated with Eq. 2-27 is higher than the source frequency, there is a
chance that the decaying frequency of the oscillations will lock at the source frequency. This will result in
fundamental frequency ferroresonance, as illustrated in Figure 2-29 (a) where TL-C=TS, or f L-C=fS.
2) If on the other hand the initial oscillation frequency calculated with Eq. 2-27 is lower than the source
frequency, there is a chance that it will lock at an odd sub-multiple of the power frequency. This will result
in sub-harmonic ferroresonance, as illustrated in Figure 2-29 (b) where TL-C=3TS, or fL-C=f S/3.
5
0
0
-5
Figure 2-28 Effect of Coupled Voltage on Ferroresonant Waveform
TL-C
U5
UC
US
0
0
-5
TL-C
5
U
UC
UL
UL
US
0.035
TS
TS
-5
(a) Fundamental Frequency Ferroresonance
(b) Sub-Harmonic Ferroresonance
Figure 2-29 Derivation of Ferroresonant Modes
Page 32
t
0.035
2.4 Types of Ferrores onance Oscillations

Ferroresonant waveforms are categorised according to their periodicity. Based on field experience, experimental
observations and extensive numerical simulations, ferroresonance has been categorised into the following modes.
Periodic Ferroresonance Modes
Periodic ferroresonance is characterised by waveforms that repeat themselves. These waveforms are highly
distorted, presenting a dominant frequency that can be either fundamental or sub-harmonic.
In the case of fundamental frequency ferroresonance, the oscillations are mainly at the same frequency as the
driving source. Although the supply frequency is dominant, a large number of harmonics is normally present. In
case of sub-harmonic ferroresonance, the oscillations normally arise at frequencies that are integral odd submultiples of the fundamental frequency. Two examples of typical periodic ferroresonant waveforms and frequency
spectrum are shown in Figure 2-30 (fundamental frequency) and Figure 2-31 (sub-harmonic).
Figure 2-30 Typical Fundamental Ferroresonant Voltage Waveform and Frequency Spectrum
Figure 2-31 Typical Sub-Harmonic Ferroresonant Voltage Waveform and Frequency Spectrum
Quasi-Periodic Ferroresonance Modes

The quasi-periodic regimes are characterised by non-periodic oscillations having, at least, two main frequencies.
The fundamental frequency is normally present along with lower sub-harmonic frequencies. A distinctive
characteristic of these waveforms is the presence of a discontinuous frequency spectrum.
This ferroresonant mode has not been reported very frequently as a stable state. It was first observed in France
[30] during a black-start restoration test in a 400 kV system. It has also been referred to as transitional chaos in
[31] to describe a state that has no indication of periodicity but still shows features of fundamental and subharmonic ferroresonance. This behaviour suggests that the operation is continuously shifting between various
periodic modes without stabilising into any particular one. An example of a quasi-periodic waveform and frequency
spectrum is given in Figure 2-32.
Page 33
Figure 2-32 Typical Quasi-Periodic Ferroresonant Voltage Waveform and Frequency Spectrum
Chaotic Ferroresonant Modes

Chaotic ferroresonance waveforms show an irregular and apparently unpredictable behaviour and a broadband
power spectrum with a sharp component at system frequency. This ferroresonant mode is characterised by a nonperiodic waveform with a continuous frequency spectrum. Although the possibility of chaotic ferroresonant modes
has been widely described in literature, [30] to [37], this mode has only been predicted in EHV substations for
unrealistic values of source voltage, circuit capacitance or losses [33] to [36]. For instance, reference [33] reported
that chaotic ferroresonance could only be obtained for a source voltage in excess of 25.26 pu when realistic values
of transformer losses were employed. It is noteworthy that no practical experience of a sustained chaotic
ferroresonance in an EHV substation has been reported to date. An example of a chaotic waveform and frequency
spectrum is given in Figure 2-33.
Figure 2-33 Typical Simulated Chaotic Ferroresonant Voltage Waveform and Frequency Spectrum
Page 34
CHAPTER 3
TYPICAL NETWORK TOPOLOGIES LEADING TO RESONANCE IN

TRANSMISSION CIRCUITS
3.1 Introduction
The most common case of power frequency resonance in transmission circuits is related to the application of shunt
compensation (Figure 3-1). Line resonance associated with single phase (or unbalanced) operation of circuit
breakers has been described in the literature [68] - [73] and is explained in detail in section 4.2 of this document.
As a rule of thumb, shunt compensation degrees in excess of 70% can lead to high temporary overvoltages
following single-phase switching operations or a result of circuit breaker malfunctioning. The resonant condition
arises from the interaction between the shunt-reactor and the phase capacitance in the disconnected phase(s),
with energy coupled from the remaining energized phases via the inter-phase capacitances. The key elements
required to form a series resonant circuit are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Shunt reactors directly connected to a transmission circuit

Inter-phase capacitive coupling
At least one phase is disconnected
At least one phase is energized
Series line resonance arising from unbalanced switching operations can affect single circuits and multi-circuit rights
of way.
A similar phenomena can also occur in multi-circuit rights of way when one of the circuits is fully de-energized (i.e.
three phase disconnection). This phenomenon has been described in the literature [77]-[82], and is also explained
in detail in Section 4.4 of this document. The resonant condition occurs when a de-energized shunt-compensated
circuit is in close proximity to another energized circuit. As a rule of thumb, shunt compensation degrees in excess
of 60% can lead to high overvoltages for typical inter-circuit capacitive coupling. The parallel resonant condition
arises from the interaction between the shunt-reactors and the line capacitance in the disconnected circuit, with
energy coupled from the nearby parallel circuit(s). The key elements required to form a parallel resonant circuit are:
1. Shunt reactors directly connected to a de-energized transmission circuit
2. Inter-circuit capacitive coupling with another energized transmission circuit
Phenomena
Circuit
Topology
Switching
Operation
Single Circuit
Unbalanced
(section 4.2)
Line Resonance in
Shunt-Compensated
Circuits
Unbalanced
(section 4.2)
Muti-Circuit Right of
Way
Balanced
(section 4.4)
Figure 3-1 Summary of Line Resonance in Shunt Compensated Circuits
Page 35

Typical network topologies with risk of resonance at power frequency are presented in the next sections. This list is
not exhaustive and additional topologies can also result in resonance during unusual network configurations such
as blackstart restoration operations (see ANNEX A for an example). Furthermore, it is important to note that shuntcompensation is not an essential requirement for power frequency resonance, as the required reactance can be
present in other circuit components, such as transformers (see ANNEX A for an example) or a weak feeding
network impedances.
3.1.1 Typical circuit capacitances

When assessing possible resonant conditions, series and parallel circuit capacitances are equally important.
Parallel capacitances are due to the phase-to-ground capacitance of the lines or cables, shunt capacitor banks,
and to a lesser extent stray capacitances in all apparatus. Series circuit capacitances appear in the grading
capacitors of circuit breakers, phase-to-phase capacitances in single-circuit lines and inter-circuit capacitance in
multi-circuit rights of way.
Typical transmission circuit capacitances are listed below for illustration purposes:
a) France : The typical phase-to-ground capacitance (C0) of overhead-lines is in the range of 10-13 nF/km for
400 kV lines and 8-9 nF/km for 225 kV and 90 kV lines. The inter-circuit capacitance of 400 kV double
circuit-lines is in the range 0.2-1.2 nF/km. The cable capacitance to ground is in the range of 100200 nF/km for 400 kV and 225 kV XLPE cables and 150-350 nF/km for 90 kV XLPE cables.
b) Ireland : 400 kV overhead-line (single circuit): C+ = 11.59 nF/km, C0 = 7.77 nF/km
c) Canada (BC Hydro) 500 kV overhead-line (single circuit): C+ = 12.9 nF/km, C0 = 7.44 nF/km
d) 750kV overhead line between Hungary and USSR [71]: (Hungarian section): C+ = 13.25 nF/km, C0 =
9.72 nF/km
e) Saudi Arabia : 380kV double circuit line [83]: C+ = 13.76 nF/km, C0 = 7.78 nF/km
f)
500 kV circuits in Thailand [74]:

o
o
Single circuit construction: Cph-gr = 8.55 nF/km, Cph-ph = 1.64 nF/km (i.e. C+ = 13.47 nF/km, C0 =
8.55 nF/km
Double circuit construction:
Configuration
Cph-gr
Cph-ph
Ccct-cct
(perfect
transposition)
Both circuits in service

One circuit in service with
the other circuit grounded
5.39 nF/km
1.76 nF/km
1.05 nF/km
0.74 nF/km
Ccct-cct
(unlike
phases in
incomplete
transposition)
1.21 nF/km
8.55 nF/km
1.76 nF/km
---
---
---
Ccct-cct
(like phases
in incomplete
transposition)
g) 400 kV circuit constructions in Hungary [75].

Line configuration
Conventional 400 kV flat arrangement
Conventional 400 kV delta arrangement
Compact 400 kV
(2 x 500mm2 phase conductors)
Compact 400 kV
(3 x 300mm2 phase conductors)
C0 [nF/km]
8.23
5.95
C+ [nF/km]
10.96
8.77
Cph-ph [nF/km]
0.91
0.94
7.03
12.55
1.83
7.46
13.95
2.16
Series capacitances in HV and EHV circuit breakers range between 100 pF and 800 pF for 225kV to 400kV
applications.
Page 36
3.1.2 Typical circuit reactances

Circuit reactances are present in the form of shunt reactors, series reactors, transformers and, to a smaller extent,
line series reactances. It is not possible or practical to give typical values as these are highly dependent on the
intended application. For example, a series reactor installed for fault level mitigation purposes will be tailordesigned for its specific location. Rather that providing typical reactance values, the following sections will highlight
network topologies with risk of resonance, which will justify a more detailed analysis.
3.2 Potentially Risky Configurations

3.2.1 Shunt-Compensation and Uneven Phase Operation
This phenomenon can occur in single and multi-circuit rights of way if one circuit is operated under un-even phase
switching conditions.
Uneven phase operation in transmission circuits can be:
a) Intentional: single-phase tripping schemes applied to transmission circuits for various reasons, such as (i)
improve system transient stability, (ii) improve system reliability and availability, (iii) reduce switching
overvoltages and/or (iv) reduce shaft torsional oscillations in large thermal units [73]
or
b) Unintentional: misoperation of circuit breakers or POW control
o during an opening operation: one (or two poles) may get stuck, resulting in two (or one) phases
being de-energized while one (or two) phase remains energized (see Figure 3-2 A and B).
o during a closing operation: one (or two) poles my fail to close, resulting in two (or one) phases
being energized while one (or two) phases remain de-energized (see Figure 3-2 B and C).
(A) One stuck circuit breaker pole

during opening operation
(B) Two stuck circuit breaker poles

during opening operation
Us
Disconnected phase
Us
Disconnected phase
Us
Energised phase
Stuck Pole
(C) One stuck circuit breaker pole

during closing operation
Us
Us
B
C
Us
Disconnected phase
Energised phase
Stuck Pole
Us
Energised phase
Stuck Pole
(D) Two stuck circuit breaker poles

during closing operation
Disconnected phase
Pole fails to close
Us
Us
Energised phase
Energised phase
Us
Disconnected phase
Pole fails to close
Us
Disconnected phase
Pole fails to close
Us
Energised phase
Figure 3-2 Uneven phase operation due to circuit breaker misoperation

Regardless of how the uneven phase operation arises, a series resonant circuit can be formed between the deenergized phase(s) shunt reactor(s) and the circuit capacitance. This resonant condition will last as long as the
uneven phase operation remains. Typically, protection or automated control systems will limit the duration of the
uneven phase operation to less than 1 2 seconds, however large resonant overvoltages even for short duration
Page 37

- can cause damage in HV equipment. This phenomenon can occur in both, single circuit and multi-circuit rights of
way and it is discussed in detail in section 4.2.
This type of resonance can only occur if a shunt reactor remains electrically connected to the disconnected
phase(s), as would normally happen with fixed shunt compensation directly applied to the circuit. However, some
unusual situations may also arise during commissioning or blackstart restoration paths where the inductance
comes from busbar shunt reactors rather than line shunt reactors. This is illustrated in Figure 3-3 and Figure 3-4.
Special attention must be paid to identify all possible sources of reactances likely to interact with the circuit
capacitance.
(A) One stuck circuit breaker pole during Busbar + Line De-Energisation
C
Disconnected phase
Disconnected phase
Energised phase
C
Stuck Pole
Substation-A
Substation-B
Busbar Shunt-Reactors
(B) Two stuck circuit breaker poles during Busbar + Line De-Energisation
C
Disconnected phase
Energised phase
B
Stuck Pole
Energised phase
Stuck Pole
Substation-A
Substation-B
Figure 3-3 De-energization of Line and Busbar with shunt-reactors connected to the Busbar
Page 38

(A) One stuck circuit breaker pole during Busbar + Line Energisation
C
A
Disconnected phase
Pole fails to close

Energised phase
Energised phase
C
Substation-A
Substation-B
(B) Two stuck circuit breaker poles during Busbar + Line Energisation
C
Disconnected phase
A
Pole fails to close
Disconnected phase
Pole fails to close

Energised phase
Substation-A
Substation-B
Figure 3-4 Energization of Line and Busbar with shunt-reactors connected to the Busbar
3.2.2 Shunt-Compensation and Three-Phase Switching in Multi-Circuit Rights of

Way
This phenomenon can only occur in multi-circuit rights of way, when one circuit is de-energized while a parallel
circuit remains energized.
Figure 3-5 shows a typical double circuit tower with one circuit in service (I) and another circuit out-of-service (II).
Due to inter-circuit capacitive coupling, voltage is induced in an open (not earthed) line if the parallel circuit is
energized. The normal induced voltage in the de-energized circuit (Ucircuit_II) can be estimated as:
_
Eq. 3-1
_
where Cs is the inter-circuit capacitance between circuits I and II and Cp is the capacitance to ground of circuit II
(see Figure 3-5).
Page 39
CS
CP
Figure 3-5 Capacitances in Double-Circuit Transmission Line

This normal induced voltage in the de-energized circuit is typically just a small fraction of the inducing voltage. As
an illustrative example, the normal induced voltage in the 500kV double circuit referred to in Section 3.1.1 is
approximately 16.3% of the inducing 500kV source, assuming Cs = 1.05 nF/km and Cp = 5.39 nF/km.
However, the installation of shunt reactors can introduce resonant conditions at (or near to) power frequency for
certain operating topologies and degrees of shunt compensation. Under resonance (or near resonance) conditions,
the induced voltages on the de-energized circuit are several orders of magnitude higher than those calculated with
Eq. 3-1 and can over-stress the line connected equipment. Early identification of these topologies will allow
implementation of cost-effective mitigation solutions at the design stage. When assessing these scenarios, it is
essential to consider both aspects related to the resonant overvoltages: (i) amplitude and (ii) duration.
Figure 3-6 illustrates three operating scenarios in which resonance can be observed in a shunt-compensated deenergized circuit, for certain size of shunt reactors.
c) Case 1 reproduces a possible situation where one circuit is energized while the parallel circuit is out of
service. A resonant circuit can be formed in the de-energized circuit depending on the size of the installed
shunt reactors. This is a steady-state condition i.e. the resonant condition will be present in the deenergized circuit as long as the parallel circuit is energized.
d) Case 2 reproduces a possible situation where a fault occurs in the energized circuit while the parallel circuit
is out of service. A resonant circuit can be formed in the de-energized circuit depending on the size of the
installed shunt reactors. This is a temporary condition excited by the fault in the parallel circuit i.e. the
resonant condition will be present until the fault is cleared.
e) Case 3 reproduces a scenario where there is a fault in the de-energized circuit while the parallel circuit is in
service. This scenario could arise as follows:
o
During the maintenance outage of one circuit with the other parallel circuit still in service (or
energized), earths are applied to the disconnected circuit. A resonant circuit can be formed if one
or two phases of the earthing switch fail to close (i.e. effectively creating a SLG or LLG fault on the
de-energized circuit) resulting in high overvoltages on un-earthed phase(s) of the disconnected
Page 40

circuit. The resonant condition will last as long as the unbalanced earthing remains or as long as
the parallel circuit is energized.
or
o During normal operation of both circuits, a SLG or LLG fault occurs in one of them and it is cleared
by three-phase tripping i.e. the faulted circuit is now de-energized. A resonant circuit can be
formed resulting in high overvoltages on the healthy phase(s) of the disconnected circuit. This is a
temporary condition i.e. if resonance occurs, high overvoltages will be present in the deenergized circuit only for the duration of the fault (i.e. until extinction of secondary arc) or until the
auto-recloser brings the circuit back into service.
An example of typical amplitude and location of resonant overvoltages on a 765kV double circuit
construction is presented in Figure 4-34 for the three cases described above as a function of the shunt
compensation degree.
Closed
Circuit #1
Closed
Open
Circuit #2
Open
Closed
Circuit #1
Closed
Open
Circuit #2
Open
Closed
Circuit #1
Closed
Open
Circuit #2
Open
Risk of resonance for shunt

compensation degrees of
60-70% and 100%
Resonant condition in
steady-state

60-70% and 100%
Resonant condition for

duration of fault

60-100%
Resonant condition for

duration of fault
Figure 3-6 Risk of resonance in shunt compensated double-circuit lines

The scenarios shown in Figure 3-6 can electrically arise under various network topologies, other than the standard
double-circuit construction with shunt reactors directly connected to the line. A few examples are illustrated in the
following subsections. These examples may seem unrealistic during normal operating conditions, but they can
arise as a result of extraordinary switching operations during commissioning, maintenance of equipment or during
emergency situations as part of a blackstart restoration path. Identification of these critical topologies is essential to
guarantee that the equipment is not overstressed.
Page 41
3.2.2.1 Busbar Shunt Reactors + Double Circuit Tr ansmission Line

This example presents two credible topologies leading to resonance in a double-circuit transmission line due to the
interaction with busbar shunt reactors. The dangerous topology arises when the busbar (with the shunt reactor)
and one of the circuits are de-energized while the parallel circuit remains energized from a remote end, thus
coupling energy to the reactor + de-energized circuit combination.
cct #1
cct #2
cct #1
cct #2
Figure 3-7 Double-Circuit Line and Busbar Shunt Reactors

Topology 1:
Figure 3-7 (a) shows a busbar section in substation B with two line feeders and one shunt reactor connected to it.
Cct ii is energized from substation A and open at substation B. A resonant circuit can be formed upon opening the
parallel cct#1 circuit breaker in Substation A. This topology effectively leaves the busbar shunt reactor directly
connected to the de-energized circuit (cct#1). Resonance occurs between the busbar shunt reactor and the
capacitance of the de-energized circuit (cct#1), with energy coupled from cct ii, via inter-circuit capacitive coupling.
Topology 2:
Figure 3-7 (b) shows another situation where resonance can occur in a similar network topology. In this case, cct#2
is energized from substation A and open at substation B while cct#1 is connected to Substation B (without voltage)
but open at Substation A. A resonant circuit can be formed upon closing the shunt-reactor circuit breaker. The
resonant circuit is identical to the previous topology.
3.2.2.2 Power Transformer, Tertiary Shunt Reactors and Double Circuit Transmission Line
This example presents two possible topologies leading to resonance in a double-circuit transmission line due to the
interaction with shunt reactors connected to the tertiary winding of a power transformer. The dangerous topology
arises when the transformer (with the tertiary shunt reactor) and one of the circuits are de-energized while the
parallel circuit remains energized from a remote end, thus coupling energy to the transformer/reactor + deenergized circuit combination.
Similar to the example described in section 3.2.2.1 for busbar shunt reactors, Figure 3-8 shows the network
topology where a resonant circuit can be formed. The description of the switching scenarios and topologies is the
same as in section 3.2.2.1, with the circuit reactance arising from the series combination of tertiary reactors and
power transformer reactance.
Page 42
cct #1
cct #2
cct #1
cct #2
Figure 3-8 Double-Circuit Line and Transformer Tertiary Shunt Reactors
3.2.3 Distribution Embedded Gen eration Islan ded with Transmission Circuit
A series resonant circuit can be formed between a distribution connected generator, its step-up transformer, the
feeding distribution network, the transmission transformer and the capacitance of a transmission circuit, should this
subsystem become islanded. An example of this topology is illustrated in Figure 3-9, where the opening of the
circuit breaker at the remote end of the transmission circuit is the trigger for the creation of the resonant circuit.
There is a series resonant condition when the inductive source, distribution network and transmission transformer
match the capacitance of the transmission circuit at power frequency. Upon resonance, high voltages will be
imposed on the transmission circuit and the distribution network. An example of this topology is illustrated in detail
in ANNEX A .
LV
MV
Distribution
Network
MV
HV
HV
Long Transmission Circuit
Embedded
Generator
or
Figure 3-9 Distribution Generator Islanded with Long Transmission Circuit
Page 43
Open
CB
CHAPTER 4
RESONANCE IN SHUNT COMPENSATED TRANSMISSION CIRCUITS
4.1 Introduction
The application of shunt reactors to long transmission circuits has been common practice for many years as a
passive and economical means to compensate for the effect of distributed line capacitance. The shunt reactors
compensate for the reactive power surplus in case of reduced power transfer, load rejection or an open
transmission line end, limiting steady-state over-voltages. Shunt reactors are usually required in EHV overhead
lines longer than 200 km [77].
The degree of shunt compensation, k, provided by a reactor bank is quantified as a percentage of the positive
sequence susceptance of the circuit to which it is applied:
k [%]
BL
100
BC
1( s L )
100
( s C )
1
2
s
100
Eq. 4-1
where L+ is the shunt reactor inductance per phase (positive sequence), C+ is the positive sequence line
capacitance and s is the system angular frequency.
Notwithstanding the main objective of limiting steady-state over-voltages in lightly loaded or open transmission
circuits, the installation of shunt reactors can result in phase-to-ground voltages above nominal values under
certain abnormal or temporary operating conditions:
1. Uneven open-phase conditions in a shunt compensated transmission circuit i.e. at least one phase is
disconnected while the other phase(s) remain energized. This condition can arise from the use of single-phase
tripping and autoreclosing schemes (SPAR) or from the misoperation of circuit breakers with independent
operating mechanisms on each phase. During line energization, one phase could be left open while the other
two phases are still energized due to a stuck pole in the circuit breaker. Similarly, two phases could be left
open while the other phase is still energized as a result of a stuck pole during line de-energization. Energy is
coupled into the resonant circuit via the phase-to-phase capacitances. Reference [72] provides a very good
insight into this resonant condition, which is expanded in section 4.2 of this document.
This phenomenon can arise in single and double circuit line constructions alike and it is a temporary abnormal
condition i.e. protection relays or control systems will act to restore the circuit to a balanced operation by
either connecting the de-energized phase(s) (auto-reclosing) or disconnecting the energized phase(s) (tripping
the circuit). In either case, the resonant condition will disappear when the uneven phase operation condition is
removed.
2. Three-phase disconnection of one circuit in a shunt compensated double-circuit construction, while the
parallel circuit remains energized. Energy is coupled into the resonant circuit via the circuit-to-circuit
capacitances. This phenomenon has sometimes been referred to as parallel line resonance in the technical
literature. References [77] to [82] deal with this resonant condition in great level of detail. Also, section 4.4 of
this document provides an overview of the issues affecting this resonant problem and possible solutions.
This phenomenon arises only in multi-circuit rights of way as it necessitates the capacitive coupling from an
energized parallel circuit. The resonant condition can be permanent (circuit intentionally out of service) or
temporary (circuit tripped by protection and reclosed after a dead-time period).
Typical degrees of shunt compensation used for overhead transmission circuits are in the range of 60%-80% when
single-phase autoreclosing (SPAR) is used, although higher values of compensation can be found in conjunction
with 3-phase autoreclosing or mixed overhead/underground circuits. Shunt compensation degrees close to 100%
are normally required for EHV cable circuits due to their higher capacitance.
Page 44
4.2 Line Resonance in Uneven Open-Phase Conditions

4.2.1 Physical description
The following assumptions and simplifications are made in order to describe the basic mechanisms of line
resonance in a shunt compensated circuit operated with one or two phases open (de-energized):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The transmission circuit is fully transposed and without losses.

All circuit elements are linear.
The circuit series impedance is neglected.
Shunt reactors are applied to compensate for k of the circuit capacitance (Eq. 4-1)
There is no inter-phase magnetic coupling in the shunt reactors. This is the same as saying that the positive
and zero sequence reactances are equal.
6. The neutral point of the shunt reactors is directly connected to ground.
Given the above assumptions and simplifications, a shunt-compensated transmission circuit, at no load, can be
represented by the parallel combination of a lumped capacitance and inductance, as shown in Figure 4-1.
Figure 4-1 Connection of shunt reactors in Transmission Circuit

The equivalent phase-to-ground impedance per phase (Zeq) is given by the following expression:
1
Z eq
C0
|| j
L
1
s
2
s
L
L
j
C0
1
L
C0
C
Eq. 4-2
k
100
where k is the degree of shunt compensation defined in Eq. 4-1, L+ is the shunt reactor inductance per phase
(positive sequence), C+ is the positive sequence capacitance of the circuit, C0 is the zero sequence capacitance of
1
the circuit and S is the angular frequency of the voltage source.
Three situations can occur depending on the degree of shunt compensation (k):
1)
C0
k
100 C
The equivalent phase to ground impedance, Zeq, is capacitive.
2)
C0
k
100 C
The equivalent phase to ground impedance, Zeq, is inductive.
3)
C0
k
100 C
The equivalent phase to ground impedance, Zeq, is infinite.
Note that the zero sequence capacitance of a symmetrical transmission circuit (C0) is the same as the capacitance of the
phase conductors to ground (Cph-gr)
Page 45
150
150
*10 3
*10 3
Magnitude Z
Magnitude Z
Figure 4-2 shows the frequency scan of the equivalent phase-to-ground impedance per phase, Zeq, of a 400 kV
transmission line assuming two degrees of shunt compensation: 60% and 70%. The C0/C+ ratio of this circuit is
0.67. Figure 4-2 (a) shows that with shunt compensation degree of 60% (i.e. k < C0/C+), the phase-to-ground
impedance is capacitive at 50 Hz. Increasing the degree of shunt compensation to 70% (i.e. k > C0/C+), Figure 4-2
(b) shows that the phase-to-ground impedance becomes inductive at power frequency. Although not shown in the
figure, it is clear that a shunt compensation degree of 67% would result in infinite impedance to ground at 50 Hz.
120
120
90
60
30
60
30
0
35
40
45
47.350
55
60
65
Frequency [Hz]
35
70
50
51.1
55
60
65
Frequency [Hz]
70
50
Phase Z
Inductive
Capacitive
25
0
-25
-50
Capacitive
Inductive
25
0
-25
-50
-75
-100
35
45
75
75
50
40
100
100
Phase Z
90
-75
40
(a)
45
50
47.3
55
60
65
Frequency [Hz]
60% Shunt Compensation Degree
70
-100
35
40
(b)
45
50
51.1
55
60
65
70
Frequency [Hz]
70% Shunt Compensation Degree
Figure 4-2 Equivalent line-to-ground impedance (Z eq ) in a transmission line with C 0 /C + =0.67

If we assume that one phase conductor is disconnected while the other two phases remain energized (for example
following a single phase trip), the equivalent phase to ground impedance of that phase - Z eq (Eq. 4-2) - becomes
series connected with the inter-phase capacitances to the energized phases. This is illustrated in Figure 4-3 below.
As previously discussed, Zeq can be capacitive or inductive depending on the degree of shunt compensation
applied to the circuit. For low degrees of shunt compensation (i.e. k < C0/C+ ) Zeq is capacitive. The series
connection of two capacitances will not give rise to resonance issues. However, high degrees of shunt
compensation (i.e. k > C0/C+) will result in Zeq becoming inductive. The series connection of inductive and
capacitive elements will result in series resonance if both reactance values become equal. This series resonant
circuit is excited by the voltage source on the energized phases and gives rise to high currents and voltage across
the reactor.
It is concluded that series resonance can occur during uneven open-phase conditions when k > C0/C+. Series
resonance arises from the parallel combination of the shunt reactor and line-to-ground capacitance connected in
series with the inter-phase capacitances.
In practice, typical C0/C+ ratios in standard transmission line constructions are in the 0.6 0.7 range. This means
that, under the assumptions made above, there is a risk of series resonance following open-phase conditions when
the degree of shunt compensation exceeds 60-70%. The source of the series resonance is the uneven
compensation of positive and zero sequence line capacitance provided by the shunt reactors.
Page 46
Figure 4-3 Simplified Equivalent Circuit during Single-Phase Opening
4.2.2 Approximate St eady State Analytical Solution

Given the potential damage to line connected equipment, such as surge-arresters, instrument transformers, shunt
reactors and circuit breakers, the circuit configurations leading to excessive over-voltages need to be identified.
The key questions to be resolved for any transmission line construction requiring shunt compensation are:
1. What are the particular reactor sizes that give rise to resonant conditions?
2. What is the induced open-phase voltage for any particular degree of shunt compensation?
A high level answer to those questions can be given using the simple formulae presented in sections 4.2.2.1 and
4.2.2.2 next. It should be noted that this is a steady-state analysis and higher temporary over-voltages can be
expected during transient conditions.
For clarity, the equations are presented in terms of both, positive and zero, sequence capacitances as well as
phase-to-ground and inter-phase capacitances. The relationship between these magnitudes (assuming
symmetrical line construction) is as follows:
C
C ph
C0
C ph
gr
3 C ph
Eq. 4-3
ph
Eq. 4-4
gr
The equations presented next (sections 4.2.2.1 and 4.2.2.2) are based on the assumptions made in section 4.2.1.
In particular, the assumptions of symmetrical line parameters, equal positive and zero sequence reactance for the
shunt reactors and solidly earthed reactor neutral connection apply (see section 4.2.3.2 for the effect of a neutral
reactor). Furthermore, it must be emphasised that losses and saturation effects have been ignored at this stage for
simplicity. In practice, the theoretical steady-state over-voltages calculated with this approach may be limited by
corona losses and/or reactor core saturation.
4.2.2.1 One Open-Phase

It is assumed that phases B and C are energized while phase A is disconnected (Figure 4-4 (a)). This circuit, as
seen from disconnected phase A, can be simplified as Figure 4-4 (b). By applying the Thevenin theorem, this circuit
can be reduced further as Figure 4-4 (c), which is a common series L-C circuit with a natural frequency of
oscillation equal to f n_(1 open-phase):
fn (1 open
phase )
2
L (C ph
gr
2 C ph
Eq. 4-5
ph )
Using circuit analysis to the equivalent shown in Figure 4-4 (c), the following expressions are derived:
Shunt compensation degree that causes series resonance at power frequency:
Page 47
1 2
k1
1 3
C ph
ph
C ph
gr
C ph
ph
C ph
gr
2 C
3 C0
Eq. 4-6
C
C0
Induced open-phase voltage for a compensation degree k:

U1
1
C ph
gr
C ph
ph
3 (1 k )
3 1 k
C0
1
C
(a)
Eq. 4-7
Us(t)
a2.Us(t)
a.Us(t)
Cph-ph
Cph-ph
L+
C0
L+
L+
Cph-ph
C0 = Cph-gr
C0
(b)
a2.Us(t)
a.Us(t)
Cph-ph
Cos 120
2
Cos 240
j Sin 120
j Sin 240
A
Cph-ph
C0 =
Cph-gr
L+
Thevenin
Uthev(t)
(c)
UThev (t )
2 Cph-ph + Cph-gr
A
L+
C ph
2 C ph
ph
ph
C ph
U s (t )
gr
Figure 4-4 Simplified circuit for the analysis of Line Resonance
4.2.2.2 Two Open-Phases

A similar approach can be used with the two open-phases scenario, resulting in another equivalent L-C circuit with
a natural frequency of oscillation equal to fn_(2 open-phases):
f n (2 open
phases )
2
L (C ph
gr
C ph
Eq. 4-8
ph )
Similarly to the one open-phase condition, the following expressions are derived:
Shunt compensation degree that causes series resonance at power frequency:
Page 48
1
k2
C ph
ph
C ph
gr
1 3
C ph
ph
C ph
gr
1 C
3 C0
Eq. 4-9
C
C0
Open-phase voltage for a compensation degree k:

U2
1
C ph
gr
C ph
ph
1
(1 k )
3 1 k
C0
1
C
Eq. 4-10
4.2.2.3 Practical Example

As an illustrative example, the analytical approximate method presented above has been used to estimate the
resonant conditions in a standard 400 kV transmission line design used in Ireland, as a function of the degree of
shunt compensation. For this construction, the circuit capacitances are C+=11.59 nF/km and C0=7.77 nF/km. The
line is assumed to be fully transposed and the neutral point of the shunt reactors is directly connected to ground.
Power frequency is 50 Hz.
Figure 4-5 shows the natural frequencies of oscillation for one and two open-phase(s) conditions, as a function of
the degree of shunt compensation. It can be seen that the natural frequency increases with the degree of
compensation. These frequencies reach values within 0.5 Hz of power frequency for compensation degrees
between 77% and 79% during operation with two open phases and between 88% and 91% during operation with
one open-phase.
Figure 4-6 presents the steady-state open-phase voltages as a function of the shunt compensation degree,
calculated using Eq. 4-7 and Eq. 4-10. These curves clearly show resonant conditions for shunt compensation
degrees of 78% and 89% for the two open-phases and the one open-phase conditions, respectively. Shunt
compensation degrees from 68% to 99% bring near-resonant conditions with steady-state open-phase voltages in
excess of 1 pu.
It should be noted that this illustrative example is based on a number of stated simplifications and that the
calculated voltages refer to steady-state conditions only. In practice, temporary conditions may lead to voltages in
excess to those calculated using this analytical method. On the other hand, saturation or circuit losses may limit
these over-voltages. Notwithstanding its limitations, this approximate method enables the engineer to carry-out a
speedy estimation of the risk of power frequency resonance for a particular circuit configuration and degree of
shunt compensation. Further detailed studies are required when it is envisaged to operate close to a resonant
peak. This is typically done using time domain simulation, as shown in section 4.3.
The following can be concluded from this example:
1. A symmetrical shunt-compensated transmission circuit exhibits two resonant peaks: one for one open-phase
and a second one for two open-phases conditions.
2. The two open-phases condition presents a resonant peak at a lower degree of shunt compensation than the
one-open-phase condition.
3. Steady-state voltages in excess of 1 pu can be expected for a wide range of shunt compensation degrees.
Page 49

70
[Hz]
60
52.0
[Hz]
51.5
50
50.5
51.0
50.0
40
49.5
30
49.0
48.5
20
48.0
70%
10
75%
80%
85%
fn_1open-phase
0
10%
20% 30% 40%
50% 60% 70%
fn_1open-phase
90%
95%
100%
[k]
fn_2open_phases
80% 90% 100% 110% 120%

[k]
fn_2open_phases
Figure 4-5 Natural oscillation frequencies of a 400 kV shunt-compensated line under one and two open phase
conditions
5.0
V [pu]
4m
4.5
6.0 m
4.0
3.5
Two open-phases
4.1 m
10.25
One open-phase
10.25
3.0
26.0
m
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
10%
68%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
78%
89%
80%
90%
99%
100% 110%
Figure 4-6 Steady-State open-phase voltage (approximate analytical solution) in a 400 kV line as a function of
the Shunt Compensation Degree, k.
4.2.2.4 Field Measurements Showing 500kV Surg e Arrester Failures During a Two-OpenPhase Condition
In April of 2012 a Canadian utility experienced failures of a 500 kV line terminal breaker and two 500 kV surge
arresters on two different phases of a long EHV circuit during a prolonged two open-phase condition. Very high
TOVs occurred from induced voltages and a resonant condition in the shunt compensated circuit, as discussed in
section 4.2.2. The incident occurred during routine maintenance of protection at one terminal resulting in an
inadvertent three-phase trip of the unfaulted line, initiated by line protection, followed by an automatic reclose, and
then immediately followed by a protective re-trip of the line. This case provides a good example of hazardous
TOVs that can occur due to capacitive coupling in the presence of series resonance on open phases of an EHV
line equipped with shunt reactors that provide a high degree of shunt compensation.
Description of the case
Page 50

Figure 4-7 shows a simplified single-line diagram of the 277 km 500 kV shunt (and series) compensated and
transposed circuit 5L2 from GMS Station to WSN Station. The series capacitor bank does not play a role in this
case because the bypass breaker was closed before the open phase condition occurred. The 500 kV shunt
reactors (2040 Ohms/phase) 5RX2 at GMS end of the line and 5RX4 at WSN end provide 72.2% compensation of
the positive sequence capacitance of the line. These reactors have solidly grounded neutrals hence the line is
operated in three pole trip and reclose mode. The line originally went into service before single pole operation
could be reliably achieved with the 500 kV breaker technology existing at the time. The GMS bus (part of a major
hydroelectric installation) is the master end for high speed auto-reclose and the associated breakers 5CB5 and
5CB11 are equipped with POW closing. At the WSN (follow) end 5CB3 and 5CB4 are not equipped for POW
closing. There is a set of surge arresters 5SA26 protecting 5RX2 and another set of arresters 5SA34 at 5RX4, as
indicated in the diagram. Figure 4-8 shows a typical guyed-V tower for this flat-configuration circuit. The average
height of the conductor above ground at the tower and the average conductor sag are 26.7 m and 10 m,
respectively. Each phase comprises a bundle of four 316.1 mm2 ACSR conductors in a 45.7 cm by 45.7 cm square
arrangement.
Transmission Line
Parameters:
Z1 = 7.26 + j92.54
Y1 = 1356 Mho
Z0 = 56.86 + j342.4
Y0 = 780.5 Mho
Figure 4-7 500 kV Circuit Details For the Two Open-Phase Event
Page 51
(uncomp.)
Figure 4-8 Details of Circuit 5L2 Typical 500 kV Guyed-V Structure
Sequence of events
On 16 April, 2012, during routine protection maintenance at GMS, one phase of a CT connected to 5L2 line
protection was inadvertently shorted and isolated under load but without blocking the line protection. During a
sequence of events (see Table 4-1) which lasted 7.6 seconds from initiation of the inadvertent trip to complete line
isolation, one breaker (WSN 5CB4 Phase A) and two surge arresters (WSN 5SA34 Phase B and GMS 5SA26
Phase A) failed. The former arrester failed because of excessive and prolonged TOV while the latter arrester failed
due to repeated high switching surges due to restriking within the failed breaker. The unintended isolation of the
CT when 5L2 was under load initiated a three-phase trip of the line, first at GMS followed by the WSN end.
Table 4-1 Sequence of Events 16 April 2012
Order
Time-stamp - PST
Event
15:24:27:93 hrs
Unintentional Trip of 5L2 at GMS and WSN terminals
15:24:28:61 hrs
Phases B and C automatically reclose at GMS
15:24:28:70 hrs
Suboptimal Phase A POW reclose at GMS
Reclose at WSN
15:24:28:71 hrs
Trip initiation at GMS and DTT to WSN
WSN 5CB4 Pole A stuck closed on trip
WSN 5SA34 Phase B failure
15:24:33.75 hrs
GMS 5SA26 Phase A failure causing ground fault
15:24:34:59 hrs
Trip initiation at WSN by timed ground fault protection
10
15:24:35:71 hrs
WSN 5CB4 breaker trip
Page 52

Following the line trip, 5L2 line protection initiated automatic high speed reclose. The POW controller at GMS
successfully reclosed phases B and C but delayed reclosing Phase A by about 6 cycles. Shortly after Phase A
closed at the lead end, line protection transiently picked up and initiated a line re-trip and also sent a direct transfer
trip (DTT) to the follow terminal, which, by this time had successfully reclosed three-phase. However, during the
second line tripping operation, Pole A of WSN 5CB4 became stuck and failed to open. As a result, the circuit
became single-phase energized from WSN. Phases B and C of 5L2, with the line-end reactors and associated
surge arresters, were open but capacitively coupled to the energized Phase A. The induced overvoltages on the
open phases caused failure of WSN 5SA34 Phase B. Pole A of 5CB4 in the stuck condition sustained uncontrolled
multiple restrikes which, in about 6 seconds, led to the second surge arrester failure Phase A of 5SA26 at GMS.
Figure 4-9 shows the instantaneous phase-to-ground voltages and 5L2 line currents at GMS (the upper three
traces are the voltages, followed by the corresponding phase currents) and at WSN for a period of 680 ms, starting
about 5 cycles before the auto-reclose of phases B and C at GMS. These traces were recorded by digital fault
recorders at these two stations on 16 April. In examining these traces, the following two points must be kept in
mind:
1. The voltage waveforms are NOT plotted on the same scale. The scaling of the voltage-axis for each plot is
independently determined based on the maximum and minimum instantaneous values so that the entire
plot fits within the bounds of the plotting area. The same applies for the line currents.
2. Inspection of the Phase B and Phase C voltage waveforms at WSN, during the two open-phase condition,
indicates flat topping. This is NOT due to surge arrester conduction (or other non-linear phenomenon)
during the excessive TOV but is because the overvoltages are so high that they have exceeded the pre-set
range of the digital fault recorder. The recordings at GMS do not have this problem.
Prior to time T = 0, circuit 5L2 was isolated and all three phase-to-ground voltages at both line terminals exhibit
ringdown oscillations as stored energy oscillates between the line capacitance and the shunt reactors as a result of
the prior trip-out of the line. At time T = 10 ms the POW controller at GMS auto-reclosed Phases B and C (but not
yet Phase A) while the remote end of the line was open. Thus, there was a one open-phase condition for about 5
cycles before Phase A reclosed (late). During these 5 cycles, the amplitude of the open Phase A voltage escalated
dramatically and reached 669.5 kVp (1.64pu). When the POW controller reclosed Phase A at T = 110 ms, it did so
near a voltage zero, a non-optimal point on the voltage wave, thereby initiating a large DC offset in the current due
to the re-energization of the line-end reactors. However, about 2 cycles later there was a re-trip of the line but,
since there was no zero crossing of the Phase A current at that time, this current continued uninterrupted.
However, at T = 190 ms the WSN end of the line reclosed three-phase. The disturbance created by closing the
follow end of 5L2 Phase A created a current zero at GMS and the slowly decaying DC component in the current
was transferred to the WSN Phase A breakers. A re-trip of the line at WSN occurred about 2 cycles later
(T = 240 ms) but the Phase A current could not be interrupted until the next zero crossing, which occurred about 13
cycles later. Subsequently, there were multiple restrikes, which can be seen in the WSN Phase A line current
indicating that one of the two breakers 5CB3 or 5CB4 had failed. Therefore, for more than 13 cycles, there was a
two open-phase condition on 5L2 resulting in high TOVs on B and C phases of the line. The instantaneous Phase
B voltage was about 668 kVp (1.64 pu) and Phase C voltage was about 697 kVp (1.71 pu), as measured at GMS.
The failure of the surge arrester on Phase B at WSN and on Phase A at GMS would have occurred some time
beyond the time frame of Figure 3. Unfortunately, there were no time stamps for the switchings recorded at WSN
because event logs were overwritten due to the large number of events.
Page 53

One open-phase condition
Auto-reclosure occurs
near voltage zero
V-A GMS
V-B GMS
V-C GMS
DC Offset
DC Offset Transferred
to WSN Terminal
Phase A recloses late
Two open-phase condition

V-B 1.64 pu
V-C 1.71 pu
Phase B
recloses
Line Re-trip at GMS
Phase C
recloses
V-A WSN
V-B WSN
V-C WSN
WSN Phase A Recloses
No Current Zero for 13 Cycles
WSN Phase B Recloses

Line Re-trip at WSN
WSN Phase C Recloses
WSN 5CB4 restriking
Figure 4-9 Field Recordings of 16 April 2012 Two Open-Phase Event. Upper Three Traces are the Phase A, B,
and C Voltages on 5L2 at GMS End Followed by the Corresponding Phase A, B and C Line Currents. The
Corresponding Voltages and Currents at WSN End Appear Below
Page 54

Steady State Approximate Analysis of the TOV
It is useful to calculate, analytically, the expected steady state TOVs during the open-phase conditions for 5L2
having two shunt reactors and compare these results to the field recordings. The positive and zero phase
sequence line impedances and shunt susceptances are shown on Figure 4-7. At each 5L2 terminal there is a set
of shunt reactors, each having a reactance of 2040 per phase (L+ = 2.706 H for two reactors in parallel per
phase). Power frequency is 60 Hz.
From Eq. 4-3 and Eq. 4-4, Cph-ph = 1/3(C+ - C0) = 0.5087 F and Cph-gr = C0 = 2.072 F
From Eq. 4-1, the degree of shunt compensation, k, provided by two reactors on circuit 5L2 is 72.27%
One Open-Phase Condition:
From Eq. 4-5, the natural frequency of oscillation, f n, for 5L2 having two shunt reactors and one open phase is
55.0 Hz.
From Eq. 4-6, the shunt compensation degree that causes series resonance at fundamental frequency, k1, is
0.8586, which is well above the actual compensation level of 0.7227.
From Eq. 4-7, the induced open-phase voltage for 72.27% shunt compensation, k, for steady-state conditions is
theoretically 1.04 pu.
Two Open-Phase Condition:
From Eq. 4-8, the natural frequency of oscillation, f n, for 5L2 having two shunt reactors and two open phases is
60.2 Hz, which is almost precisely the fundamental frequency.
From Eq. 4-9, the shunt compensation degree that causes series resonance at fundamental frequency, k2, is
0.7172, which is very close to the actual compensation level of 0.7227.
From Eq. 4-10, the induced open-phase voltage for 72.27% shunt compensation, k, for steady-state conditions is
theoretically 26.0 pu, which is extremely high.
Discussion
For circuit 5L2, the degree of shunt compensation required to obtain series resonance at fundamental frequency for
one open phase is 85.9% which is significantly more than the actual shunt compensation of 72.2%. This can be
compared to the 89% shown on Figure 4-5 for the example 400 kV overhead circuit. For the two open-phase
condition of 5L2 the natural frequency of this configuration is 60.2 Hz, indicating that this case is almost precisely
resonant at fundamental frequency and high voltages on the two open phases can be expected. Alternatively,
71.72% shunt compensation is required to produce resonance at fundamental frequency, which is almost identical
to the actual compensation of 72.2%. This can be compared to 78% compensation required for the 400 kV
example circuit. From a theoretical perspective, a one open-phase condition of 5L2 having two shunt reactors will
result in only a negligible induced steady state overvoltage whereas a two open-phase condition can be expected
to produce a potentially hazardous temporary overvoltage.
The theoretical calculations of open-phase induced voltages assume steady-state conditions and ignore the
nonlinear effects of surge arrester conduction, magnetic saturation of the shunt reactors, and corona losses on the
conductors. They also assume that the line is balanced (i.e. the phase-to-phase capacitances are all identical). It
should therefore not be surprising to find differences between the induced voltages calculated analytically and the
voltages actually observed on 5L2 during the unusual open-phase conditions in April of 2012. For the two openphase condition, both theory and field measurement indicated very high induced TOVs on the two open phases,
but with only the (very understandable) disagreement in the severity of the overvoltage. It is also quite
understandable that there was a surge arrester (WSN 5LA34) failure during the prolonged TOVs, although it might
have been expected to occur on Phase C rather than Phase B. It is possible that the arrester on Phase B had a
different V I characteristic than the Phase C arrester. During the 4 to 5 cycles when Phase A was open but
Phases B and C were energized from GMS the actual induced overvoltage was higher than what would be
expected from simple calculation for a one open-phase condition. This was likely because conditions were not in
steady state.
Page 55
4.2.3 Effect of Various Design Pa rameters

The effect of the following design parameters on the occurrence of resonance is discussed in the next subsections:
Mixed Overhead Line and Underground Cable Transmission Circuits section 4.2.3.1
Neutral Reactors section 4.2.3.2
Shunt reactor core construction section 4.2.3.3
4.2.3.1 Mixed O verhead Line and Cable Circuits

There are two main characteristics of underground cables that have a direct impact on line resonance:
1.
2.
The capacitance of an underground cable is typically in the order of 20 30 times the capacitance of an
equivalent overhead line circuit.
= (20 30).
HV and EHV cables have screens on each phase, therefore there is no inter-phase capacitive coupling.
=
The addition of a section of underground cable to an overhead transmission line increases the overall C0/C+ ratio of
the circuit. This ratio changes rapidly from approximately 0.6-0.7 (no cable section) to 1 (no overhead line section).
The main implication of a higher C0/C+ ratio is that the resonant peaks shift towards higher levels of shunt
compensation. This is illustrated with an example in Figure 4-10. In this example it has been assumed that the
overhead line construction is as per Figure 4-6 and that the capacitance (per km) of the cable section is 25 times
the capacitance (per km) of the overhead line section. The results are plotted as a function of the proportion of
cable length in the entire length of circuit n= length_UGC/(length_UGC+length_OHL). It is shown that the introduction of
an underground cable section, even if small (for example 10% of circuit length), has a dramatic effect on moving
the resonant peaks towards regions of high degrees of shunt compensation (i.e. higher than 90%). In this example,
both resonant peaks are above 99% of shunt compensation when the section of cable exceeds 50% of the total
circuit length.
k[%]
100%
98%
96%
94%
92%
90%
88%
86%
84%
82%
80%
78%
76%
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
k(1_open Phase)
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
n[pu]
k(2_open phases)
Figure 4-10 Location of Resonant Peaks in a Mixed Overhead/Cable Circuit vs proportion of cable length section
The effect of increasing the proportion of cable length into a mixed transmission circuit is illustrated with an
example in Figure 4-11. In this example, the section of cable circuit has been increased from 0% to 70% of the total
circuit length. It can be seen that the resonant peak (only one open-phase condition is shown for clarity) moves
towards 100% as the proportion of cable length in the circuit is increased. Also, the amplitude of the resonant
voltages drops with the increased proportion of cable due to the reduced inter-phase capacitive coupling.
Page 56
5.0
U [pu]
4.5
n=0% UGC
k=89%
4.0
3.5
n=10% UGC
k=97%
3.0
2.5
2.0
n=30% UGC
k=99.06%
1.5
n=70% UGC
k=99.81%
1.0
0.5
0.0
40%
50%
60%
U1 (n=0)
70%
80%
U1 (n=0.1)
90%
U1 (n=0.3)
100%
110%
U1 (n=0.7)
Figure 4-11 Steady-state open-phase voltage in a Mixed Overhead/Cable Circuit as a function of the shunt
compensation degree, k, and increasing length of cable (one open-phase)
4.2.3.2 Effect of Neutral Reactors

It has been demonstrated in section 4.2.1 that the origin of the series resonant circuit during uneven open-phase
operation is linked to the unequal compensation of positive and zero-sequence line capacitances (i.e. C0/C+ ratio).
This resonant circuit can be detuned by the introduction of a properly dimensioned neutral reactor affecting the
zero-sequence compensation. Neutral reactors are normally used in conjunction with phase reactors in long
transmission lines to reduce the amplitude of the secondary arc current and to increase the reliability of SinglePhase Auto-Reclosing (SPAR) schemes [68], [73]. A typical neutral reactor connection is shown in Figure 4-12.
Figure 4-12 Four Reactor Compensation Scheme Equivalent line-to-ground impedance
Eq. 4-11 below gives the equivalent line-to-ground impedance per phase (Z eq-0) for the four-reactor bank
configuration shown in Figure 4-12.
Z eq
1
0
C0
|| j
L0
j
1
s
2
s
L
L
3LN
3LN C0
Page 57
Eq. 4-11

The minimum value of neutral inductance - LN - that can prevent the formation of a series resonant circuit at power
frequency is such that the equivalent line-to-ground impedance, Zeq_0, becomes capacitive. That minimum neutral
reactor - LN_min - is calculated using Eq. 4-12 below:
LN _ min
1
3
1
2
s
Eq. 4-12
C0
Various approaches can be adopted to optimise the size of the neutral reactor for a particular circuit configuration.
Two examples are:
1.
Even compensation of positive and zero sequence line capacitance [84]
LN _ even _ k
2.
L
3
C
C0
Compensating inter-phase capacitive coupling to minimise secondary arc current [68]-[70]

C
LN _ min
Eq. 4-13
sec arc
L
3
C0
C
C
Eq. 4-14
C0
C
It should be noted that the application of Eq. 4-12 or Eq. 4-14 results in negative value of neutral reactors (i.e. need
for a neutral capacitor) for k < C0/C+ and k < 1-(C0/C+), respectively. In practice, these are very low degrees of
shunt compensation, which are very distant from resonant peaks. The installation of a neutral reactor for mitigating
resonance is not justified in these cases.
Figure 4-13 compares the size of the neutral reactors calculated using Eq. 4-12, Eq. 4-13 and Eq. 4-14 for a
practical range of shunt compensation degrees (i.e. between 70% and 100%). In this comparison, the ratio of the
neutral to phase reactors is plotted as a function of the shunt compensation degree. It can be seen that there is a
significant difference in the size requirements for the neutral reactor in the lower range of shunt compensation
degrees, with Eq. 4-14 requiring the largest neutral reactors. This implies that, even though smaller neutral reactors
may be effective in detuning a potential resonant circuit, they may not be adequate for the purposes of secondary
arc extinction and successful SPAR. Both phenomena should be analysed simultaneously in order to achieve the
most cost-effective solution. Furthermore, Figure 4-13 also shows that, as the degree of shunt compensation is
increased, the three approaches converge to the same neutral reactor size.
Page 58
LN/L+
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
70%
75%
80%
LN(min-sec-arc)/L+
85%
90%
LN(even_k)/L+
95%
100%
LN(min)/L+
Figure 4-13 Ratio of Neutral Reactor to Phase Reactor as a function of the Shunt Compensation degree (C 0 /C + =
0.67)
4.2.3.2 .1 Practical Ex ample with Neutral Reactors (S te ady-S tate )

This example illustrates the effect of connecting a neutral reactor in the 400kV line construction described in
section 4.2.2.3. Shunt compensation degree of 78% has been selected because it results in series resonance for
the two open-phases scenario when the reactors neutral is directly grounded (see Figure 4-6).
Figure 4-14 compares the steady-state open-phase voltages for the no neutral-reactor case with the
corresponding voltages arising from the connection of neutral reactors of different sizes Eq. 4-12, Eq. 4-13 and
Eq. 4-14. It can be seen LN_Min (calculated with Eq. 4-12,) effectively detunes the circuit from the resonance
condition, however open-phase voltages close to 1 pu are still observed. Further reductions of induced voltage are
achieved with LN_even_k (Eq. 4-13) and LN_min-sec-arc (Eq. 4-14).
6
V [pu]
5
4
3
2
1
2op en ph
1op en ph
a ses
a se
SoS
l iodli
dN
N
e ue
utrt
aral
LN
l
_LN(
m(M
inin)
LN
)
_(L
eNv(e
e vne
LNL
_nk k
_N ((m
))
Cain
r-lsse
sconar)c
)
Figure 4-14 Open-phase voltages in a Flat Line construction with 78% Shunt Compensation degree. Effect of
Neutral Reactors
In practical terms, the installation of a neutral reactor shifts the resonant peaks to higher levels of shunt
compensation degrees. This is illustrated in Figure 4-15 below which shows resonant peaks at 91% and 97%
Page 59

compensation degrees when a neutral reactor is connected to the circuit. This compares to 78% and 89%
compensation degrees for the same resonant peaks in the absence of a selected neutral reactor.
5
4.5
4.5
3.5
3.5
2.5
2.5
1.5
1.5
0.5
0.5
0
50% 55% 60% 65% 70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95% 100%105%110%115%120%
1 open-phase
1 open-phase (Xn)
50% 55% 60% 65% 70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95% 100%105%110%115%120%
2 open-phase
2 open-phase (Xn)
Figure 4-15 Steady-state open-phase voltages with a neutral reactor as a function of shunt compensation degree,
k
4.2.3.2 .2 Insulation Level Con side rations associa ted wi th N eutral Reac tors
When assessing the connection of a neutral reactor, it should be kept in mind that its size has direct implications on
the insulation requirements i.e. the larger the neutral reactor, the higher the voltage at the neutral point of the
phase reactors. For economic reasons, it is desirable to keep the insulation class of the reactor neutral as low as
possible. In the absence of detailed insulation co-ordination studies, the required neutral point Basic Insulation
Level (BIL) can be roughly determined using Eq. 4-15 [70]:
Neutral Point BIL

Phase Reactor BIL
1
L phase
Eq. 4-15
LN
The following points summarise the considerations related to the use of neutral reactors to mitigate resonance
conditions:
1. A wide range of neutral reactor sizes can be selected to detune the resonant circuit during open-phase
conditions.
2. The installation of a neutral reactor shifts the resonant peaks towards higher degrees of shunt compensation.
3. Neutral reactors are usually required to minimise secondary arc current. Both, resonance and SPAR
performance must be assessed simultaneously.
4. The size of the selected neutral reactor has direct implications on the required insulation levels for phase and
neutral reactors.
4.2.3.3 Effect of Reactor Core Construction

The design of the magnetic core has a large effect on the reactors behaviour during unbalanced open-phase
conditions. The only type of reactor core that does not have direct magnetic coupling between phases is the singlephase unit2. Three-phase reactors present different levels of zero sequence coupling depending on the core
design, as follows [82].
Note that air core reactors do not have magnetic coupling between phases either. However, their use is generally limited to
low and medium voltages due to their high intensity external magnetic fields when energized.
Page 60

Type I.
Shell-type and four/five-legged core type reactors provide a magnetic path for the zero sequence flux,
hence, the coupling between phases is very small and can normally be neglected [76]. In this type of
reactor X0/X+=1.
Type II.
Three-legged core type reactors present a strong magnetic coupling between phases. In this type of
reactors X0/X+= 0.5 0.7.
The resonance analysis presented in the previous sections has assumed 3-phase shunt reactors with X0/X+=1.
However, if type II reactors are used for line shunt compensation, the effect of the magnetic coupling is equivalent
to connecting a negative neutral reactor (i.e. X0/X+< 1), therefore, the location of the resonant peaks is shifted
towards lower degrees of shunt compensation.
4.3 Detailed Analysis of Line Resonance in Uneven Open-Phase conditions using

Time-D omain Simulation
The analytical approximate solution presented in section 4.2 is a very useful tool to obtain an initial high-level
estimation of the risk of resonance for a particular shunt-compensated line construction. However, this approach is
based on a number of simplifications and does not capture some practical effects such as circuit asymmetries, nonlinearities or complex circuit topologies. When the analytical approximate method suggests proximity to a resonant
peak, a more rigorous analysis is required. Time domain simulation using EMT software provides the right tools to
carry-out this type of detailed analysis. An example of time-domain simulation illustrating the effect of some key
design parameters is presented next. This parametric analysis starts with steady-state voltage calculations and
continues with an assessment of temporary over-voltages arising from switching operations. Modelling guidelines
to represent each circuit element are discussed in CHAPTER 6.
4.3.1 Steady State Analysi s

This section illustrates the effect of selected design variables on the induced voltages under uneven open-phase
conditions. Only steady-state voltages are assessed in this section. For this purpose, the relevant circuit breaker
poles are represented in open position for the entire duration of the simulation.
4.3.1.1 Effect of Tower Design

The line capacitances (phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground) play an important role in the occurrence of
resonance at power frequency. These capacitances are mainly defined by the conductor geometry. In order to
illustrate the effect of the line geometry, four typical transmission line constructions are compared. These are
shown in Figure 4-16: (a) flat construction, (b) vertical construction, (c) delta construction and (c) inverted delta
construction.
For the purposes of this analysis a linear model has been used to represent the shunt reactors, keeping the neutral
directly grounded. As shown in Figure 4-16, the inter-phase distances have been set to 10m and a minimum
ground clearance of 15m has been used for each line construction. One conductor per phase and full line
transposition has been assumed.
The simulated open-phase voltages are plotted in Figure 4-17 (a) and Figure 4-17 (b) respectively. It can be seen
that the flat line construction leads to resonance at the highest shunt compensation degrees, hence providing the
largest safety margin for the typical values used in practice. The main reason for this behaviour is the higher zero
sequence capacitance of the flat configuration due to the closer proximity of conductors to ground. The delta and
vertical configurations present similar resonance performance while the inverted delta configuration results in
resonance at the lowest shunt compensation degrees.
Page 61

C
10m
B
10m
10m
A
10m
10m
C
10m
10m
10m
10m
10m
15m
15m
(a)
15m
15m
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 4-16 Transmission Line constructions: (a) Flat Configuration, (b) Vertical Configuration, (c) Delta
Configuration, (d) Inverted Delta Configuration.
10
U [pu]
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
60%
k
65%
70%
75%
80%
85%
90%
95%
100%
10
U [pu]
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
60%
k
65%
70%
75%
80%
85%
90%
95%
100%
Figure 4-17 Steady-State Open-Phase Voltages in Shunt Compensated Transmission Lines. Effect of Line
Construction Type.
4.3.1.2 Effect of Line Transposition

The effect of line asymmetry is illustrated using the flat line configuration shown in Figure 4-16 without any phase
transposition. This geometry has been selected because it leads to the highest degree of asymmetry. For the
purposes of this analysis, a linear model has been employed to represent the shunt reactors and the neutral point
has been directly grounded.
The simulation results are shown in Figure 4-18(a) and Figure 4-18(b) for the one open-phase and two openphases scenarios, respectively. The following effects can be observed:
1.
For the one open-phase scenario there are two resonant peaks corresponding to the external phases and the
central phase respectively. The central phase presents resonance at a slightly higher compensation degree
due to the higher inter-phase capacitances with respect to the external phases.
2.
Three resonant peaks are observed for the two open-phases scenario. Two peaks appear when one of the
open phases is the central one whereas only one peak appears when the two external phases are open.
The results shown in Figure 4-18 can be compared with Figure 4-17 to analyse the effect of the line asymmetry.
The main difference can be seen in the behaviour of each phase for the un-transposed scenario. The three phases
have identical performance when the line is fully transposed, whereas they present different numbers and location
of resonant peaks in the un-transposed case. This effect is not very significant for the one open-phase scenario
since the two resonant peaks are in very close proximity. However, the three resonant peaks arising from the two
open-phases scenario are quite dispersed, increasing the range of shunt compensation degrees that could lead to
harmful over-voltages.
Page 62

10 U [pu]
10 U [pu]
9
2
1
1
0
60%
65%
70%
75%
80%
85%
90%
95%
100%
105%
110%
115%
k
120%
0
60%
k
65%
70%
75%
80%
85%
90%
95%
100% 105%
110%
115% 120%
Figure 4-18 Steady-State Open-Phase Voltages for Untransposed Shunt Compensated Transmission Line Flat
Construction.
4.3.1.3 Effect of Reactor Saturation

The effect of the reactors core saturation is illustrated by comparing the steady-state performance of a flat line
configuration using linear and non-linear reactors. A full line transposition has been assumed and the shunt
reactors neutral has been solidly earthed. The phase reactors saturation knee-point has been assumed at 1.25 pu
The simulation results are included in Figure 4-19 (a) and Figure 4-19 (b) for the one open-phase and two openphases scenarios, respectively. To facilitate the comparison, the figures include the results for both linear and nonlinear reactors. It can be seen that the only effect of saturation is to limit the open-phase voltage to a value close to
the saturation knee-point. For compensation degrees leading to voltages below 1.25 pu, both curves are identical
since the shunt reactors are working in the linear region.
2.00
U [pu]
2.00
1.75
1.75
1.50
1.50
1.25
1.25
1.00
1.00
0.75
0.75
0.50
0.50
0.25
U [pu]
0.25
k
0.00
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
110%
120%
0.00
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
110%
120%
Figure 4-19 Steady-State Open-Phase Voltages for Shunt Compensated Transmission Line. Effect of Shunt
Reactors Saturation
A sensitivity analysis has been carried out to investigate the effect of different saturation knee points on the steadystate performance of the circuit described above. The results obtained with 1.25 pu, 1.5 pu and 1.75 pu are
presented in Figure 4-20. Only the one open-phase scenario is presented for simplicity. This graph illustrates
again that reactor core saturation will limit the steady-state resonant overvoltages to a value close to the kneepoint. Below that value, the reactor is operated in the linear region and there are no differences between any of the
models. In practical terms, a higher saturation knee point means that the equipment will be exposed to higher
overvoltages when the shunt reactors operate in the saturated region. Typical saturation knee points used in
industry are in the range 1.25 to 1.75 pu.
Page 63
2.25
U [pu]
2
1.75
1.5
1.25
1
0.75
0.5
0.25
0
50%
k
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
110%
120%
130%
140%
Figure 4-20 Steady-State Open-Phase Voltages for Shunt Compensated Transmission Line. Sensitivity of saturation
knee-point
4.3.2 Temporary Overvoltage Analysis

The steady-state voltages computed in sections 4.2.2 (approximate method) and 4.3.1 (detailed EMT analysis)
represent the final continuous values that can be reached in the absence of remedial actions i.e. if the uneven
open-phase condition is left in the circuit indefinitely. These steady-state voltages will be rarely reached in practice
due to the long time-constant of the resonant circuit and to the operation of protection or control systems. However,
during the transient process following a switching operation, temporary voltage oscillations will exceed the steady
state values and may stress the equipment insulation for a short period. A detailed time domain simulation of those
events allows accurate assessment of the TOV. This analysis is illustrated in the next subsections by simulating the
effect of selected design variables. Assessment of the equipment withstand capabilities to the computed TOVs is
beyond the scope of this Technical Brochure.
4.3.2.1 Effect of Tower Design

This section illustrates the temporary over-voltages arising from uneven open-phase conditions in each of the four
line configurations shown in Figure 4-16 (section 4.3.1.1). For the purposes of this illustrative analysis, the shunt
compensation degree has been fixed to 65%, the line has been made fully transposed and the shunt reactors
neutral has been directly grounded.
The voltage waveforms obtained from the time-domain simulations are shown in Figure 4-21. The steady-state
voltages reached after the temporary oscillations have dampened out are also included for illustration purposes.
The simulations started from a steady-state solution with the circuit breaker closed and the line energized at 1 pu
voltage. After 5 power frequency cycles, one or two circuit breaker poles were open to simulate an unbalanced
open-phase operation. The phase-to-ground voltage at the line sending end was recorded and it is plotted in Figure
4-21. It can be clearly seen that a transient voltage oscillation follows the circuit breaker operation. This waveform
is characterised by a beat process with low modulation frequencies, which are determined by the capacitance and
shunt reactance of the disconnected phase(s). A couple of seconds after the switching, the temporary oscillations
are fully dampened and the open-phase voltages converge to the values computed in the steady-state analysis
(Figure 4-17 in section 4.3.1.1).
For each scenario shown in Figure 4-21, the two open-phases condition leads to higher TOVs than the one openphase condition. This is due to the closer proximity of a resonant pole for the selected degree of shunt
compensation (65%), as demonstrated in the steady-state analysis of Figure 4-17. The inverted delta configuration
resulted in the most severe TOV. The highest voltage obtained in the simulations was 3.2 pu, corresponding to the
two open-phases scenario. This, again, is due to the closest proximity to a resonant pole as shown in Figure 4-17
and reinforces the need for an ample safety margin in order to minimize stress on equipment insulation.
Page 64
-1
-1
-2
-2
-3
0.0
0.3
0.6
0.9
1.2
1.5
-3
0.0
-1
-1
-2
-2
-3
0.0
0.3
0.6
0.9
1.2
1.5
-3
0.0
-1
-1
-2
-2
0.3
0.6
0.9
1.2
1.5
-3
0.0
-1
-1
-2
-2
-3
0.3
0.3
(file 2PH_DELTA.pl4; x-var t) v:SEND_A
(file 1PH_DELTA.pl4; x-var t) v:SEND_A
0.0
0.3
0.6
0.6
0.9
(file 1PH_INVERTED_DELTA.pl4; x-var t) v:SEND_A
1.2
1.5
-3
0.0
0.3
0.9
1.2
1.5
0.9
1.2
1.5
0.9
1.2
1.5
0.9
1.2
1.5
v:SEND_B
0.6
(file 2PH_VERTICAL.pl4; x-var t) v:SEND_A
(file 1PH_VERTICAL.pl4; x-var t) v:SEND_A
-3
0.0
0.3
(file 2PH_FLAT.pl4; x-var t) v:SEND_A
(file 1PH_FLAT.pl4; x-var t) v:SEND_A
v:SEND_B
0.6
v:SEND_B
0.6
(file 2PH_INVERTED_DELTA.pl4; x-var t) v:SEND_A
v:SEND_B
Figure 4-21 Temporary Open-Phase Voltages in Transmission Lines with 65% Shunt Compensation. Effect of Tower
Construction.
4.3.2.2 Effect of Line Transposition

As illustrated in the steady-state analysis of section 4.3.1.2, the main consequence of an incomplete line
transposition is that each phase behaves differently due to asymmetries in the inter-phase and phase-to-ground
capacitances. The temporary voltage oscillations arising from uneven switching operations are illustrated in this
section. For the purposes of this analysis, a flat line configuration has been selected because it leads to the highest
degree of asymmetry. A 75% shunt compensation degree has been used, which provides a very low margin to
Page 65

resonance in the two open-phases condition. The shunt reactors have been assumed to be linear and the neutral is
directly grounded.
The simulation results for the two open-phases scenario are shown in Figure 4-22. The voltage waveforms
obtained with a fully transposed line configuration are also shown for comparison. The simulations started from a
steady-state solution with the circuit breaker closed and the line energized at 1 pu voltage. After 5 power frequency
cycles, two circuit breaker poles were opened to simulate the unbalanced operation. Each possible combination of
disconnected phases was simulated. It can be seen that, for the untransposed line case, the amplitude and
frequency of temporary voltage oscillations depends on the relative position of the disconnected phases. When
disconnecting the central phase and one of the external phases, Figure 4-22 (a) shows that the untransposed
configuration leads to higher TOVs than the fully transposed case. This is due to the closer proximity to a resonant
pole: 79.8% in the untransposed configuration vs. 82.2% in the fully transposed case. On the other hand, the
disconnection of the two external phases results in higher TOVs for the fully transposed case, as shown in Figure
4-22 (b). This again, is due to the closer proximity to a resonant pole: 87.23% in the untransposed configuration vs.
82.2% in the fully transposed case.
4
-1
-1
-2
-2
-3
-3
-4
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
-4
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
AC_UNTRANSPOSED.pl4: v :SEND_A
Figure 4-22 Temporary Open-Phase Voltages in Transmission Lines with 75% Shunt Compensation. Effect of Line
Transposition
4.3.2.3 Effect of Neutral Reactors

It is discussed in section 4.2.3.2 that the resonant circuit formed during uneven switching operations can be
detuned by the introduction of an adequate neutral reactor. The influence of this reactor on resonant TOVs is
evaluated in this section. In this example, the size of the neutral reactor has been calculated according to Eq. 4-13.
For the purposes of this illustrative analysis, a fully transposed flat line construction as described in section 4.2.2.3
and 80% shunt compensation degree have been selected. This is just below a resonant peak for the two openphases condition with a directly grounded neutral connection, as shown in Figure 4-6 (section 4.2.2.3).
The simulation results are shown in Figure 4-23. The results obtained with a directly grounded neutral have also
been included in the graphs for comparison. The simulations started from a steady-state condition with the circuit
breaker closed and the line energized at a voltage of 1 pu. After 5 power frequency cycles, one or two circuit
breaker poles were opened to simulate an unbalanced open-phase operation. The phase-to-ground voltage at the
line sending end was recorded and it is plotted in Figure 4-23. It can be seen that the presence of a neutral reactor
greatly reduces the amplitude of voltages induced on the open phase(s). When the neutral reactor, as calculated
from Eq. 4-13, is inserted in the circuit the open-phase voltages quickly decay in an oscillatory manner with a
dominant frequency of 50 Hz and a low frequency modulation of 6 Hz. A final steady-state of 0.08 pu is reached
within 1 second. If the neutral is directly grounded, the amplitude of the low frequency oscillations is considerably
higher, reaching a theoretical value of nearly 5 pu for the two open-phases scenario.
Warning: this example is presented for illustrative purposes only in order to assess the impact of installing a neutral
reactor. In practice, corona losses, saturation of magnetic cores and/or surge arrester operation will limit the
Page 66

induced open-phase voltage well below the waveform presented in Figure 4-23 (b) for the solid neutral grounding
case. All these voltage limiting elements should be considered when studying the performance of a specific shuntcompensated transmission line.
2.500
5.00
1.875
3.75
1.250
2.50
0.625
1.25
0.000
0.00
-0.625
-1.25
-1.250
-2.50
-1.875
-3.75
-2.500
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
-5.00
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Figure 4-23 Temporary Open-Phase Voltages in Transmission Lines with 80% Shunt Compensation. Effect of
Neutral Reactor
4.3.2.4 Effect of Reactor Saturation

The steady-state analysis discussed in section 4.3.1.3 has illustrated that the effect of reactors saturation is to limit
the open-phase voltages to a value close to the knee-point. A switching condition has been introduced in this
section to investigate the effects of saturation on the amplitude and duration of TOVs.
The simulation results corresponding to one open-phase condition in a fully transposed flat line configuration are
shown in Figure 4-24. Other line configurations follow the same trend and are not included for clarity. This graph
shows the highest voltage recorded during the simulation (max TOV) as well as the voltage decay reached after 5
seconds (TOV decayed after 5 seconds). The results of a steady-state analysis, without a switching transient, are
also included for comparison. It can be seen that the maximum TOVs arising from the switching operation are
significantly higher than their corresponding steady-state voltages for the entire range of shunt compensation
degrees. The TOV decayed after 5 seconds matches the steady-state solution in most cases, except for a range
between 57.4% and 84.3% shunt compensation degrees. The high TOVs observed in this range are caused by
ferroresonance, which can be explained with the use of Figure 4-25. In this figure, k1 represents a compensation
degree where the reactor normally operates in a linear mode in point-1 (i.e. between 57.4% and 84.3%). A second
stable point with high voltage and current (point 3) is also possible, and it can be reached as a result of a switching
transient. For higher degrees of shunt compensation, k2 and k3 above 84.3%, there is no possible operating point in
the linear region and the only stable solution resides in the saturated region. This is a stable ferroresonant state
with high current and voltage. It can also be observed that the ferroresonant voltage drops as the degree of shunt
compensation is increased. For a more detailed explanation of ferroresonance, please refer to section 2.2.
An example of a voltage waveform for a shunt reactor driven into ferroresonance is shown in Figure 4-26. This
figure compares the simulation of a single-phase trip for two degrees of shunt compensation: 56% and 60%. A
saturation knee point of 1.25pu has been assumed in this example. Similar results can be obtained with higher
knee points. The graphs on the left (i and iii) show steady-state simulations without a switching operation (i.e.
phase-A open in steady-state). For the graphs on the right (ii and iv), the simulations started from a steady-state
condition with the circuit breaker closed and the line energized at a voltage of 1 pu, followed by a trip of phase-A at
t = 0.1 s. Figure 4-26 (ii) shows that, for the 56% shunt compensation degree, the open-phase voltage reaches
1.75 pu just after the trip. This open-phase voltage decays in an oscillatory manner to reach the no-trip steadystate solution of 0.27 pu (i.e. stable point 1) in approximately 2 seconds. On the other hand, Figure 4-26 (vi) shows
the equivalent results for a shunt compensation degree of 60%. In this case, the open-phase voltage after the trip
reaches 2.7 pu and decays to reach a new steady-state of 2.05 pu (stable point 3), significantly higher than the no-
Page 67

trip steady state of 0.3 pu (stable point 1). The switching transient causes the operating point to jump from the
linear region (point 1) and lock into a saturated state (point 3), which represents a ferroresonant condition.
3.5
V [pu]
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
k
0
40%
45%
50%
55%
60%
65%
70%
75%
80%
85%
90%
95%
100%
Figure 4-24 One Open-Phase Voltage in Fully Transposed Line as function of shunt compensation degree.
Saturated reactors model (1.25pu saturation knee). Effect of switching transient
Figure 4-25 Illustration of ferroresonance associated with increased shunt compensation degree
Page 68

2.0
2.0
[pu]
[pu]
1.5
1.5
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.0
0.0
-0.5
-0.5
-1.0
-1.0
-1.5
-1.5
-2.0
-2.0
0
[s]
(f ile steady _state_56%. pl4; x-v ar t) v :SEND_A
(i) Steady-state simulation 56% Shunt Compensation

3
3
[pu]
-1
-1
-2
-2
-3
1
[s]
(ii) 1ph trip simulation 56% Shunt Compensation
[pu]
(f ile special_cases_56%.pl4; x-v ar t) v :SEND_A
(f ile steady _state_60%. pl4; x-v ar t) v :SEND_A
[s]
-3
0
[s]
(f ile special_cases_60%.pl4; x-v ar t) v :SEND_A
(iii) Steady-state simulation 60% Shunt Compensation
(iv) 1ph trip simulation 60% Shunt Compensation
Figure 4-26 Simulation Waveforms of one open-phase overvoltages for 56% and 60% shunt compensation
degrees. Reactor saturation included (1.25pu knee-point)
Page 69
4.3.3 Summary of Para meters Affecting Line Resonance in Open- Phase Conditions
Design Parameter
Network strength
(MVA Short Circuit power)
Tower Design
Impact on
Resonance
No
Marginal
Comment
The resonant circuit is disconnected from the main
network, only linked by capacitive coupling.
The tower design affects the circuit capacitances. But
the effect is not significant for practical line designs. It
may have higher impact in compact line designs.
High
The level of unbalanced circuit capacitance can be

significant in long circuits, presenting different resonant
points for each phase.
High
Magnetic saturation of shunt reactors will affect the

amplitude of resonant overvoltages. However, it will not
affect the size of reactors causing resonance.
Ferroresonance is also possible.
Medium/High
The saturation knee point will affect the amplitude of

resonant overvoltages. However, it will not affect the
size of reactors causing resonance. The effect is not
very significant for the practical range typically used in
industry.
Reactor core construction

(X0/X+ )
High
Magnetic coupling between phases has a large impact

on the location of resonant peaks.
Installation of Neutral Reactor
High
The installation of a neutral reactor can detune the

resonant circuit.
Installation of Neutral Resistor
High
The installation of a neutral resistor can add damping to

the resonant circuit.
Installation of cable sections
High
The installation of an underground cable section in a

mixed circuit can effectively detune the resonant circuit.
Resonance moves towards higher levels of shunt
compensation degrees.
Size of shunt reactors (i. e. %

shunt compensation degree)
High
This is the most critical parameter determining the

occurrence of resonance.
Circuit
asymmetries/transposition
Magnetic saturation of reactor

core
Reactor core saturation knee

point
Circuit Breaker Grading

Capacitors
No
No impact because circuit breaker grading capacitors

are too small compared with the circuit capacitance.
Flows on energized phases
No
The impact of inductive coupling on resonance is

negligible compared to the capacitive coupling.
Page 70
4.4 Line Resonance in Multiple-Circuit Rights of Way

4.4.1 Physical description
De-energized shunt compensated transmission lines can form resonant circuits for a definite number of shunt
compensation degrees. Under resonance conditions, severe overvoltages can develop across the shunt reactors,
caused by capacitive coupling from nearby energized circuits. This network topology is illustrated in Figure 4-27.
Unlike the phenomena described in section 4.2 (Line Resonance in Uneven Open-Phase Conditions), where only
one or two phases are de-energized, this section deals with a full three-phase de-energization of the circuit under
study. It can be demonstrated that, for a fully transposed circuit, there are four degrees of shunt compensation that
can result in resonance affecting the de-energized circuit ([81], [82]). Two of those resonant peaks can be excited
under normal operating conditions in the energized circuit or during fault conditions on either circuit. The other two
resonant peaks can only be excited during faults on the de-energized circuit. Table 4-2 summarises the location of
the resonant peaks as a function of the degree of shunt compensation. A discussion of each resonant peak follows
in the next sub-sections.
It should be noted that up to nineteen resonant peaks can be observed in untransposed double circuits.
Approximate equations to derive them can be found in [81]. In practical terms, some of the resonant peaks are very
close to each other or even overlap. For simplicity, this document will assume fully transposed circuits. A detailed
EMT analysis is recommended in cases where significant circuit asymmetries are expected and degrees of shunt
compensation are close to those described in Table 4-2.
Similarly, it emphasized that the expressions included in Table 4-2 are approximations derived from electrostatic
equations ([78] - [82]) and should only be used to obtain an initial estimation of the dangerous ranges of shunt
compensation degrees for a particular circuit design. A detailed EMT analysis is recommended to assess the
prospective overvoltages on the de-energized circuit and to evaluate mitigation options.
Closed
CB
Closed
CB
Energized Circuit
Mutual
Capacitive
Coupling
De-Energized Circuit
Open
CB
L+
L0
C+
C0
Open
CB
Figure 4-27 Shunt-compensated double circuit line for analysis of resonance

It can be observed from Table 4-2 that the location of the resonant points in a transposed circuit are only
determined by the parameters of the de-energized circuit; namely the C0/C+ ratio of the de-energized circuit and the
X0/X+ ratio of the shunt reactor connected to the de-energized circuit. The amplitude of the resonant voltages is
determined by the exciting circuit i.e. capacitive coupling (mainly zero sequence) with parallel energized circuit
and the zero sequence equivalent voltage source due to the flow of zero sequence current in the energized circuit.
Page 71

Table 4-2 Approximate location of resonant peaks in a de-energized transposed transmission circuit
Resonant
Peak
#1
k [%]
Fault on de-energized
circuit
SLG
LLG
LL
LLL
N h 100
#2
1 2 N
3
#3
2 N
3
#4
No fault
Any fault
on
energized
circuit
3 h
100
2 h
3 h
1 2 h
100
100
where:
k is the degree of shunt compensation of the de-energized circuit, as defined in Eq. 4-1.
N
C0
C
X0
X
; with C0 and C+ are the zero and positive sequence capacitances of the de-energized circuit.
L0
with X0 (L0) and X+ (L+) are the equivalent zero and positive sequence reactance (inductance)
L
of the shunt reactor(s) connected to the de-energized circuit.
4.4.1.1 First Resonant Point

The degree of shunt compensation resulting in the first resonant peak, k1, in a fully transposed circuit is given in Eq.
4-16. This resonant point can be excited during any fault on the energized circuit, no fault condition, or during any
of the following faults on the de-energized circuit: ungrounded line-to-line or three-phase.
k1
N h 100
Eq. 4-16
This is a zero-sequence parallel resonant condition with the zero-sequence capacitance of the de-energized circuit
matching the zero-sequence inductance of the shunt reactor (see Figure 4-28). The excitation is provided by zero
sequence current coupled into the de-energized circuit via the mutual capacitive coupling with the parallel
energized circuit. In practical terms, the zero sequence voltage in the energized circuit during normal operating
conditions (i.e. no fault) is close to zero and, therefore, the amplitude of the coupled voltages on the de-energized
circuit are not dangerous (see blue dotted line in Figure 4-34-(i) for an example). However, single-line-to-ground
faults on the energized circuit can produce very high zero sequence voltage (close to the positive sequence
voltage) which will excite the parallel resonant circuit. This was demonstrated in Section 2.1.3 for the equivalent
series-parallel resonant circuit where the series capacitance CS is relatively small to provide a high source
impedance. A single-line-to-ground fault on the energized circuit is the most onerous condition, with very high
voltages coupled onto the de-enegized circuit for the duration of the fault (see red continuous line in Figure 4-34-(i)
for an example). Other faults produce lower levels of unbalance, resulting in lower resonant voltages, although they
can still be high enough to damage equipment (see red continuous lines in Figure 4-34-(ii and iii)).
Page 72

Us
Cph-ph
Us
Cph-ph
Cph-ph
Us
Us
L
Cm
L
C0
C0
C0
Cm
C0
L0
Cph-ph
Equivalent parallel
resonant circuit #1
Cph-ph
L0
L0
Cph-ph
L0
C0
C0
C0
Figure 4-28 Equivalent circuit describing resonant point #1
4.4.1.2 Second Resona nt Point

The degree of shunt compensation resulting in the second resonant peak, k2, in a fully transposed circuit is given in
Eq. 4-17. This resonant point can be excited only during single-line-to-ground faults on the de-energized circuit.
k2
2 N
3
3 h
2 h
100
Eq. 4-17
This is a zero-sequence parallel resonant condition. The shunt-reactor size determining this resonant condition is
the same as for the two-open-phase condition described in section 4.2 (see Figure 4-29). The excitation is
provided by zero sequence current flowing through the fault on the de-energized circuit, which is sustained via zero
sequence capacitive coupling with the parallel energized circuit. The amplitude of the resonant voltages across the
healthy phases on the de-energized circuit can be very high (see red line in Figure 4-34-(iv) for an example).
Us
C ph-ph
Us
Cph-ph
Cph-ph
Us
Us
L
L
C0
C0
Cm
C0
Cm
L0
C0
C ph-ph
C ph-ph
Equivalent parallel resonant circuit #2

C ph-ph
L0
L0
L0
C ph-ph
C0
C0
C0
Page 73
4.4.1.3 Third Resonant Point

The degree of shunt compensation resulting in the third resonant peak, k3, in a fully transposed circuit is given in
Eq. 4-18. This resonant point can be excited only during line-line-ground faults on the de-energized circuit.
k3
2
3
3 h
1 2 h
100
Eq. 4-18
This is a zero-sequence parallel resonant condition. The shunt-reactor size determining this resonant condition is
the same as for the one-open-phase condition described in section 4.2 (see Figure 4-30). The excitation is
provided by zero sequence current flowing through the fault on the de-energized circuit, which is sustained via
capacitive coupling with the parallel energized circuit. The amplitude of the resonant voltages across the healthy
phases on the de-energized circuit can be very high (see red line in Figure 4-34-(v) for an example).
4.4.1.4 Fourth Resonant Point

The degree of shunt compensation resulting in the fourth resonant peak, k4, in a fully transposed circuit is given in
Eq. 4-19. This resonant point can be excited during any fault on the energized circuit, no fault condition, or during
any of the following faults on the de-energized circuit: single-line-to-ground or ungrounded line-to-line.
k4
100
Eq. 4-19
This is a positive-sequence parallel resonant condition with the positive-sequence capacitance of the de-energized
circuit matching the positive-sequence inductance of the shunt reactor (see Figure 4-31). The excitation is provided
by positive sequence current coupled into the de-energized circuit via the mutual capacitive coupling with the
parallel energized circuit. In practical terms, the positive sequence voltage in the energized circuit is not affected to
a great extent by the operating condition, therefore the resonant overvoltages imposed on the de-energized circuit
are very similar in all cases (see Figure 4-34 (i) to (vi) for an example). This can be a very onerous configuration,
with typical steady state voltages exceeding equipment ratings. Shunt compensation degrees close to 100% should
be avoided by design when positive sequence excitation is available from nearby circuits.
Page 74
4.4.2 Discussion on Circuit Para meters

It has been illustrated in Section 4.4.1 that the only parameters affecting the location of the resonant points are
associated with the geometry of the de-energized circuit, while the parallel energized circuit provides the excitation
to sustain the resonant condition. In particular, the main factors determining the formation of a resonant circuit are
the C0/C+ ratio of the de-energized circuit and the X0/X+ ratio of the shunt reactor connected to the de-energized
circuit.
Typically (C0/C+) varies within a very narrow range for typical constructions. For overhead transmission lines,
(C0/C+) is normally in the range of 0.5 0.7, whereas underground cable circuits have a (C0/C+) ratio of 1. Mixed
overhead/underground circuits have (C0/C+) ratios lying between these two ranges. Furthermore, the (X0/X+) ratio of
the shunt reactors is dependent on the core construction. Typically, the following ranges can be assumed for solid
grounded neutral arrangements [82]:
Three-phase shell type, four or five legged core, single-phase units or air core reactors: (X0/X+)=1
Three-phase three legged core: (X0/X+) = 0.5 to 0.7
The installation of neutral reactors increases the above ratios as X0 = X0 + 3. XN
To illustrate the effect of each parameter, the equations presented in Table 4-2 have been plotted as a function of
the (C0/C+) or the (X0/X+) ratios for typical ranges see Figure 4-32. The following can be observed:
1. Low values of (C0/C+) or (X0/X+) result in resonant peaks that are quite distant apart. This is the case for typical
overhead line constructions and three-legged core shunt reactors. These configurations require special
attention to guarantee operation in a safe mode.
2. High values of (C0/C+) result in resonant peaks at higher levels of shunt compensation degrees and reduces
the distance between the peaks. This is the case for typical mixed overhead line / underground cable
constructions. Special attention needs to be paid in these cases as the cable section normally drives the need
for high degrees of shunt compensation, close to 100%.
Page 75

3. High values of shunt reactor (X0/X+) ratio shift resonance to degrees of compensation above 100% (i.e.
overcompensation). This can be achieved with the introduction of neutral reactors.
Shunt Compensation Degree [%]
Shunt Compensation Degree [%]
100.0
90.0
80.0
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
120.0
100.0
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
Czero / Cpos
Resonant peak 1
Resonant peak 2
Resonant peak 3
2.2
Xzero / Xpos
resonant peak 4
Resonant peak 1
Resonant peak 2
Resonant peak 3
resonant peak 4
Figure 4-32 Location of resonant points in a transposed transmission circuit as a function of X and C
4.4.3 Case Study

4.4.3.1 System Description
A practical example of parallel resonance in a 765 kV system is presented in this section. The system data is
shown in Figure 4-33 [77]. It consists of two 765 kV transmission lines, flat construction, coupled along 193.1 km.
One circuit (cct #2) is opened at both ends and shunt compensated at the receiving end only. Shunt-compensation
on the energized circuit is not relevant for this analysis. Both circuits are fully transposed. The shunt reactors have
(X0/X+) = 1 and the neutral point is solidly grounded. The power system frequency is 60 Hz.
20
765kV
~
SENDING
Closed
193.1km
Circuit #1
Closed
Open
193.1km
Circuit #2
Open
765kV
15.24
A1
15.24
B1
C1
Phase conductors: 4x1.385in
RECEIVING
20.4
15.24
15.24
15.24
A2
B2
at 18in spacing
C2
21.0
dc Resistance = 0.085 /mile
Shunt reactor
All dimensions are in metres
Figure 4-33 One-Line Diagram and Double Circuit Geometry

The analysis will seek to answer the following practical questions:
1. What sizes of shunt reactors will lead to resonance on the de-energized circuit?
2. What is the amplitude of the induced voltages at any operating condition?
3. How sensitive are the location of the resonant points to circuit or system design parameters?
Page 76
4.4.3.2 Comparative Analysis of Solution Methods

The shunt-reactor values leading to resonance in the de-energized circuit have been calculated with two
independent methods: (i) electrostatic approximate equations included in Table 4-2 and (ii) a detailed EMT model.
The inputs for the electrostatic analysis are:
C0 = 1.75 F ; C+ = 2.54 F, calculated with a standard power frequency line constant tool for the circuit
geometry shown in Figure 4-33. N = C0 / C+ = 0.69
The shunt reactor is a three-phase shell-type unit. Typically X0 = X+ can be assumed for this reactor core
type, therefore h = X0/X+= 1.
For the EMT analysis, the following was assumed:
Both transmission circuits were modelled using Bergeron model (i.e. distributed line parameter at power
frequency).
One full line transposition was assumed. For that purpose, the circuits were modelled as three untransposed line sections (64.36 km each) and the phase transposition was carried out explicitly at the
connection nodes between each section.
A linear representation was adopted for the shunt reactors for simplicity.
Circuit breakers in circuit #1 were represented in a closed position.
Circuit breakers in circuit #2 were represented in an open position.
Steady-state simulations, without any switching, were carried out by changing the size of the shuntreactors. Line-to-ground voltage at the terminal of the shunt reactors was monitored as a function of the
reactor size.
Table 4-3 shows the location of the resonant peaks calculated with each method. It can be seen that both sets of
results compare very well, confirming that the electrostatic approximate method is robust enough for an initial risk
assessment of resonance (i.e. identifying the size of shunt reactors leading to resonance). If a problem is
suspected, detailed EMT simulations are recommended to determine the severity of the problem and to investigate
mitigation options. In this example, the amplitude of induced voltages on the de-energized circuit were calculated
using the EMT model described above. These voltages were plotted against shunt reactor Mvar (positive
sequence) to identify trends, as shown in Figure 4-34. The following can be observed from this steady-state
analysis:
1. The de-energized circuit (cct #2) exhibits two resonant points in a steady-state normal condition, without any
circuit faults. The first peak, close to a compensation degree of 70%, leads to voltages well below 1 pu. The
3
second resonant peak, at 100% shunt compensation degree, leads to voltages of up to 8 pu . In particular,
shunt compensation degrees in the range from 98% to 104% lead to induced voltages in excess of 1 pu on the
de-energized circuit (cct #2).
2. Faults on the energized parallel circuit (cct #1) do not affect the location of the resonant points; however the
amplitude of the induced voltages on the de-energized circuit (cct #2) increases significantly with respect to the
no fault condition. See Figure 4-34 (i), (ii) and (iii).
3. Faults on the de-energized circuit (#2) affect the amplitude and location of the resonant peaks with respect to
the no fault condition. See Figure 4-34 (iv), (v) and (vi).
4. The most onerous case arises from a single-line-to ground fault on the energized circuit (cct #1) see Figure
3
4-34 (i). This condition results in induced voltages of up to 21 pu at the resonant point. For this fault scenario,
steady-state voltages on the de-energized circuit (cct #2) exceed 1 pu for a range of shunt compensation
degrees from 61% to 77% and from 98% to 104%.
Note that shunt reactor saturation has been ignored in this example for simplicity. In reality, saturation will typically limit the
voltage to a value close to the knee point (i.e. in the order of 1.5pu)
Page 77

Table 4-3 Calculated location of Resonant Peaks
EMT Simulations
Resonant
Peak
Approximate
Electrostatic
Method
No fault
#1
68.2%
(386 Mvar)
69.5%
(390 Mvar)
Fault on
Energized
Circuit
69.5%
(390 Mvar)
#2
79.2%
(444.3 Mvar)
---
#3
89.6%
(502.6 Mvar)
#4
100.0%
(561 Mvar)
LL
LLL
---
---
69.5%
(390 Mvar)
69.5%
(390 Mvar)
---
80.21%
(450 Mvar)
---
---
---
---
---
---
90.02%
(505 Mvar)
---
---
100.7%
(565 Mvar)
100.7%
(565 Mvar)
100.7%
(565 Mvar)
---
100.7%
(565 Mvar)
---
Resonant
Peak #4
Resonant
Peak #1
1pu
100
1000
1pu
100
400
71%
500
89%
600
107%
700
125%
Reactor MVAr (at 765kV)
% Shunt Compensation
200
36%
300
53%
400
71%
500
89%
600
107%
Resonant
Peak #4
Resonant
Peak #1
Resonant
Peak #1
10000
Resonant
Peak #2
RMS Line to Ground Voltage [kV]
SLG Fault on
Circuit #2
1000
1pu
100
200
36%
300
53%
Resonant
Peak #1
Resonant
Peak #4
600
107%
700
125%
LLG Fault on
Circuit #2
1000
1pu
100
100
18%
600
107%
700
125%
Resonant
Peak #4
10000
1000
1pu
100
3PH Fault on
Circuit #2
No Fault
10
500
89%
500
89%
No Fault
10
400
71%
400
71%
(iii)
Resonant
Peak #3
No Fault
300
53%
100
18%
(ii)
10000
200
36%
100
700
125%
(i)
100
18%
1pu
10
100
18%
300
53%
1000
No Fault
10
200
36%
Resonant
Peak #4
Resonant
Peak #1
No Fault
10
100
18%
3PH Fault on
Circuit #1
10000
No Fault
Resonant
Peak #4
Resonant
Peak #1
LL Fault on
Circuit #1
10000
1000
SLG
LLG
SLG Fault on
Circuit #1
10000
Fault on De-Energized Circuit
10
200
36%
300
53%
400
71%
500
89%
600
107%
700
125%
(iv)
(v)
100
18%
200
36%
300
53%
400
71%
500
89%
600
107%
700
125%
(vi)
Figure 4-34 Steady-State Line-Ground Voltages on circuit #2 (assumed both circuit transposed and shunt reactors
with (X 0 /X + ) = 1)
4.4.3.3 Considerations about fault conditions

1. Faults on Energized Circuit (circuit #1)
Page 78

It should be noted that a fault on the energized circuit is not a steady-state situation as, in reality, the protection
relays will trip the faulted circuit in a definite time (either in primary or back-up protection times). Therefore, the line
equipment will not be subjected to the level of stress computed in the steady-state analysis shown in Figure 4-34. A
detailed simulation of a single-line-to-ground fault at the first resonant peak (69.5%) is illustrated in Figure 4-35
below. These EMT simulation results relate to the double circuit topology shown in Figure 4-33.
Figure 4-35 (i) shows the theoretical steady-state solution assuming a permanent fault on the energized
parallel circuit (circuit #1). A steady-state voltage of 21 pu3 is coupled on the de-energized circuit (circuit #2).
Figure 4-35 (ii) shows the simulation of a fault on the energized circuit (cct #1) without a subsequent trip. For
the first 100 ms of simulation, the coupled voltage on circuit #2 is just 0.4 pu, due to the normal operation of
circuit #1. A t = 100 ms, a slg fault is applied to circuit #1. It can be seen that the voltage coupled on the deenergized circuit (cct #2) rises slowly to reach the theoretical steady state value in approximately 3 seconds.
Figure 4-35 (iii) and (iv) show a realistic scenario in which a fault in the energized circuit (cct #1) is followed by
the trip of that circuit. Two tripping times are illustrated: 100ms and 500ms, as typical primary and back-up
times. It can be seen that, due to the tripping of the parallel circuit (cct #1), the induced voltages on the deenergized circuit (cct #2) do not reach the theoretical steady-state value. A primary fault clearance time of
100ms results on a maximum induced voltage of 2.1 pu3. In contrast, fault clearance by back-up protection in
500ms results on a maximum induced voltage of 8.3 pu3. Both maximum values are reached immediately after
the trip of the parallel energized circuit (cct #1) i.e. removal of the exciting source stops the resonant
condition and results in a slow decay of the voltages on the de-energized circuit (cct #2).
It should be noted that the coupled voltage on each of the three phases of circuit #2 is in phase, indicating that this
is a zero-sequence phenomena.
2. Faults on De-Energized Circuit (circuit #2)

Faults on the de-energized circuit (cct #2) can reach steady state in some circumstances. This can happen as a
result of an actual fault (un-intentional) or by closing earth-switches (intentional) while the circuit is out-of-service. In
this case the protection relays will not clear the fault as the circuit breakers are already open, therefore the fault
and resonant condition can remain indefinitely. Detailed simulations of single-line-to-ground faults on circuit #2 at
the second resonant peak (80.21%) are illustrated in Figure 4-36 below.
Figure 4-36 (i) shows the theoretical steady-state solution assuming a permanent SLG fault on the deenergized circuit (circuit #2). A steady-state voltage of 4.4 pu3 is coupled on the other two phases of the deenergized circuit (circuit #2).
Figure 4-36 (ii) shows the simulation of a SLG fault on circuit #2 while being out-of-service. For the first 100 ms
of simulation, the coupled voltage on circuit #2 is just 0.16 pu. A t = 100 ms, a SLG fault is applied to phase-A
of circuit #2. It can be seen that the voltage coupled on the other two phases rises slowly to reach the
theoretical steady state value in approximately 4 seconds. This is a possible scenario and the line equipment
could be subjected to this stress until some remedial action is implemented. This fault could possibly be caused
by the closing of earthing switches in only one phase.
Figure 4-36 (iii) shows the simulation results for the following scenario: both circuit #1 and circuit #2 are initially
in service, a SLG fault occurs on circuit #2 at t = 100 ms and the protection relays trip that circuit in 100 ms. It
can be seen that the voltage coupled on the other two phases of circuit #2 (now de-energized) rises slowly to
reach the theoretical steady state value in approximately 4 seconds. A low frequency oscillation of 6 Hz can
also be observed. This is a possible scenario and the line equipment could be subjected to this stress until
some remedial action is implemented. Furthermore, the high coupled voltages will make extinction of the
secondary arc difficult.
Figure 4-36 (iv) shows a similar scenario to (iii) but in this case autoreclosing is applied to circuit #2. It can be
seen that closing the circuit breakers in circuit #2 (i.e. re-energizing the circuit) returns the voltages to normal.
This scenario assumes that the secondary arc extinguishes successfully during the autoreclosing dead time.
It should be noted that the coupled voltages on circuit #2 are perfectly balanced before the fault occurrence.
However, they move in-phase during the resonant condition caused by the fault, indicating that this is a zerosequence phenomenon.
Page 79

25.00
25.00
[pu]
[pu]
18.75
18.75
12.50
12.50
6.25
6.25
0.00
0.00
-6.25
-6.25
-12.50
-12.50
-18.75
-18.75
-25.00
-25.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
[s]
0.0
3.0
[pu]
[pu]
-3
-3
-6
-6
-9
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
[s]
2.5
[s]
3.0
(f ile no-tripping_resonance_lines_t ranspos ed_s lg_f ault _in_energis ed_c ircuit .pl4; x-v ar t) v :R E_C2B
(f ile s teady -state_resonanc e_lines _transposed_slg_f ault_in_energised_circ uit. pl4; x-v ar t) v :RE_C2B
2.5
[s]
3.0
(f ile t ripping_100ms_resonance_lines_t ranspos ed_s lg_f ault _in_energis ed_c ircuit .pl4; x-v ar t) v :R E_C2B
-9
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
3.0
(f ile t ripping_500ms_resonance_lines_t ranspos ed_s lg_f ault _in_energis ed_c ircuit .pl4; x-v ar t) v :R E_C2B
Figure 4-35 Temporary Overvoltages on de-energized circuit (cct #2) during SLG fault and trip in parallel
energized circuit (cct #1) 390 Mvar shunt reactor / 69.5% shunt compensation
5.00
5.00
[pu]
[pu]
3.75
3.75
2.50
2.50
1.25
1.25
0.00
0.00
-1.25
-1.25
-2.50
-2.50
-3.75
-3.75
-5.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
[s]
4.0
(f ile s teady -state_resonanc e_slg_f ault_in_open_circ uit. pl4; x-v ar t) v : RE_C2B
-5.00
0.0
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
[s]
4.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
[s]
4.0
5.00
5.00
[pu]
[pu]
3.75
3.75
2.50
2.50
1.25
1.25
0.00
0.00
-1.25
-1.25
-2.50
-2.50
-3.75
-3.75
-5.00
0.0
0.5
(f ile resonance_slg_f ault_during_open_circuit. pl4; x-v ar t) v :RE_C2B
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
(f ile resonance_slg_f ault_and_t rip_in_open_circuit. pl4; x-v ar t) v :RE_C2B
3.0
3.5
[s]
4.0
-5.00
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
(f ile resonance_slg_f ault_open-and-rec lose-in_open_circuit. pl4; x-v ar t) v :RE_C2B
Figure 4-36 Temporary Overvoltages on de-energized circuit (cct #2) during SLG fault and trip in circuit #2
450 Mvar shunt reactor / 80.21% shunt compensation
Page 80
4.4.3.4 Effect of reactors zero sequence parameters

The sensitivity of the results to the zero sequence parameters of the shunt reactors is analysed by assuming the
introduction of a neutral reactor. In this example, the ratio between neutral reactor and phase reactors (Xn/X+) is
assumed to be 0.35. This results in h = (X0/X+) = (X+ + 3Xn)/ X+= 2.05. Keeping the other system parameters
unchanged, the resonant points obtained with the electrostatic approximate method and the EMT model are
shown in Table 4-4. It can be seen that both methods of analysis produce very similar results. Detailed line-toground voltages coupled on de-energized circuit #2 were obtained with the EMT model and are illustrated in Figure
4-37.
The following can be observed from this sensitivity analysis:
1.
The introduction of a neutral reactor shifts the zero sequence resonant points (#1, #2 and #3) to higher
degrees of shunt compensation.
2.
The positive sequence resonant point (#4) is not affected by the neutral reactor.
3.
The introduction of a neutral reactor does not affect the amplitude of the resonant over-voltages on the deenergized circuit.
Table 4-4 Calculated Resonant Peaks (Reactor X 0 /X + = 2.05)

EMT Simulations
Approximate
Electrostatic
Method
No fault
#1
141.1%
(791 Mvar)
142.6%
(800 Mvar)
Fault on
Energized
Circuit
142.6%
(800 Mvar)
#2
120.3%
(674.7 Mvar)
---
#3
108.0%
(606.2 Mvar)
#4
100.0%
(561 Mvar)
Resonant
Peak
Fault on De-Energized Circuit

SLG
LLG
LL
LLL
---
---
142.6%
(800 Mvar)
142.6%
(800 Mvar)
---
122.1%
(685 Mvar)
---
---
---
---
---
---
109.6%
(615 Mvar)
---
---
100.7%
(565 Mvar)
100.7%
(565 Mvar)
100.7%
(565 Mvar)
---
100.7%
(565 Mvar)
---
Page 81

PHASE A
100
10
300
500
700
900
1100
300
500
700
900
100
500
700
900
100
1100
300
500
700
900
10
100
300
500
700
900
1100
300
500
700
900
1100
1000
1000
100
10
100
100
R
e
P so
ea n
k an
#2 t
100
1100
1000
1100
10000
1000
900
10
100
10000
700
R
e
P so
ea n
k an
#1 t
1000
10
300
500
10000
R
e
Pe so
ak na
#1 nt
R
e
Pe so
ak na
#1 nt
10
100
300
REACTOR MVAr (at 765kV)
10000
100
R
e
Pe so
ak na
#1 nt
1100
REACTOR M VAr (at 765kV)
100000
1000
100
10
100
REACTOR MVAr (at 765kV)
10000
1000
R
e
P so
ea n
k an
#1 t
100
RMS Line to Ground Voltage [KV]
100
1000
R
e
Pe so
ak na
#1 nt
1000
R
e
Pe so
ak na
#1 nt
10000
10000
10
PHASE C
PHASE B
10000
100
10
100
300
500
700
900
1100
100
300
500
700
900
Figure 4-37 Steady-State Line-Ground Voltages on circuit #2 effect of introduction of neutral reactor
Page 82
1100
4.4.4 Summary and commentary of resonance issues ass ociated with shuntcompensated multiple-circuit rights of way
1. Parallel resonance can occur in a de-energized shunt-compensated transmission circuit for certain degrees
of shunt compensation. Energy is coupled from a nearby energized circuit through capacitive coupling.
2. The location of the resonant peaks is only dependant on the de-energized circuit parameters (i.e. deenergized circuit capacitances and shunt-reactor parameters).
3. The main factor determining the location of the resonant peaks is the ratio between the inter-phase and
phase-to-phase capacitances in the de-energized circuit and the X0/X+ ratio of the shunt reactors.
4. The parameters of the parallel energized circuit affect the amplitude of the resonant voltages on the open
circuit, but not the location of the resonant peaks.
5. Under normal operating conditions, there are three values of shunt-compensation degree leading to
resonance in an un-transposed circuit. Only two values are observed if the circuit is transposed.
6. Under fault conditions, the number of shunt-compensation degrees leading to resonant conditions
increases to nineteen in un-transposed circuits and to four in transposed circuits.
7. Out of four possible resonant conditions in a fully transposed shunt-compensated line, three of them are
zero sequence and one is positive sequence.
8. The positive sequence resonant condition is independent of the energized or de-energized circuit
characteristics. i.e. it always arises at 100% shunt compensation.
9. Single-Line-to-Ground Faults (SLG) on the energized circuit provide the highest excitation for the zerosequence resonant conditions, leading to the highest overvoltages on the de-energized circuit.
10. Short circuit impedance of the feeding energized circuit does not affect the resonant location or amplitude
of resonant overvoltages.
11. The magnetic coupling between phases in the shunt reactors has a large impact on the prospective
resonant points. It shifts the zero-sequence resonant conditions (#1, #2 and #3) towards lower degrees of
shunt compensation. The positive-sequence resonant condition (#4) is not affected.
12. The installation of neutral reactors shifts the zero-sequence resonant conditions (#1, #2 and #3) towards
higher degrees of shunt compensation. The positive-sequence resonant condition (#4) is not affected.
13. The X0/R0 (Q0) and X+/R+ (Q+) quality factors in the shunt reactor affect the amplitude of the resonant
overvoltages, but not the location of the resonant peaks.
14. It is important to assess the magnitude and duration of the resonant overvoltages considering the type of
event (i.e. fault or normal operation) and automatic or manual actions (i.e. operation of protection relays or
network controllers).
15. Although not explicitly covered in this document, the analysis of resonance can be extended to include
transformer terminated lines, with or without shunt compensation. The presence of a delta tertiary winding
reduces the equivalent X0/X+ ratio of the circuit and it can prevent the occurrence of zero-sequence
resonances in some configurations [82].
16. Sensitivity analysis must be carried out taking equipment tolerances and frequency deviations into account.
Uncertain parameters such as soil resistivity, conductor sag, shunt conductance and zero-sequence
damping must be carefully analysed. Furthermore, electromagnetic effects due to line loading also need to
be included as they can cause small shifts in the resonant peaks. Reactor saturation will limit the amplitude
of resonant overvoltages to values close to the saturation knee point. A very good example where some of
these factors have been included in the studies of a real system expansion is reported in [83].
Page 83
4.5 Practical Consequences of Line Resonance

The analysis described in this Chapter has illustrated the severity of prospective overvoltages arising from resonant
conditions in shunt-compensated circuits. Losses have been ignored for simplicity, leading to a conservative, worstcase scenario, of the expected overvoltages appearing on the line. In practice, the measured overvoltages tend to
be lower than calculated due to the presence of higher than predicted damping in real systems. This approach
adds certain safety margins to the designs and it is generally accepted as good engineering practice.
The main area of concern when dealing with shunt compensation and possible resonant conditions is related to
excessive over-voltages and over-currents in the affected circuit, stressing insulation and causing damage to circuit
equipment such as shunt reactors, surge arresters, instrument transformers and circuit breakers. This condition
represents a threat to the integrity of the line equipment, but also a safety hazard to staff working in the vicinity of
this equipment. The availability and reliability of the circuit is also compromised. Examples of surge arresters and
shunt reactor failures attributed to parallel resonant conditions have been reported in [82].
The capability of the line equipment to withstand the prospective resonant overvoltages is dependent on the
amplitude and duration of those overvoltages. Equipment withstand capabilities are outside the scope of this
Technical Brochure and the reader is recommended to consult with the manufacturer or to check the relevant
standards defining the required capabilities of each apparatus.
Typical events resulting in short-duration stress to equipment include SPAR and circuit breaker failure (assuming
that breaker failure protection is in place) in single circuits or faults in double circuits while one of them is out-ofservice. In contrast, the normal operation of a circuit running parallel to a second circuit which has been removed
from service (for instance, to carry-out maintenance) can result in long-term stress to the out-of-service circuit
equipment.
Even in cases where the expected induced voltages during resonant or near-resonant conditions do not represent
a threat to the equipment insulation, they need to be taken into account while planning maintenance outages in
order to guarantee the safety of personnel. Attempting to use a ground stick or portable earth could result in arcs
as the line is approached by the operator. Moreover, earthing switches must be rated adequately to interrupt the
large shorting currents arising from the induced voltages.
The saturation of shunt reactors can be an issue. Despite the detuning effect caused by the reduced saturated
reactance, prolonged operation in this region is undesirable. As saturation becomes more pronounced, heating
becomes a problem. In addition, core vibrations at higher than normal flux densities is particularly undesirable for
gapped reactors. The harmonic distortion introduced during saturation is another issue to consider. Damage to
several EHV shunt reactors due to resonance has reported in several publications ([80]-[82]).
Zero sequence current flows can also damage the reactors even when voltages are below the rated values. It has
been reported in [81] that reactor zero-sequence currents for three-legged, core form reactors can be in excess of
their rating even for low lengths of coupling with parallel circuits i.e. less than 10% of its length. Special attention
must be paid for adequate zero sequence current rating specification.
Line resonance can also affect the performance of SPAR by increasing the recovery voltage and compromising
secondary arc extinction. Secondary arc current and recovery voltage need to be investigated in conjunction with
line resonance in applications where SPAR or high-speed autoreclosing needs to be deployed.
Longitudinal stress in circuit breakers (i.e. across open poles) must be assessed to ensure that there will be no
internal flashovers due to excessive recovery voltage or steady-state stress in the circuit breakers. This stress
builds-up slowly during resonant conditions.
Page 84
4.6 Mitigation Options

A list of possible actions to mitigate power frequency resonance in shunt compensated transmission circuits is
presented in Table 4-5. This list is not exhaustive and it deals only with the most generic topological problems. It is
possible that other customised solutions may be more effective in specific situations. The reader is advised to
carry-out detailed studies to understand the nature of the resonant circuit, so that the most cost effective solution
can be applied taking into account not only resonance but also other design and operational constraints like system
stability, voltage rise, line loadings, protection performance, operation and maintenance procedures, etc. An
iterative approach is normally required to capture all technical constraints. In this assessment, the events leading to
resonant conditions need to be evaluated in the context of probability of occurrence and impact on system safety
and reliability. A HILP (High Impact Low Probability) assessment is recommended in order to avoid overdesigning mitigating solutions.
The mitigation options proposed in Table 4-5 are classified into two main groups:
a)
Passive Methods: to prevent the occurrence of network conditions likely to result in resonance.
b)
Active Methods: to detect the conditions that could lead to resonant overvoltages and introduce actions
(manual or automatic) to minimise the stress on equipment.
Furthermore, the type of resonant condition addressed by each mitigation solution is described as:
Type 1: Unbalanced phase switching in shunt-compensated line in a single circuit construction or in a
multiple circuit corridor.
Type 2: Planned long-term disconnection of a shunt-compensated line in a multiple circuit corridor (for
example to carry-out maintenance)
Type 3: Unplanned short-term disconnection of a line in a multiple circuit corridor (for example to clear a
fault followed by automatic reclosing)
Type 4: Unplanned long-term disconnection of a shunt-compensated line in a multiple circuit corridor (for
example due to a permanent fault)
Table 4-5 Mitigation Options for Resonance in Shunt Compensated Circuits
Passive
Mitigation Option
Comment
Install Neutral Resistors to damp zerosequence resonances
The required amount of shunt compensation

can be split between the line and the station
(busbar or transformer tertiary winding) to
limit the amount of compensation attached to
a de-energized circuit.
The installation of Neutral Reactors must be
co-ordinated with the performance of SPAR
schemes. Adequate insulation levels must be
specified for phase and neutral reactors.
There is a requirement to adequately specify
the energy duty of surge arresters across the
phase and neutral reactors.
Adequate insulation levels must be specified
for phase reactors and neutral resistors.
Unground neutral point of shunt reactors
Adequate insulation levels must be specified

for phase reactors. There is a requirement to
Avoid shunt compensation degrees leading

to resonance or near-resonance
Install Neutral Reactors to detune zerosequence resonances
Page 85
Type of
Resonance
1, 2, 3, 4
1, 2, 3, 4
1, 2, 3, 4
1, 2, 3, 4
Select the type of Shunt Reactors

depending on magnetic coupling between
phases
Phase/circuit transposition
Design the circuit geometry to modify its

C0/C+ ratio
Avoid the use of single-phase switching
adequately specify the energy duty of surge

arresters across the phase reactors.
Three legged core type reactors have strong
magnetic coupling which shifts zero
sequence resonances to lower degrees of
shunt compensation. Single phase, 3-phase
shell-type or 3-phase 4/5 legged core
reactors will shift zero sequence resonances
to lower degrees of shunt compensation.
Certain phase transposition schemes can
help reducing resonant overvoltages. It is
reported in [77] that transposing the
energized circuit only (not the de-energized
one) can reduce the resonant voltages by a
factor of approximately 80.
C0/C+ of the shunt compensated circuit is the
most critical parameter affecting resonance
for a defined size of shunt reactor.
This measure will mitigate resonance
associated with SPAR, however it does not
prevent resonance arising from circuit
breaker misoperation or stuck poles.
1, 2, 3, 4
1, 2, 3, 4
1, 2, 3, 4
Active
Mitigation Option
Install grounding switches to by-pass shunt

reactors when the line is de-energized
Install circuit breakers to disconnect the

shunt reactors when the line is deenergized
Comment
Operational procedures can specify that
grounding switches (3-ph) must be closed
immediately after line de-energization to deal
with Type-2 resonance.
Special Protection Schemes can be
implemented to trip the line and automatically
close the grounding switches if a permanent
fault or failure to reclose is detected. A timed
overvoltage relay can trigger this remedial
action. This mitigation option deals with
Type-4 resonance.
Have to consider the transients imposed on
the reactor when the switch across it is
opened
Operational procedures can specify that the
line shunt reactors must be disconnected
before or immediately after line deenergization to deal with Type-2 resonance.
disconnect the shunt-reactors if a permanent
fault or failure to reclose is detected. A timed
overvoltage relay can trigger this remedial
action. This mitigation option deals with
Type-4 resonance.
Page 86
Type of
Resonance
2, 4
2, 4
Install Shunt Reactors with tapped

windings and on-load tap changers
Install circuit breaker failure and pole

discrepancy protection schemes.
Operational procedures can specify that the

line shunt reactors must be tapped before or
immediately after line de-energization to deal
with Type-2 resonance.
tap the shunt-reactors if a permanent fault or
failure to reclose is detected. This action
deals with Type-4 resonance.
The objective is to quickly disconnect the
remaining energized phases in the same
circuit in order to remove the excitation in the
resonant circuit. Timing must be co-ordinated
between SPAR dead-time and TOV
withstand of line apparatus.
The CB failure protection will guarantee that
the
energized
phase(s)/circuit
is
disconnected in a timely manner i.e.
removing the excitation to the resonant
circuit.
2, 4
1, 3
Install Special Protection Scheme to

disconnect the selected phase reactor(s)
upon detection of an uneven phase
operation.
It requires installation of a circuit breaker with

independent phase operation on the shunt
reactors.
Install Special Protection Scheme to close

the selected phase grounding switch(es) in
parallel with phase reactor(s) upon
detection of an uneven phase operation.
The objective is to by-pass the phase reactor

in the open phase(s), therefore removing the
resonant circuit.
Fast fault clearance
This measure deals with temporary

overvoltages coupled to a de-energized
circuit during a fault on a parallel energized
circuit. Due to the large time constant
associated with the resonant circuit, a fast
fault clearance (i.e. removal of the excitation)
will prevent excessive coupled voltage to
develop. An additional benefit is a limitation
of the duration of the resonant condition.
Page 87
CHAPTER 5
NETWORK CONFIGURATIONS LEADING TO FERRORESONANCE
Field experience and extensive research have shown that for an electrical circuit to exhibit ferroresonance the
following elements are needed [12]:
Nonlinear inductance
Capacitance.
Low Losses.
An external source of energy
The nonlinear inductance can be due to the magnetic core of a voltage transformer or it may have the complex
structure of a three-phase power transformer. These are made of saturable ferromagnetic materials, hence the
term ferroresonance. The quality of these ferromagnetic materials is continuously improving, with a significant
reduction in losses, which is a desirable feature from an economical aspect of power system operation.
Consequently, power transformers, instrument transformers and reactors are normally specified by the networks
owners with the minimum achievable losses, which ironically contributes to an increased risk of ferroresonance.
Circuit capacitance can be due to a number of elements, such as line-to-line capacitance or conductor to earth
capacitance of long transmission lines, underground cables, circuit breaker grading capacitance, busbar
capacitance, bushing capacitance, series capacitors and shunt capacitor banks. Furthermore, significant
capacitances are present in GIS. As a result, the suitable conditions for ferroresonance in electrical power systems
can arise under many diverse configurations.
Identifying ferroresonant conditions in a power system is not a straightforward task due to the complexity of interphase and inter-circuit capacitances in countless possible configurations. Fortunately, studies and field experience
have shown that certain power system configurations are more susceptible to ferroresonance than others.
The following sections list the most common situations in which voltage and power transformers become involved
in ferroresonance. In addition a further section is included to show possible configurations leading to
ferroresonance in distribution systems. Although these are normally applicable to utilities, reports of occurrences of
ferroresonance have also been reported in IPPs and industrial plants [25] to [27].
5.1 Ferroresonance in voltage transformers (VT)

There are two basic types of voltage transformers: capacitive voltage transformers and electromagnetic (wound)
voltage transformers.
A capacitive voltage transformer (CVT) is essentially a capacitive voltage divider with an electromagnetic
transformer connected to the lower capacitor in the capacitance string. It is quite common practice to include a
series reactor with the transformer and the capacitance in order to provide improved regulation and to compensate
phase shifting introduced by the capacitances. This forms the classical circuit required for ferroresonance initiation.
However, in order to minimise occurrences of ferroresonance, manufacturers include ferroresonance suppression
circuits on the secondary side of CVTs. There are many ways of introducing this suppression. One option is the
installation of a load in series with a circuit tuned to fundamental frequency where the fundamental frequency is
blocked from the load. Another option is the installation of saturable reactors where more load is added depending
on the voltage level and hence the saturation of the reactor. A third option is to introduce surge suppressors that
clamp abnormally high voltage due to ferroresonance. It should be noted that all these ferroresonance suppression
techniques can adversely affect the performance of the CVT especially with rapid voltage magnitude and phase
angle changes. As CVTs are inherently not prone to ferroresonance due to the suppression circuits employed, they
are not considered any further when looking into ferroresonance.
Page 88
5.1.1 VT and Circuit Breaker Grading Capacitors

This section describes the ferroresonant circuit formed by a set of isolated electromagnetic (inductive) VTs that
remain energized through the grading capacitors of open EHV circuit breakers. Grading capacitors are normally
installed in EHV circuit breakers to meet high breaking duty requirements by the use of multiple breaking
chambers. The use of grading capacitors started in the 1950s with air blast breakers and has continued through
different technologies and interrupting medium. Nowadays, SF6 circuit breakers are almost exclusively installed in
EHV transmission systems and the trend in design is to reduce the number of interrupting chambers and to
increase the size of the grading capacitors. These capacitors are placed in parallel with each braking chamber to
achieve an even recovery voltage distribution.
In this case, an oscillation occurs between the non-linear magnetizing inductance of the VT and the circuit stray
capacitance. The energy required to sustain the ferroresonant condition is provided through the grading capacitors
of open circuit breakers.
5.1.1.1 Busbar VTs

VT ferroresonance can occur when a busbar is de-energized by opening the circuit breakers in all the feeders. This
can be the result of clearing a busbar fault or a maintenance outage. The necessary conditions for ferroresonance
to occur are:
Presence of inductive VTs in the isolated busbar section.
The feeder circuit breakers (all or some of them) are equipped with grading capacitors.
This configuration is shown in Figure 5-1 (a) with the reduced equivalent circuit in Figure 5-1 (b). The capacitance
Cg represents the grading capacitance of each open circuit breaker and n is the number of line bays. Cs represents
the capacitance to ground of the disconnected section of busbar. R and L represent the VT losses and magnetizing
inductance respectively.
Figure 5-1 (a) Network configuration leading to busbar VT ferroresonance and (b) the Equivalent Circuit
5.1.2 Line VTs

VT ferroresonance can occur when line VTs are de-energized. The necessary conditions for ferroresonance to
occur are:
The line circuit breaker is equipped with grading capacitors
The bus disconnector is closed and the line disconnector is open
Presence of inductive VTs between the circuit breaker and the line disconnector.
This configuration is shown in Figure 5-2 (a) with the reduced equivalent circuit in Figure 5-2 (b). The capacitance
Cg represents the grading capacitance of the circuit breaker, Cs represents the capacitance to ground of the
disconnected line bay, R and L represent the VT losses and magnetizing inductance, respectively. Ferroresonance
Page 89

may occur as a result of a line de-energization by opening the circuit breaker with the bus disconnector DA closed
and DL open.
(a)
Busbar
DA
CB
P1
CT
P2 VT
DL
Line
Cg
DE
DEM
Cg
(b)
CS
R
L
Figure 5-2 (a) Network Configuration leading to Line VT ferroresonance and (b) the Equivalent Circuit
5.1.3 VT and Double Circuit Configuration

This type of ferroresonance can arise when two high voltage lines are strung on the same pylons as a doublecircuit line construction. Ferroresonance occurs when one of the lines is disconnected while the other one remains
energized as shown in Figure 5-3 (a). The reduced equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 5-3 (b) where capacitance
CC represents the coupling with the energized circuit, CS represents the capacitance to ground of the disconnected
line bay, R and L represent the VT losses and magnetizing inductance, respectively. The ferroresonant condition is
sustained by the capacitive coupling with the energized circuit. A ferroresonant incident in this topology has been
experienced in the transmission network in Belgium [28]. It has been reported in [21] that the risk of this type of
ferroresonance is almost negligible when the length of coupling of the two lines exceeds 5 to 10km.
5.1.4 VT in Ungrounded Neutral S ystems with Low Zero-Sequenc e Capacitance

This type of ferroresonance condition has been mainly observed in distribution systems. A typical network topology
is shown in Figure 5-4. This topology comprises a set of inductive VTs connected between phases and ground in a
system with no direct neutral grounding. The VTs are in parallel with the zero sequence capacitance of the
distribution network. In general this phenomenon occurs in unloaded system (connection of a load normally
increases the zero-sequence capacitance of the network), however, transient disturbances arising from faults or
switching operations can drive the VTs into saturation and, depending on the relative values between network
capacitance and VT magnetising reactance, ferroresonance can be initiated. This is a parallel ferroresonant event.
Due to the ungrounded neutral connection, only phase-to-phase voltages are fixed. During ferroresonance, the
neutral point is displaced and the voltage on one or two phases rises with respect to ground, giving the false
impression of single phase to ground fault. This neutral displacement is illustrated in Figure 5-5. The resulting
phase to ground overvoltages can cause excessive stress on the equipment insulation.
A very interesting incident experienced in a 50kV network in Norway is reported in [14]. In this case, the clearing of
a fault disconnected the only source of grounding in the 50kV system. As a result of this event, 72 VTs were
destroyed. All VTs damaged by ferroresonance were from the same manufacturer, while VTs from two other
manufacturers, also in service, and not damaged. An investigation into the ferroresonant incident revealed that the
saturation characteristics of the three VT types were very different and that the damaged VTs had a significantly
lower saturation point. The early saturation of these VTs and the high magnetising currents drawn while in
2
ferroresonance caused excessive I R losses in the windings, which thermally destroyed them. This incident drove a
re-assessment of the specification and application of Voltage Transformers.
Page 90
Figure 5-3 (a) Network Configuration leading to Double Circuit Line VT ferroresonance and (b) the Equivalent
Circuit
Figure 5-4 Network Configuration leading to Ungrounded VT Ferroresonance

The risk of ferroresonance is highly dependent on the characteristics of the distribution network therefore it is
difficult to quote, in general terms, the conditions under which ferroresonance can exist. However, as a rule of
4
thumb, the following formula can be used [38]. It can be estimated that there is a risk of ferroresonance when the
connected zero sequence capacitance expressed as s km of overhead line circuit is
s<
42000
[km ]
U
Eq. 5-1
where Un is the system nominal voltage expressed in kV.
This formula is applicable to normal voltage transformers with the ratio
Page 91
kV

A similar ferroresonance condition can occur on a slightly different configuration. This is shown in Figure 5-6 (a)
with ferroresonance occurring between the voltage transformer and the capacitance of a supply transformer
between high voltage and medium voltage sides. The HV side neutral is insulated from earth, although the HV side
is earthed at other points. The MV side, also insulated from earth, is connected to a set of three voltage
transformers but does not supply any load. Following an earth fault on the HV side of the transformer, its HV
neutral potential can be raised temporarily to a high voltage. The circuit formed by this voltage En (Figure 5-6 (b)),
the coupling capacitance Cn and, on each phase, the zero-sequence capacitance Co in parallel with Xs can thus be
brought to a state of ferroresonance giving rise to an overvoltage on the MV side. After clearance of the fault on the
HV side, ferroresonant conditions may be maintained by the normal voltage existing on the HV neutral point.
Figure 5-5 Neutral Displacement and Phase-Ground Overvoltages during Ferroresonance
(a)
(b)
Page 92

Figure 5-6 (a) Configuration for VT ferroresonance due to HV/MV capacitance and (b) Simplified circuit
5.2 Ferroresonance in power transformers

5.2.1 Transformer Terminated Transmission Li ne in Multi-Circuit Right of Wa y
A ferroresonant circuit can be formed when a transformer terminated transmission line is de-energized while there
is an energized circuit running in parallel in the same right of way. A typical topology is illustrated in Figure 5-7 (a).
It shows a power transformer directly connected to a transmission line in Substation 1. Circuit breakers are only
installed on the LV side of the transformer in Substation 1 (CB1), whereas the HV side circuit breakers are
installed in a remote location, at Substation 2 (CB2). The transmission line between Substation 1 and
Substation 2 (cct A) shares a right of way with other transmission line(s) (cct B). Ferroresonance can occur after
opening circuit breakers CB1 and CB2 if the parallel circuit remains energized.
In this case, an oscillation occurs between the non-linear magnetising inductance of the transformer and the
capacitance of transmission line it is connected to. The energy required to sustain the ferroresonant condition is
provided from the capacitive coupling with the parallel energized circuit. This topology can occur when circuit
breakers are not installed on both sides of a transformer, for instance to reduce costs in the early stages of system
development. It should be noted that even when circuit breakers are installed on both sides of the transformer, this
topology can still arise if a circuit breaker fails to trip after a transformer fault and the back-up protection trips the
circuit breaker at the remote end of the transmission circuit. Ferroresonance has also been reported to occur
following uneven breaker pole operation (i.e. stuck circuit breaker pole). A similar network topology that has been
reported to exhibit ferroresonance is a tee or tapped step-down transformer as illustrated in Figure 5-7 (b) where
the transformer is tapped from one of the two parallel circuits.
A simplified equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 5-7 (c), where CA represents the capacitance to ground of Cct A,
CA-B represents the inter-circuit capacitance between Cct A and Cct B, R represents the circuit losses and L
represents the transformer magnetising inductance. It should be noted that this simplified equivalent circuit is only
valid for banks of single phase transformers, where there is no coupling between phases. Otherwise, a three-phase
equivalent circuit must be used. Notwithstanding the simplification, the equivalent circuit assists in the visualisation
of the key parameters determining the likelihood of ferroresonance in this topology.
Various modes of ferroresonance, typically fundamental frequency and sub-harmonic ferroresonance can arise
depending on the circuit parameters, initial conditions or switching sequence. Field measurements of a 150km, 400
kV double circuit line terminating in a 500MVA transformer are described in [29]. This reference work relates the
length of the parallel coupling with the type of ferroresonant modes. Very short lines (i.e. less than 20km) do not
experience ferroresonance. Fundamental frequency ferroresonance is observed for medium line lengths, while
sub-harmonic ferroresonant oscillations are dominant in long circuit lengths (i.e. >150km). The result of the
oscillations is normally an overvoltage stressing the line and transformer insulation and transformer overflux
causing excessive heating and possible damage to the core and windings. It should be noted that no destructive
failure of a power transformer due to ferroresonance has been reported to date, however sustained operation of a
transformer in this condition is a main contributor to its accelerated aging.
Page 93
Capacitive coupling with parallel

energized circuit
Capacitive coupling with parallel

energized circuit
Figure 5-7 Transformer terminated transmission line
5.2.2 Lightly Loaded Transformer Energized v ia Cable or Long Line from a Low
Short-Circuit Capacity Net work
A ferroresonant circuit can be formed when a large power transformer is energized from a weak source via a long
overhead line or cable. This is a parallel ferroresonant topology where an oscillation arises between the non-linear
magnetising inductance of the transformer and the capacitance of transmission line or cable it is connected to. The
voltage source is located behind a large inductive source impedance. A typical network topology and its equivalent
circuit are shown in Figure 5-8. This type of network topology can arise as a result of unusual switching operations
Page 94

such as during emergency switching operations or system restoration following a blackout. It is best avoided by
proper system design and planning. An example of ferroresonance in this topology was experienced in France
during a black-start restoration test where two 1080 MVA transformers were energized from a 90 MW hydro unit via
a 360 km long overhead line [30]. Sustained non-periodic ferroresonant oscillations have been recorded in this
incident.
Figure 5-8 Transformer energized from weak source via long transmission circuit
5.2.3 Transformer energiz ed in one o r two ph ases

Power transformer ferroresonance in this topology is more common in distribution systems due to the use of singephase switching or the deployment of fuses. The system neutral can be either grounded or ungrounded, although
ungrounded neutrals are more susceptible to the phenomena. It is a series ferroresonant phenomenon with the
voltage source coming from the back feed voltage induced on the open phase of the transformer (this is highly
dependent on the core construction) as illustrated in Figure 5-9 for typical topologies. The non-linear inductance is
a combination of the individual limbs in the transformer core and the capacitance comes from the connected
network. It can be seen that series connections of a capacitance with the transformers reactance are possible
when one or two phases are disconnected. This can be the result of fuses blowing, sequential operation of singlephase switches or accidental break in a phase conductor. It should be noted that the capacitance involved in this
series ferroresonant circuit is not necessarily just the feeding network between the transformer and the open
switch/fuse but it can also include other circuits still connected to the transformer terminals, such as capacitor
banks and the stray capacitance of the transformer winding. This concept is illustrated in Figure 5-10 where for
instance opening of one phase in S1 can leave a significant amount of circuit capacitance connected in series with
the reactance of TX1 and TX2. It should be noted that, in the case of a capacitor bank, if both neutrals (cap bank
and transformer) are grounded or both are ungrounded, then no series path exists and there is no clear possibility
of ferroresonance.
The result of this series ferroresonant phenomenon is typically an overvoltage of 2 to 3 p.u. on the transformer
windings and on the feeding network. This overvoltage imposes stress on the transformer insulation and on any
feeding cable.
The following three conditions must be met for ferroresonance to occur:
At least one phase must be energized.
Sufficient capacitance must be present between the transformer and the open point.
The loading and losses in the transformer must be low.
Page 95

The maximum length of MV cable that can be connected to a distribution transformer energized in one or two
phases can be calculated using the following formula [39]:
0.6 I
C
1.58 +
C
KVAr 1000
62.8 (kV )
[m ]
Eq. 5-2
where Lcritical is the critical cable length in meters, Imag% is the transformer magnetising current (typically in the order
of 0.8%), KVAr is the transformer rating in kva, kVR is the rated voltage in kV, CCC is the cables core to core
capacitance in F/km and CCS is the cables core to sheath capacitance in F/km.
Page 96
Figure 5-9 Transformer accidentally energized in one or two phases
Figure 5-10 Distribution Network Topologies Prone to Ferroresonance in single-phase switching
5.2.4 Transformer connected to a series compensated line

The installation of series capacitors in long transmission networks for voltage regulation purposes can increase the
risk of ferroresonance in certain configurations.
A load rejection on a long transmission/distribution line with series compensation could initiate ferroresonance. This
is a series ferroresonant circuit. If the load rejection was caused by opening the low voltage side circuit breakers,
the temporary overvoltages would cause transformers to operate into the saturation region. With series
compensation in-service, this line open condition could initiate a ferroresonance condition that would stress
dielectric and thermal withstand capability of equipment.
A typical topology is illustrated in Figure 5-11. An example is described in Appendix B4. Ferroresonance results in
large voltages and currents in the capacitor and the transformer.
Page 97
Figure 5-11 Series Compensated Distribution Circuit
Page 98
CHAPTER 6
MODELLING AND STUDYING
Due to the nonlinear nature of the ferroresonant phenomenon, analytical solutions are not simple to implement.
Several approaches as highlighted in the next section have been adopted in the past with significant limitations.
Time-domain digital simulation has emerged as the most powerful tool for the description of the phenomena in
multiphased networks. However, the use of non linear tools, complementary to the EMT, has been very helpful in
order to understand the phenomena involved and especially the main variables of interest.
In general EMT type simulation tools provide explicit representation of nonlinear elements and facilitate the
modelling of complex circuit or substation configurations to assess whether or not ferroresonance can occur. It
should be noted that due to the sensitivity of the phenomenon to the circuit parameters and initial conditions, a
large number of simulations is required to assess the likelihood of ferroresonance in a particular network topology
or to gain confidence in a particular mitigation scheme.
Analytical solution methods associated with linear resonance were covered in Chapter 4 and hence it is not
repeated in this chapter.
6.1 Analytical Solution Methods

Different analytical solution methods have been applied to circuits exhibiting ferroresonant behaviour. The most
widely applied method is based on the principle of harmonic balance which is a special case of the Galerkin
method in which the state equations are represented by a Fourier series. Although analytical methods are
extremely powerful in identifying fundamental frequency ferroresonant regimes for a given circuit configuration, the
identification of sub-harmonic ferroresonance is quite difficult due to the complexity of the mathematical derivations.
The Galerkin method, based on the search of the harmonic solutions of a given network, is not capable of
identifying non-periodic or chaotic solutions which can occur in ferroresonant circuits [31], [33], [35] and [36].[87]
Harmonic balance method has been utilised successfully by Janssens et al [40] to calculate directly the existence
and stability zones of ferroresonant oscillations on a 245kV electromagnetic voltage transformer. Likewise the
same method of analysis has been used in [41] to study the failure of an electromagnetic voltage transformer when
the 220kV busbar was de-energized by a circuit breaker fitted with grading capacitors across its contacts. Others
[42] have tried to use the method when looking to provide certain criteria for the stability of sustained sub-harmonic
ferroresonance but omitting higher harmonics in their calculations which resulted in discrepancies between their
experimental and calculated results.
The pseudo-arc-length continuation method as an addition to the Galerkin method was suggested by Kieny [43],
[44]. Using the two methods in conjunction they were able to predict all periodic solutions including sub-harmonic
and higher harmonic cases but they failed to identify any pseudo-periodic or chaotic solution.[88], [89]
Ritz's method of harmonic balance was used in [45] to formulate an analytical solution to the problem of
fundamental frequency ferroresonance. Using this method it was possible to map the boundaries between safe and
fundamental ferroresonance regions as a function of the system parameters.
The second type of analytical solution utilises the incremental describing function method usually applied to
nonlinear control systems to examine transformer ferroresonance. The method is based on the use of a dual input
describing function to analyse nonlinear systems [46]. It involves evaluating the gain of one of the frequency
components in passing through the nonlinear element when the input to the element consists of two sinusoidal
waves of differing amplitudes, frequencies and phases. When applied to ferroresonance, the nonlinear element
represents the transformer saturation characteristic and the two sinusoidal inputs are the system voltage applied to
the transformer, and the disturbance, such as a temporary overvoltage. The primary advantage of this method is
that it allows the critical jump values to be directly calculated. Since its introduction for application to transformer
ferroresonance [47] the method has been subjected to considerable investigation [48] to [51]. As an analytical tool
the method is very powerful but it is not very easy to implement and requires very accurate system data to produce
useful results, especially in the case of complicated power system networks.
Page 99

It is worth mentioning that Andrei and Halley [52] developed a different analytical approach to determine whether
ferroresonance can occur, based on the energy transferred from the system to the voltage transformer during the
switching transient.
6.2 Digital Simulation Methods

Since analytical solution methods are not capable of predicting non-periodic ferroresonance occurrences and even
sometimes sub-harmonic ferroresonance, researchers have used different digital simulation techniques including
EMT analysis and chaos theory to analyse ferroresonant circuits.
It was Kieny [30], [44] who first suggested applying chaos to the study of ferroresonance in electric power systems
by studying the possibility of ferroresonance in power transformers, particularly in the presence of long capacitive
lines as highlighted by occurrences in France in 1982, and produced a bifurcation diagram indicating stable and
unstable areas of operation. Kieny [53] was also able to present a non-periodic (pseudo-periodic), but not chaotic
waveform, using Lyapunov exponents and was able to prove the stability of this waveform and postulated that the
bifurcation theory was the right mathematical framework to study ferroresonance phenomenon.
A fourth-order Runge-Kutta formula was introduced [33] to solve numerically the differential equation of a basic
ferroresonant circuit consisting of a capacitor in series with a nonlinear inductor. The same circuit was later used
[54] in a different software toolkit package [55] to solve the nonlinear equations of the circuit and produced
bifurcation diagrams with source voltage E being the bifurcation parameter for different exponent of the
nonlinearity.
Nonlinear dynamical techniques were used [56] in an attempt to establish a methodical approach for identifying all
possible initial conditions and, consequently, the different types of ferroresonant oscillations that can occur in a
capacitor voltage transformer.
EMT type program was used [57] to model the behaviour of an 8.33 MVA power transformer with construction of
Poincar maps, phase plane trajectories, frequency spectrum and bifurcation diagrams. An add-on computer
simulation was developed [58] which was subsequently incorporated into an EMT type software to study the
problem of ferroresonance in a three-phase five-legged grounded wye-wye power transformer to reveal different
types of ferroresonant wave-forms. EMT type software was also used in [15] to simulate the conditions present
during a voltage transformer failure concluding that the method provided an accurate and inexpensive means to
simulate the potential for ferroresonance.
Modelling nonlinear dynamical systems generally leads to a set of differential equations where some control
parameters influence explicitly the solution type. That can be the voltage supply of an electric circuit, the flux
circulating in the iron core of the transformer, the temperature of a chemical reaction or the gain of a feedback
system. When critical values of the parameters induce an abrupt change in the type of solution, there is a
bifurcation for the system.
Two main aspects have to be addressed when using such approaches, linked to the study of dynamic systems:
a) Simplification of the electrical system, from a real multiphase network, to a set of ODEs, describing the main
characteristics of the network, especially the source, the resonant circuit, including its non linearity, and the
dissipative elements.
b) Searching for solutions of the system (harmonics, pseudoperiodic, chaotic) using adaptive numerical methods
when varying the main state variables.
The following sections briefly describe the different mathematical tools used in the study of dynamical systems.
Phase Space
The phase space of a dynamical system is a mathematical space in which the instantaneous state of the system is
represented by the movement of a point representing the state variables of the system. As time evolves, the initial
state point follows a trajectory which closes onto itself if the response is periodic and is called a cycle.
Page 100

For a chaotic solution, the phase space will have a very complex trajectory never closing onto itself and is called a
strange attractor.
Poincar Section
A Poincar section is a tool invented by Henri Poincar as a means of simplifying phase space diagrams of
complicated systems. It is constructed by recording the phase space trajectory as a sequence of discrete points at
constant time intervals. If this sampling is done at intervals corresponding to the systems forcing frequency (in the
case of ferroresonance the power frequency) then, for a periodic waveform, with the same frequency as the forcing
function, the Poincar section will show only one point. Likewise a sub-third harmonic waveform will produce three
points. However a chaotic waveform will produce a Poincar section with a random set of points confined to a
particular region of the plane as can be seen in Figure 6-1.
For a dynamical system such any ferroresonance configuration, the Poincar section provides a simplification of
the phase space diagram while retaining the essential features of the dynamics.
Bifurcation Diagram
Phase space diagrams and Poincar section provide information about the dynamics of the system for specific
parameter values. The dynamic behaviour may also be viewed more globally over a range of parameter values,
thereby allowing simultaneous comparison of regions of periodic and chaotic behaviour.
A change in the type of solution to a set of ordinary differential equations when a parameter is varied, is called a
bifurcation. A bifurcation diagram provides a summary of the essential dynamics and is therefore a useful method
of acquiring this overview. It is an important tool for discovering interesting parameter regimes for a dynamic
system. A bifurcation diagram is actually a collection of many Poincar sections each calculated for a different
value of a particular parameter in the system. A typical bifurcation diagram for a ferroresonance circuit is shown in
Figure 6-2.
1.2
derivative of state variable
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-2.7
-2.65
-2.6
-2.55
-2.5
-2.45
-2.4
-2.35
-2.3
state variable
Figure 6-1 Poincar section of a chaotic waveform
Page 101
-2.25
-2.2
0
-2.15

1.5
state variable
0.5
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
-0.5
-1
-1.5
bifurcation parameter
Figure 6-2 Bifurcation diagram for ferroresonance circuit
6.3 Modelling of Network Co mponents

6.3.1 Extent of the Network Model
Ferroresonance is a localised phenomenon and, as a general rule, large network models are not necessary. Only
the main elements directly involved in to ferroresonant circuit (i.e. non-linear reactance, capacitances and voltage
source) need to be represented in detail. Therefore both in ferroresonance and resonance studies the feeding
network can be represented as a Thevenin source equivalent calculated at power frequency.
6.3.2 Overhead Line Model

An accurate representation of the line parameters at resonant and near-resonant frequencies is essential. The
most critical elements that need to be reproduced accurately are the circuit capacitances, therefore the model has
to be based on accurate geometrical configuration of conductors at the towers and along the spans. Circuit phase
transpositions, if present, need to be represented explicitly. The frequency dependency of the model parameters is
not critical since the phenomena of interest is resonance at (or near) power frequency. A multi-phase distributed
parameter model, such as Bergeron, calculated at power frequency normally yields reasonable results. A
frequency dependant model like JMARTI can also yield accurate results when the transformation matrix is
calculated at (or near) power frequency.
Corona losses can reduce the amplitude of resonant overvoltages when the critical corona onset voltage is
exceeded. These losses are dependent on a large number of random variables, atmospheric conditions among
them. Although there is significant literature dealing with corona losses under normal voltage operating conditions,
there is very limited published experimental data on corona at power frequency above critical voltage [72]. In
practical terms, corona will only contribute to the attenuation of Temporary OverVoltages and most studies tend to
ignore these losses to add a safety margin to the computed results.
Page 102

Depending on the ferroresonant topology, it may be necessary to represent overhead lines in detail, for example in
cases where energy is coupled from an energized parallel circuit or, alternatively, to assess the detuning effect of
switching a long circuit.
Given that ferroresonance is a low frequency phenomenon, frequency dependency is not a critical feature of the
line model. Therefore, a multi-phase distributed parameter line model like Bergeron is sufficient for most
ferroresonant studies. The exception is when ferroresonance is initiated by a line switching transient where a
frequency dependant model of the circuit under study is recommended. Other circuits not involved in the switching
can be represented with lumped or distributed parameter models. If inter-circuit capacitances are part of the
ferroresonant circuit, both parallel circuits must be represented in detail using accurate tower geometry. Phasetransposition, if employed, must be explicitly modelled. If the overhead line employs any series capacitors, these
can be modelled as lumped capacitive elements connected in series between two line sections.
Special attention must be paid if frequency dependant line models are used in order to avoid non-passivity at low
frequency (from 0 Hz to 100 Hz). This problem has been reported in [66]. When excited at low frequencies, these
models create power due to apparent negative resistivity. The situation can be dangerous when dealing with
resonance and ferroresonance because non-passive line models can give incorrect results that can be confused
with regular ferroresonant shapes. A general procedure to check passivity in a frequency dependent line model is
to calculate the admittance matrix [Y] and check that the eigenvalues of the real part of [Y] are positive.
6.3.3 Transformers
Power transformers must be represented with a three-phase model in order to reproduce correctly the coupling
between phases. Voltage transformers on the other hand can be represented with single-phase models, with the
secondary and tertiary winding connections represented externally to the model. Transformer stray, bushing and
inter-winding capacitances can be represented as lumped elements in parallel with the appropriate windings.
The nonlinear behaviour of the magnetic core of the transformer is the most critical aspect of the model and
therefore correct representation of the saturation effects along with losses is a key factor for the accuracy of the
simulation results. Some transformer models available in commercially available EMT type software packages do
not support inclusion of this data. In such cases the magnetic core data has to be represented externally. Some
models include the hysteretic behaviour of the magnetic core including losses where this is normally the area inside
the hysteresis loop. Normally, it is difficult to implement this type of model due to unavailability of data to the user.
To overcome this, some models employ a single-valued representation of a nonlinear inductor with a damping
resistor added externally to account for the losses. The nonlinear inductor provides a smooth computation since
flux is the integral of voltage and performs satisfactorily provided that the curve is not defined by too many
segments.
In some stand alone cases, a Preisach type mode [59] or a Preisach-Biorci-Pescetti hysteresis model [60] has
been utilised to include the hysteresis effect in the study of ferroresonance. It should be mentioned that although
this type of saturation modelling provides very good results it has the drawback of being extremely difficult to
implement due to the unavailability of data without specialised equipment testing.
The location of the saturation curve is also important in three phase power transformers. To obtain reasonable
results, the saturation curve must be represented in parallel with the closest winding to the magnetic core (this is
normally the LV winding). This approximation gives accurate results for frequencies below 1 kHz.
The magnetic core losses are critical in any simulation involving saturation. Various representations can be found
in the literature: hysteresis loop, non-linear resistor and linear resistor. The advantages and limitations of each
representation are discussed in [14], [61], [62]. Those technical publications conclude that the most accurate
representation is the hysteresis reactor; however the parameters required for its developments are normally not
available to the user and involve special testing. The non-linear resistor representation, on the other hand, can
have serious limitations since hysteresis losses depend on flux and not voltage. A linear resistance is the most
common representation for the magnetic core losses. It is reported in [14] that this core loss representation, if it
represents the average losses at the level of excitation being simulated, yields reasonable results.
Page 103

For more detailed information on the modelling of transformers for this type of studies the reader is advised to refer
to CIGRE TB on Transformer Energization A Study Guide.
6.3.4 Shunt Reactors

The core construction has a large effect on the reactors behaviour during unbalanced open-phase conditions. The
only type of reactor that does not have direct magnetic coupling between phases is the single-phase unit. Threephase reactors present different levels of zero sequence coupling depending on the core design. The shell-type
and four/five-legged core-type reactors provide a magnetic path for the zero sequence flux, hence, the coupling
between phases is very small and can normally be neglected. The three-legged core construction, however,
presents a strong magnetic coupling between phases, which must be accurately represented when this reactor
type is used for line shunt compensation.
Shunt reactors are normally specified to remain linear up to a knee point of around 125% to 175% of nominal
voltage. For a preliminary analysis of line resonance, the shunt reactors can be represented as linear lumped
elements. However, operation near a resonant peak may drive the reactor into saturation and initiate a
ferroresonant oscillation. Therefore, a detailed analysis of the circuit must include reactors saturation.
Reactor losses affect the amplitude of near-resonant overvoltages. Typical quality factors for modern reactors built
with low loss materials are in the order of 1000. This can be represented by a lumped resistor connected in series
with the reactor.
6.3.5 Other Substation Equipment

The main aspect of the substation equipment that needs to be modelled accurately is the capacitive component.
The capacitances of all pieces of plant contributing to the ferroresonant circuit need to be represented accurately.
These elements include the busbars, bay conductors, disconnectors, current transformers, voltage transformers,
surge arresters, circuit breakers, power transformers, shunt capacitors, etc.
Series capacitances are of major importance when the capacitance is connected to the target transformer; i.e. the
case of series ferroresonance when the series capacitance is formed by the capacitances between the lines of a
double circuit line, with the first line being energized, and the second one is de-energized with the transformer
connected to it.
A distinction is made between capacitances to ground of conductors and stray capacitances of plant apparatus:
Capacitances to Ground of Busbars and Bay Conductors

An accurate model of the busbars and bay conductors is required. These conductors must be modelled based on
the geometrical layout of the station. Lumped parameter line models are normally adequate for busbars or typical
conductor lengths within the station unless very long busbars are involved, in which case distributed models may
be employed. However, this approach restricts the size of the integration time-step and increases the computation
time. While this restriction may not be important for one single simulation, it may be impractical when carrying out a
large number of parametric analysis simulations. In practice, for normal lengths of conductors within a substation, a
lumped parameter model (i.e. multi-phase pi representation) calculated at power frequency yields adequate
results.
Page 104
Stray Capacitances of Apparatus

The stray capacitance of each apparatus involved in the ferroresonant circuit can be represented as lumped
elements connected between the phase conductors and ground. Accurate values of these capacitances must be
obtained from the equipment manufacturers and test reports.
In addition to the above, certain equipment may need to be modelled explicitly, as follows:
Surge arresters may need to be represented if there is a concern about their energy absorption capabilities
being exceeded during the ferroresonant oscillations. Surge arresters can also influence the ferroresonant
oscillation mode [85].
Current transformers and PLC line traps do not need to be represented.
Circuit breakers can be represented as ideal switches. If the circuit breakers are equipped with grading
capacitors, these need to be represented in parallel with the switch.
Capacitor banks can be represented as lumped capacitive elements with the appropriate connections (i.e.
wye or delta).
Circuit Breakers
Circuit Breakers can be represented as ideal time-controlled switches. Circuit breaker grading capacitors should be
represented explicitly as a parallel capacitance across the ideal time-controlled switch. Stray capacitances of the
circuit breaker are of major importance when the phenomena appearing at the transformer de-energization are of
importance. In particular, they have an impact on the final value of the residual flux remaining in the iron core of the
transformer following the opening of the circuit breaker poles.
6.4 Sensitivity to Para meters

6.4.1 Effect of Magnetising Curve
The saturation curve is one of the key parameters for the occurrence of ferroresonance, whether the non linearity is
pronounced or not. One of the key components of the saturation curve is the slope in the fully saturated region
normally referred to as Lsat. This is equal to Lair, the air core inductance of the transformer, minus the inductance
corresponding to stray losses. Value of Lair can be estimated with a very good accuracy either by analytical
formulas [64] or by 3D electromagnetic calculations [65], assuming that the relative permeability of the iron core is
equal to 1.
Figure 6-3 shows three measured magnetizing curves for three different VTs all used in a 400 kV network. They
are presented in the same scale, to demonstrate differences between them. Figure 6-4 shows voltage - frequency
dependencies for the above VTs for capacitances of 1 and 10 nF for a voltage range of 0 to 1600 kV based on
EMT type software simulation. VT3, with the highest magnetisation knee point, connected to a capacitor of more
than 5 nF is not able to oscillate on the fundamental power frequency for realistic levels of voltages, so
fundamental frequency ferroresonance is impossible for this particular VT. On the contrary VT1, with its easy
saturability, can exhibit ferroresonance for a wide range of frequencies.
Page 105
VT3
4500
4000
3500
VT2
3000
3000
2500
2500
2500
2000
2000
2000
1500
1500
1500
1000
1000
1000
500
500
500
VT1
0
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1
Current [A]
Current [A]
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
Current [A]
Figure 6-3 Magnetizing curves (Wb - I) for three different 400 kV VTs
C=1 nF
C=10 nF
180
140
VT3
160
VT3
VT2
VT2
VT1
VT1
100
120
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
140
120
100
80
80
60
60
40
40
20
20
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
Voltage (kV)
Voltage (kV)
Figure 6-4 Frequency of oscillations as a function of initial voltage for three types of VTs
Ferroresonance is a highly nonlinear phenomenon which is very sensitive to the circuit parameters and initial
conditions for the transformer and the power system. The choice of representation for the magnetising curve was
investigated using EMT type software and is illustrated below. For this analysis, two approaches were compared: (i)
piecewise linear representation and (ii) two term polynomial curve representation. The data used in this analysis
is shown in Figure 6-5. Both saturation curves were tested on the same network model for the two typical
ferroresonant configurations described below. In both cases, the simulation results were dependent on the selected
representation for the magnetising curve. These two examples illustrate the high sensitivity of ferroresonance to
small variations in the circuit parameters or initial conditions.
Page 106
Figure 6-5 Current-Flux magnetising curve of a transformer approximated with (a) piecewise linear model and (b)
polynomial curve model
Case 1: Transformer energized through grading capacitance of circuit breaker
The circuit shown in Figure 6-6 is assumed to operate in a steady state no-load condition and a temporary threephase short circuit fault is applied to the secondary side of the transformer. The simulation results are shown in
Figure 6-7 (a) and (b). Based on the piecewise linear magnetization characteristic, the simulated voltage show a
normal operating condition for the transformer voltage whereas in case of the polynomial saturation curve, the
transient state is followed by a fundamental mode of a ferroresonance oscillation.
Figure 6-6 Fault clearance leaving transformer energized through the grading capacitance of a circuit breaker
a) Piecewise linear saturation curve
b) Polynomial saturation curve
Figure 6-7 Simulation of fault clearance leaving transformer energized through the grading capacitance of a
circuit breaker (a) normal response using piecewise linear representation of saturation curve (b) ferroresonant
response using a polynomial representation for the saturation curve
Case 2: Transformer connected to a double circuit transmission line
The configuration shown in Figure 6-8 is very well documented to be favourable for ferroresonance. The simulation
results are shown in Figure 6-9 (a) and (b). It can be seen that, in this simulation test, the piecewise linear (a)
Page 107

characteristic results in a dangerous ferroresonance overvoltage, whereas the polynomial saturation curve (b) does
not show any overvoltage.
Figure 6-8 Line disconnection leaving transformer energized through the coupling with parallel circuit
Figure 6-9 Simulation of line disconnection leaving transformer energized through the coupling with parallel circuit
(a) ferroresonant response using piecewise linear representation of saturation curve (b) normal response using a
polynomial representation for the saturation curve
It should be noted that the polynomial function representation has the problem that it has only three parameters
and has therefore limited flexibility to accurately represent the core nonlinearity in the linear part around the knee
point and in the saturation region. An inaccurate magnetization characteristic can result in erroneous
ferroresonance simulations; therefore it is not very useful for ferroresonance analysis.
6.4.2 Influence of Circuit B reaker Closing Tim es

The closing times of a circuit breaker are a key parameter for the suppression of ferroresonance; the reason is
mainly due to the fact that the major state-variable in the electrical circuit is the flux circulating in it, which is
constituted mainly by the magnetic flux circulating in the iron core of the transformer. It may also be shown, in the
case of discrepancies in the closing times for circuit breaker poles, that the phenomena may be generated due to it,
and stopped when re-synchronizing the poles of the circuit breaker which operates.
6.4.3 Influence of the Damping in the Circuit

Damping factors are of major importance. In other parts of physics, dealing with non linear systems, especially in
chemistry, dissipative aspects are of major importance, linked to thermodynamic aspects, entropy [17], which
characterises the balance between the energy brought into the system (source as an input), and the dissipative
parts (losses of the system). In electrical network, when the energy is injected in the electrical system from one
side, through the up-stream network, the resonance phenomena may be damped through the dissipative
components.
Page 108
CHAPTER 7
MITIGATION OF FERRORESONANCE
Ferroresonance can happen at any voltage level with the appropriate combination of capacitance, non-linear
inductance and low losses. The first line of defence against its harmful effects is an understanding of the
phenomena so that the risky network conditions can be avoided.
7.1 Mitigation of VT F erroresonance

A wide range of remedial actions have been used worldwide for the mitigation of VT ferroresonance in EHV
substations. These are classified into two main groups:
a)
Passive Methods: To prevent the occurrence of network conditions likely to result in ferroresonance.
b)
Active Methods: To allow the network conditions that could lead to ferroresonance to exist but to introduce
losses to quickly dampen out any harmful oscillation.
The passive mitigation methods comprise the design of the physical layout of substations to minimise inter-circuit
couplings, the installation of VTs in the line side of the disconnectors, the selection of inductive VTs with lower flux
density, the use of capacitive VTs and the implementation of switchgear interlocking or revised switching
procedures. Passive methods provide the best protection against ferroresonance. However, even when an
installation is carefully planned with the risk of ferroresonance in mind, the number of unusual circuit configurations
that may arise during commissioning or maintenance procedures is countless. Furthermore, substation
refurbishments or expansions may modify the circuit capacitance, leading to an increased risk of ferroresonance.
The example of a substation in Canada is reported in [13] where, due to circuit breaker upgrades, the circuit
capacitance drastically increased after several years of equipment upgrades and resulted in the destruction of a
230kV inductive VT.
The active mitigation methods comprise the use of resistors connected to Wye secondary windings, the use of
resistors connected across open-delta windings, the use of air-core reactors connected in parallel with the HV
winding, the use of a series combination of a resistor and a saturable reactor in the secondary winding, and the
closing of grounding switches upon detection of ferroresonance.
A combination of passive and active mitigation methods will provide an optimum protection against ferroresonant
overvoltages. Given the low cost of most of these methods and the severe consequences of ferroresonance, the
combined application of active and passive mitigation options is recommended as the most cost-effective solution.
7.1.1 Secondary Open Delta Resi stor

This is the most widely used mitigation method due to its simplicity. The connection of a damping resistor to the
open-delta winding configuration is shown in Figure 7-1.
Rdamping-
Figure 7-1 Connection of damping resistor to the VT open-delta secondary winding
This is an active method since ferroresonance is mitigated by the introduction of resistive losses. The advantage
of this connection is that the required losses are only introduced during unbalanced operating conditions.
Page 109

Consequently, the accuracy of readings obtained with other secondary windings, for metering or protection, is not
affected.
The sizing criteria for the resistor are as follows:
a)
The resistance value should be as low as possible in order to dampen the ferroresonant oscillations very
rapidly.
b)
The resistor needs to cater for the possibility of earth-faults in the system, which will impose a zero
sequence voltage across its terminals. The thermal burden of the VT secondary must not be exceeded under any
circumstances, including for circuit breaker failure contingencies.
It can be observed that the two requirements for the ohmic value of the resistor are exclusive; hence a balance
needs to be found. Ferracci recommends the use of the following expressions [12]:
R=
3 3 U
P
P =
Eq. 7-1
(3 U )
R
Eq. 7-2
where US is the rated secondary voltage, Pe is the rated thermal burden of the secondary and PR is the rated VA of
the resistor.
The reader must be warned that the above expressions are empirical and should only be used as a starting point of
detailed analysis into the optimum size of resistor. Furthermore, the reader must also be aware that this solution is
not effective in all cases of VT ferroresonance. Karlicek reported in [39] that sub-harmonic ferroresonant modes
require smaller resistors than fundamental frequency modes to be suppressed, suggesting that a prior knowledge
of the expected mode of ferroresonance is required in order to mitigate it. Experience in Ireland has shown that a
resistance value as low as 0.5 was not efficient in suppressing fundamental ferroresonance. Analogue computer
simulations reported in [23] indicated that the open-delta resistor was only successful in eliminating ferroresonance
when the zero sequence voltage exceeded 15% of the system voltage. These uncertainties in the effectiveness of
open-delta resistors justify the need to carry-out detailed analysis when considering them as a valid mitigation
option.
7.1.2 Secondary Wye Resistor

The connection of damping resistors in parallel with the secondary windings of a VT is shown in Figure 7-2.
Some methods of calculating the damping resistance can be found in literature:
Price [23] recommends the following expression:
R =X
E
E
Eq. 7-3
where RC is the critical resistance seen from the primary VT winding, Xb is the open circuit breaker capacitive
reactance, ES is the voltage at the knee-point of the VT saturation curve and E is the rated system voltage.
Ferracci recommends the use of the following expressions [12]:
R=
U
k P P
Eq. 7-4
Page 110
P =
U
R
Eq. 7-5
where: US is the rated secondary voltage, k is a factor between 0.25 and 1 to guarantee that errors and service
conditions remain within the limits specified by the applicable standards (i.e. IEC 186 or IEEE C57). Pt is the rated
VA output of the secondary and Pm is the VA required for measurement.
Li et al [63] recommend a theoretical resistance value based on the critical damping of an RLC circuit.
1 L
2
C
r
Eq. 7-6
where Lunsat is the unsaturated VT inductance, C is the circuit capacitance, and r is the VT transformation ratio.
Rdamping-y
VT
Figure 7-2 Connection of damping resistors to the VT wye secondary windings

The main drawback of this connection is that continuous losses are introduced in the circuit under normal operating
conditions. Furthermore, unless a dedicated secondary winding is used for this purpose only, the damping resistor
will be connected in parallel with the measuring instruments or protection relays, affecting the accuracy of
measurements.
The specification of an additional secondary winding for the sole connection of a damping resistor increases
considerably the cost of the VT and may not be justified in most circumstances. Furthermore, spare secondary
windings may not be available in existing installations. Some solutions to overcome these difficulties have been
suggested in the literature. For example, [23] recommended switching the resistors into the secondary circuit only
when the conditions for ferroresonance are met. This is done by connecting an interposing relay that only operates
when all the breakers feeding a busbar VT are open or when a line VT is de-energized.
7.1.3 Secondary Wye Resistor in Series with a Saturable Reacto r

This connection is shown in Figure 7-3. Under normal operating conditions, the non-saturated inductance presents
such a large impedance that it guarantees no interference with the measuring or protecting devices sharing the
same circuit. Under ferroresonant conditions, the inductance is driven into saturation inserting the resistor in the
circuit. The additional load dampens the ferroresonant phenomenon. It should be noted that the proper design of
this damping circuit requires a prior knowledge of the ferroresonant modes to be expected, which means that the
design has to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.
Page 111
Figure 7-3 Damping resistors and saturable reactors on the VT wye secondary windings
7.1.4 Other Mitigation Options

Other mitigation options worth exploring are listed below:
Specification of EHV circuit breakers without grading capacitors.
Optical VT technology.
Capacitive VTs.
Installation of inductive VTs in the line side of a line disconnector.
Interlocking schemes to avoid risky circuit configurations.
Specification of VTs with a higher saturation point.
Optical transformer technology is a promising emerging alternative that eliminates the concern for ferroresonance.
Further operating experience is required, however, before they can be generally installed in EHV substations.
It is standard for manufacturers to include anti-ferroresonant measures in the design of Capacitive Voltage
Transformers (CVT). These voltage transformers are only an option when fast line discharge is not required. If
automatic reclosing is employed, as it is generally the case in EHV transmission lines, the CVTs cannot discharge
the trapped line voltage and, consequently, the level of switching transient overvoltages at reclosing will be very
high. This issue has large implications in the selection of line surge arresters and the insulation level, which
increases significantly the cost of the installation. Consequently, CVTs are very rarely used to avoid line VT
ferroresonance in EHV substations. On the other hand, if the ferroresonant problem to be mitigated is due to
busbars VTs, the use of capacitive VTs provides the simplest and cheapest solution since automatic reclosing is
not deployed for busbar faults.
The use of inductive VTs with higher saturation knee, i.e. lower flux density, can reduce the risk of ferroresonance.
An example of VT magnetising curves from three different manufacturers is shown in Figure 6-3. It should be
noted, however, that the risk is not entirely eliminated. It just makes the onset of ferroresonance more difficult.
Furthermore, if ferroresonance occurs, the level of overvoltages will be higher. The increased cost must be
balanced against the achieved performance.
The mitigation options discussed above are applicable to both cases of VT ferroresonance; VTs energized through
grading capacitors of circuit breakers and VTs in double line configuration topology.
7.1.5 Mitigation of VT Ferroresonance in Ungrounded Neutral Systems

For the mitigation of VT ferroresonance in ungrounded neutral systems or in arc-suppressed neutral systems the
following options can be considered:
Page 112
Operate the VT at a low induction value

The first design countermeasure against ferroresonance is to dimension the core for low induction. This is an effort
to ensure that, on occurrence of transient overvoltages, the core does not saturate and cause ferroresonance. A
first precaution is to ensure that nominal inrush current will not cause saturation. The induction of a VT will reach
nearly twice its steady-state value if the switch-in occurs at the zero crossing of the applied voltage. Therefore, to
avoid going into saturation in these circumstances, the rated induction must be less than half of the saturated
value. On an arc-suppressed or ungrounded neutral system, it is possible for the applied voltage to be 3 times the
rated value, so the induction of the VT on such as system should be less than 0 . 5
induction.
3 times the saturated
Introduce resistive losses to damp-out ferroresonance.

As described in previous sections a damping circuit connected to the secondary winding is the usual way to
mitigate ferroresonance in an inductive VT. This damping circuit may be connected in for as long as required to
damp out ferroresonance or it may be connected permanently. The advantage of the former is that the damping
resistor does not need to be rated for long time voltage application as it is only in the circuit when ferroresonance is
likely to occur. However, the introduction of extra circuitry is a disadvantage and raises the question of physical
mounting of extra components and connection of same as well as the possibility of misoperation due to failure of a
component. Whichever arrangement is used, the damping resistor is normally connected to the open delta
secondary winding of the VT.
Add more capacitance in parallel with the VTs

This phenomenon is normally limited to small values of zero sequence capacitance. The connection of a long
circuit or a capacitor bank can be enough to prevent the onset of ferroresonance.
One large North American utility has, for many years, successfully avoided incidents of ferroresonance with VTs
used in many ground fault detection applications by using the arrangement shown in Figure 7-4. Two bus VTs are
connected from phase A to phase B and phase C to phase B. These VTs are rated for the full line-to-line voltage
on the bus. The third VT is connected from phase B to ground and is rated 2 times the line-to-line voltage. The
two different kinds of VTs are used to reduce the risk of ferroresonance. The auxiliary VTs, to step down the
voltage to the relay, are connected grounded wye-open corner delta. When a fault occurs, the neutral shifts and a
voltage of 3 times normal secondary voltage may occur across the open-corner delta. A resistive burden of around
125 Ohms is connected across the open-corner of the delta. The utility has adopted this scheme as standard for
use with ground fault detection with autotransformer tertiaries.
Some utilities employ bus VTs that are fully fluxed for line-to-line voltage but do not use resistive loading across the
secondary windings or a resistive burden across the open-corner delta secondary.
It should be noted that modern digital relays that are used to detect a ground fault on ungrounded busses, such as
delta-connected tertiary windings of autotransformers, do not use auxiliary VTs. They connect directly to the bus
VT phase-to-ground secondary windings. Thus, there is no opportunity to apply damping resistance across an
open-corner delta VT secondary winding unless the VTs have dual secondary windings where one set can be
configured accordingly. Ground fault detection schemes applied to floating neutral systems, based on modern
digital relays having reduced burdens may be more susceptible to ferroresonance problems than schemes
employing the older electro-mechanical relays.
Page 113

A
BUS PTs
C
AUX PTs
C
B
A1
A2
YV
XV
250
YV1
250
RELAY
IAV
XV1
Figure 7-4 Interconnection of VTs and Auxiliary VTs
7.2 Mitigation of Power Transformer Ferroresonance

Mitigation options applicable to power transformer ferroresonance and especially in the case of transformer
terminated EHV lines in multi-circuit configuration can be grouped into three basic approaches:
Avoid circuit parameters or operating conditions favouring ferroresonance

One option to consider is to limit the length of the de-energized transmission line that can be left connected to the
transformer. This could be achieved by the installation of circuit breakers on both sides of the transformer when the
critical circuit length is exceeded.
It is also possible to specify transformers especially for new developments with low flux density. This measure
tends to be very uneconomical and impractical as it increases significantly the cost and size of the transformer. A
third alternative is to disconnect any parallel circuit before the transformer is de-energized.
Minimise the energy transfer that is required to sustain the ferroresonant oscillations
Losses could be increased artificially during switching by means of series resistors inserted in the switching devices
to avoid sustained ferroresonance. Another possibility to increase the losses is by loading the delta connected
tertiary windings with a suitable resistor.
In some cases where a de-energized circuit and accompanying transformer are in proximity to a parallel live circuit,
the energy transferred through the inter-circuit coupling to the ferroresonance can be significantly reduced by the
introduction of, or modification to, phase transpositions in one or both circuits.
Page 114
Control the duration of ferroresonance by operational switching

In this category ferroresonance is allowed to occur but its duration is controlled by careful management of switching
operations such that ferroresonance oscillations are quenched. One possible way is to open the disconnectors
used for the isolation of the transformer to remove it from the transmission line. However, special attention must be
given to this measure as the ferroresonant current could be sizable, resulting in large arcing and possible damage
to disconnector contacts. Another option is the employment of appropriately rated earth switches whereby earth
switches are closed automatically following detection of ferroresonance.
It is also possible to initiate disconnection of the parallel circuit to remove the source of energy. However this action
should be assessed in the context of the entire system integrity and stability as it results in a double circuit outage.
In the case of a distribution system power transformer ferroresonance due to the use of singe-phase switching or
the deployment of fuses, the most obvious mitigation measure is to avoid the use of single-phase switches or
fuses. Alternatively the length of cable connected to the transformer could be limited by installing a circuit breaker
cubicle as close as possible to the transformer terminals. It is also possible to introduce a resistive load to the
circuit.
Following a general network disturbance or black-out, a hydroelectric or a gas turbine power unit with black start
capability may be used with the primary objective of restoring power to the auxiliaries of a nuclear power plant [86].
This usually involves energization of the auxiliary transformer of a nuclear power unit so that it can participate in the
restoration of the network. In order to avoid resonance or ferroresonance due to the magnetization of the target
transformer, it is possible to use the hydroelectric or gas turbine power units to perform a "progressive voltage" reenergizing, with the objective of applying a voltage to the target transformer that increases from 0 to its final value
in several seconds. In an automatic sequence, the source unit is brought up to its rated rotation speed, unexcited,
some protections having been inhibited so that on request at the voltage is increased following closure of the
unitss circuit breaker and excitation contactor. The increase of voltage on the lines and transformers is performed
under the control of the automatic voltage regulator (AVR), for example by means of a ramp, to its final value in
several seconds or even several tens of seconds. The AVR voltage set-point is normally set to its minimum value,
corresponding in general to 90% of the rated generator voltage. In some cases with long lines where the level of
compensation is low, a lower value may be required to comply with the maximum authorised levels on the lines.
This reduced voltage set-point helps to reduce the voltage level at the target transformer terminals, thus avoiding
its saturation. By this progressive way of re-energizing transformers on weak networks, transient saturation is
avoided and there are no inrush currents. Thus there is a low risk of appearance of ferroresonance or resonance
phenomena characterized by temporary harmonic overvoltages that could present a danger to the equipment.
Page 115
CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSIONS
This comprehensive study guide provides information on, and suggests tools and/or methodologies for, the
analysis and resolution of problems created by power frequency resonance and ferroresonance in power networks.
The main problems of interest are the overvoltage stresses imposed on power system components resulting from
temporary overvoltages which, as a result of these phenomena, can be high enough to be hazardous.
An introduction of the topics of resonance and ferroresonance begins by considering resonance, firstly by
considering the ideal series L-Cs circuit driven by a voltage source and secondly the ideal parallel L-Cp circuit
driven by a current source. The discussion is then extended to the series-parallel Cs-L-Cp circuit connected to a
voltage source, which is representative of many practical cases of power frequency resonance that can occur in
power systems. When the series capacitance is relatively small, it is demonstrated that the combination of a
voltage source in series with Cs behaves as an equivalent current source, thereby resulting in the familiar topology
for parallel resonance. The topic of ferroresonance is then introduced by considering the series resonant R-L-Cs
circuit driven by a voltage source, where the inductor is now nonlinear. A graphical solution for the steady state
response of the linear case is extended to the simple nonlinear circuit where the effects of varying the source
voltage, circuit capacitance and circuit losses are considered. Although an oversimplification of the actual
phenomenon, equations are provided describing the steady state performance. A more rigorous treatment is given
for the case where energy is exchanged between a capacitor and a lossy nonlinear inductor when the inductor is
switched onto the capacitor having a trapped charge. The more general case of a voltage source driving a series
nonlinear L-Cs ferroresonant circuit is next explored. The types of ferroresonant oscillations are presented,
including the representative voltage waveforms.
An overview is given of the typical network topologies that can give rise to power frequency resonance in shuntcompensated transmission circuits. For problems to occur, the shunt reactors do not necessarily have to be directly
connected to the line but could be on the bus. If only a single circuit is considered, then a one (or two) open-phase
condition is required for a resonant topology, leaving two (or one) energized phases and phase reactors in parallel
with the lines phase-to-ground capacitance. This unbalanced condition could be the result of a switching
misoperation. The resonance is excited by capacitive coupling between the energized phase(s) and the deenergized phase(s). Considering double circuit lines or multiple circuits mutually coupled on the same right-of-way,
the resonant topology requires that one shunt-compensated circuit has been disconnected. The excitation for the
resonance is provided by the inter-circuit capacitive coupling. In addition to the resonances possible for normal (nofault) conditions, faults on either the de-energized or the energized circuit can lead to more possible resonant
conditions. If imperfectly transposed or untransposed double circuits or multi-circuits are considered, many more
resonant topologies are possible. An entirely different power frequency resonance can occur when an embedded
generator isolates with a relatively long line or cable, effectively producing a series L-C circuit driven by a voltage
source. If the circuit is tuned to a frequency near the fundamental, large circulating currents and high phase-toground voltages can result.
A very comprehensive and detailed treatment is presented of the resonant topologies encountered in shuntcompensated transmission circuits due to a one or two open-phase condition and, in the case of double-circuits,
when a shunt compensated de-energized circuit is mutually coupled to an adjacent energized circuit. For the
single-circuit topologies, approximate steady state equations are developed which enable straight forward
calculation of (1) the critical degrees of shunt compensation where resonances can be expected and (2) the
temporary overvoltages on the open phases for a particular degree of shunt compensation. The effects on the
resonance of tower design, neutral reactor rating, and core construction of the phase reactors are explored. A
practical example is provided of surge arrester failure due to overvoltage on a long 500kV transmission line having
72% shunt compensation which, due to breaker failure, resulted in a prolonged two open-pole condition. This
topology resulted in a resonant condition, as indicated by the simplified steady state analysis, almost perfectly
tuned to power frequency. For double circuit lines where there is capacitive coupling between a shunt
compensated de-energized circuit and an adjacent energized circuit, simple formulas are given to estimate the
degree of shunt compensation resulting in resonance for cases with and without a fault on either circuit. A
comparison of the results of the approximate steady state analysis to detailed EMT-type simulations is provided. A
careful choice of phase reactor rating to avoid critical degrees of shunt compensation will prevent resonant
Page 116

overvoltage problems due to unintentional uneven phase operation or intercircuit coupling. A range of possible
mitigation options is given as a tool-box for the analysis of resonance in shunt-compensated transmission circuits.
The network configurations involving electromagnetic VTs and power transformers which can lead to
ferroresonance are considered. VTs connected to an isolated bus or line which remains energized through the
grading capacitors of an open circuit breaker can go into ferroresonance. VTs applied to ungrounded neutral
systems and to double-circuit lines or having low zero sequence capacitance can also be prone to ferroresonance.
Ferroresonance can occur with power transformers, such as when a transformer-terminated transmission line is deenergized but remains capacitively coupled to a parallel energized circuit. The ferroresonance can be power
frequency or subharmonic, depending on line and exposure lengths as well as initial conditions. A lightly loaded
transformer energized from a long line in one or two phases, as could happen due to breaker misoperation, fuse
operation, or sequential single-phase switch operation, can also be a candidate for ferroresonance. Considering
that one or two phases of the feeding source could be open, a comprehensive diagram is provided for various
three-phase transformer winding configurations, which illustrates the possible ferroresonance topologies in power
transformers. Analytical solution methods, such as the harmonic balance method or the incremental describing
function method, have been applied to study ferroresonant circuits. These somewhat esoteric approaches,
however, are not capable of predicting non-periodic ferroresonance and sometimes not even subharmonic
ferroresonance. EMT-type time domain programs are a suitable tool for ferroresonance studies since they enable
explicit representation of non-linear elements and facilitate modelling of complex systems sometimes required for
such studies. Usually a large number of simulations are required to explore sensitivity of the solution to changes in
parameters and initial conditions. A brief discussion is provided on various nonlinear dynamic analysis tools such
as phase-space, Poincar section, and bifurcation diagram techniques.
Since ferroresonance is generally a localized phenomenon, large network models are not required for its study.
Modelling of network components in an EMT-type program is discussed. For overhead lines, frequency
dependence is not critical but line capacitance must be accounted for accurately and phase transpositions should
be explicitly represented. For transformers, the correct representation of the magnetic core characteristics and
core losses is important for ferroresonance simulations. A linear resistor in parallel with a hysteretic inductor model
connected across the winding closest to the core provides a reasonable representation of the magnetic core. For
shunt reactors, the construction of the core must be accounted for in the reactor model. Suggestions are given for
the modelling of other substation components, with emphasis on the need to accurately account for the stray
capacitances associated with these components.
Techniques to mitigate ferroresonance are presented and described. For ferroresonance involving magnetic VTs,
mitigation is either accomplished passively or actively. Passive methods are designed to prevent occurrence of
network conditions conducive to ferroresonance and provide the best protection. Examples of passive mitigation
include the design of the physical layout to minimize inter-circuit coupling, selection of VTs having a lower flux
density (higher knee point), and the implementation of special switching procedures. Active mitigation of
ferroresonance with VTs includes application of damping resistors to wye-connected VT secondary windings and
connection of a suitably rated resistor across the VT open-corner delta winding. Formulas to estimate the values of
these resistors are provided. For VTs that are applied to ungrounded neutral situations, some special mitigative
methods are discussed. Often, switching procedures can be used to avoid occurrence of ferroresonance.
Finally, several case studies and examples of actual resonance and ferroresonance are provided in this document.
Page 117
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Temporary Over-voltages and Methods to Prevent them, Proceedings of Cigre 1990 session, Paris,
France, paper 33-206, 1990.
[84]
M. Val Escudero. MPhil Thesis Analysis of Resonance and Ferroresonance in EHV Transmission
Systems. Bath University. 2006.
[85]
Walling, R, Hartana, R., Reckard, R., Sampat, M., Balgie, T.,Performance of Metal-Oxide Arresters
Exposed to Ferroresonance in Padmount Transformers, IEEE Trans. On Power Delivery, Vo. 9, No. 2,
pp. 788-795, April 1994.
[86]
Nicolas J and Caillault B, Restoring electrical power system with hydro-units after a black-out. How to
avoid unacceptable overvoltages on long transmission lines? International Water, Power & Dam
Construction, New-Delhi, Nov.1992, pp 243-253.
[87]
F. Wrnle, D. K. Harrison, and C. Zhou, Analysis of a Ferroresonant Circuit Using Bifurcation Theory
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 20, NO. 1
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[88]
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K. Ben Driss, C. Kieny, B. Lorcet, Perturbation method for the continuation of subharmonic and
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[90]
BEN DRISS Khaled Application de la thorie des bifurcations la prdiction des rsonances nonlinaires l'enclenchement de transformateurs vide Thse prpare et soutenue Suplec, EEI
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Page 123
ANNEX A
RESONANCE EXAMPLES
A1. Resonance Ass ociated with Single-phas e Autoreclos e Switching of 275 kV

Shunt Reactor
On one circuit of a 275 kV double-circuit line, an existing 30 Mvar fixed shunt reactor with a neutral earthing reactor
was reaching the end of its life. System studies had identified that this fixed shunt reactor should be replaced with
a 50 Mvar switched shunt reactor.. Separate studies identified that the line was sufficiently short that secondary
arc currents would self-extinguish if the shunt reactor were to be solidly earthed, with no requirement for a neutral
reactor. This case study examines whether neutral earthing is required to avoid resonance in the recovery voltage
under single-phase autoreclose conditions. The system under study is shown in Figure A-1.
Figure A-1 Overview of double-circuit line and shunt reactor studied under single-phase autoreclose
For the 50 Mvar shunt reactor when solidly earthed, the ultimate steady-state recovery voltage at the Circuit A line
exit from Bus X (coupled from healthy conductors), is around 40kVrms phase-earth with one phase of Circuit A out5, as
indicated in Figure A-2. This value is well below the maximum continuous overvoltage (MCOV) of 191kV for the
surge arrester intended for this application and is not of concern. Whilst the MCOV is exceeded when the breakers
open, the situation persists for well under a second and is also not of concern.
However, Figure A-3 indicates that substitution with a 30 Mvar solidly earthed reactor (equivalent to removal of the
neutral reactor from the existing shunt reactor on Circuit A) yields a recovery voltage of around 330 kV, after slow
oscillations arising from the switching have settled down. This recovery voltage exceeds the 191 kV arrester MCOV
and could lead to equipment damage.
If, instead, three phases of Circuit A are out, representing three-phase autoreclose, the steady state recovery
voltage drops to around 20kVrms phase-earth.
Page 124
Recovery Voltage (kVrms L-G)

800
VCOV
600
400
200
0
-200
-400
-600
-800
x
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
...
...
...
Figure A-2 Recovery voltage for 50 Mvar solidly earthed shunt reactor, blue phase breakers opening at 0.5s
[local end] and 0.6s [remote end] (x axis is time in seconds)
Recovery Voltage (kVrms L-G)

800
VCOV
600
400
200
0
-200
-400
-600
-800
x
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
...
...
...
Figure A-3 Recovery voltage for 30 Mvar solidly earthed shunt reactor, blue phase breakers opening at 0.5s
[local end] and 0.6s [remote end] (x axis is time in seconds)
Figure A-4 shows the effect upon the recovery voltage (blue phase open only, which is the worst of the three in this
instance) with varying shunt reactor sizes. For a solidly earthed shunt reactor, a peak occurs around 27 Mvar,
suggesting that a 50 Hz resonance would be likely to be excited, with recovery voltages potentially exceeding
several hundred kV, depending on resistive damping. Adding a 1000 neutral earthing reactor moves the resonant
condition to occur for a shunt reactor of around 33.5 Mvar. However, the intended 50 Mvar shunt reactor yields fully
acceptable recovery voltages. In practice, recovery voltages as high as those suggested by the peak of Figure A-4
would not be seen; rather, this is a prospective recovery voltage. Surge arresters on the line would tend to reduce
Page 125
actual voltages, as would flashovers when surge arrester capabilities are exceeded. For illustration purposes, nonlinear effects such as surge arrester conduction and saturation of the shunt reactors were not modelled.
Recovery voltage (kVrms L-G)
3500
3000
Solid earthing
2500
2000
1500
1000
NEX
1000
500
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Shunt Q (MVAr)
Figure A-4 Effect of shunt neutral reactor size on recovery voltage on line end (blue phase only)
For the system studied in this case, the 50 Mvar reactor was found to avoid recovery voltage resonance problems,
with solid earthing or with a 1000 neutral earthing reactor. However, smaller reactors risk resonance between the
reactor and capacitive coupling from adjacent conductors during single-phase autoreclose operations.
Simulation of recovery voltages with varying reactor sizes under single- and three-phase autoreclose allows a
potentially relatively narrow resonant peak to be identified and then mitigated, either by a different size of reactor or
by altering the neutral earthing arrangement.
Page 126
A.2 Line Resonance experienced in 275 kV Doub le Circuit as a result of System

Expansion
Network Topology
The 30 Mvar line reactors installed at Daven on the Daven to Robert and the Daven to Cano 275 kV transmission
lines where designed to prevent over-voltages at the Daven end of these lines when they were originally energized
from the Lakeside Substation further away. Since this time the Roberts 275/132 kV substation has been
established, significantly shortening the lines. The original line design also ensured that the transmission line was
fully transposed between Daven and the present location of Roberts substation, between Roberts to the proposed
site of Billo, and again between Billo and Lakeside.
Daven
30MVAr
Reactors
133.7km
Cano
212.5km
Roberts
376.5km
Lakeside
Figure A-5 Daven Roberts Lakeside 275 kV Right of Way
Resonance Arising from Planned Network Expansion

Now that Cano substation has been established (cut into the Daven to Roberts #1 line), the effective line length has
been again reduced (and the transmission line at that location is in mid-transposition). In terms of impedance, the
transmission line has a capacitive reactance of approximately -j2600
whereas the 30 Mvar reactor has an
inductive reactance of approximately +j 2500 .
A line length of about 5 km longer, or a system frequency of 51 Hz, or if the line reactor had an actual reactance of
about 29.1 Mvar, would all result in a true resonant condition occurring with an apparent impedance in excess of
3.2 M resulting in possibly rated phase-to-ground voltages appearing on one phase, lower voltages on the other
two phases, and unbalanced resonant currents flowing through the reactor and reactor neutral. The presence of
these voltages and currents make it impossible to open the reactor isolator.
Page 127
In the short term, to switch the line reactor in and out of service, the Daven to Roberts 275 kV transmission line
must also be de-energized to remove the source of excitation voltage.
Calculations, On-site Tests and Results

This section details the analysis carried out to identify whether a parallel resonant condition could conceivably
occur between the 275 kV 30 Mvar line reactor at Daven and the line capacitance on the Daven to Cano 275 kV
transmission line. This section also discusses the results of tests carried out to verify this parallel resonant
condition.
Transmission Line Parameters

Table A-1 below contains the line parameters for the Daven Roberts and Daven Cano Roberts 275 kV line
sections.
Table A-1 Daven Roverts 275 kV Line Section Parameters

Positive Sequence Parameters
Zero Sequence Parameters
From Bus
To Bus
Line
Distance
R1 (pu)
X1 (pu)
B1 (pu)
R0 (pu)
X0 (pu)
B0 (pu)
Daven
Roberts
212.5
0.0160
0.1139
0.4606
0.0662
0.3053
0.3272
Daven
Cano
133.7
0.01006
0.07164
0.28972
0.04164
0.19203
0.20581
Cano
Roberts
78.8
0.00594
0.04226
0.17088
0.02456
0.11327
0.12139
Daven
Lakeside
376.5
0.0264
0.19370
0.85800
0.1127
0.5309
0.5435
Note: Impedance values are in pu on 100 MVA base.
Daven 275 kV Line Reactor Parameters

Table A-2 below contains the Daven 275 kV line reactor parameters.
Table A-2 Daven 275 kV Line Reactor Parameters at Fundamental Frequency (50 Hz)
Line Reactors
Neutral Reactors
Reactance ( /phase)
From
Bus
To Bus
Rating
(Mvar)
XLu
XLv
XLw
Daven
Roberts
30.30
2502
2491
2508
Daven
Cano
30.19
2512
2505
2509
Inductance
(H)
3.36
26.06
XL
)
1056.2
Investigation of Parallel Resonant Condition

Table A-3 below compares the capacitive reactance of the transmission line with the inductive reactance
associated with the corresponding line reactor.
Table A-3 Reactance comparison between line and corresponding line reactor assuming nominal system
parameters
From Bus
To Bus
Line Capacitive
Reactance ( )
Daven
Roberts
1641.88
Daven
Cano
2610.28
Daven
Lakeside
881.41
Page 128
Line Reactor Inductive

Reactance ( )
2504.97
From Table A-3, it can be seen that for the Daven Cano 275 kV line, the capacitive line reactance of 2610
close proximity to the line reactor inductive reactance of 2505 .
is in
Making use of the Pi Equivalent Model of a transmission line (shown below in Figure A-6), the total apparent
impedance of a transmission line can be calculated.
Figure A-6 Pi Equivalent model of a transmission line
Comparing this total line impedance with the inductive reactive component associated with the line reactor will
provide an indication of whether a true resonance condition exits.
Using the line parameters shown in Table 1, the total apparent line impedance values (Ztotal) were calculated (note
that all calculations have assumed nominal system parameters):
1. Daven Roberts 275 kV line,
Z total
4586
2. Daven Cano 275 kV line,
Z total
70920
3. Daven Lakeside 275 kV line,
Z total
1271
;
;
.
To enable visualisation of the resonance condition, total apparent line impedance versus line length plots were
generated for the Daven Cano Roberts Lakeside 275 kV line section; these are shown below in Figure A-7
and Figure A-8.
From Figure A-7, it can be seen that the total apparent line impendence is of a considerable magnitude for a line
length in the range of 130 150 km. For all other line lengths the total apparent line impedance is negligible.
From Figure A-8, it can be seen that by expanding the scale for line length over the 130 150 km range shows that
a true resonant condition occurs with an apparent impedance of 3.2 M at a line length of approximately 138.5 km.
Figure A-7 illustrates that the total apparent line impedance is negligible at and near the locations of the Roberts
and Lakeside substations along the line section.
When considering the implications of the total line impedance versus line length plots shown below in Figure A-7
and Figure A-8, the following points need to be considered:
1.
These plots are based on calculations performed using nominal system parameters such as unity system
voltage and fundamental frequency;
2.
While great care is taken in ensuring all parameters used to model lines and devices within its transmission
network are as accurate as possible, never-the-less errors are always inherent and need to be considered and
suitable allowances made;
3.
A Daven Cano 275 kV line length increase of approximately about 5 km, or a system frequency of 51 Hz, or
if the line reactor had an actual reactance of approximately 29.1 Mvar, would all result in a true resonant
condition occurring with an apparent impedance in excess of 3.2 M resulting in possibly rated phase to
ground voltage appearing on one phase, lower voltages on the other two phases, and unbalanced resonant
Page 129
currents flowing through the reactor and reactor neutral. The presence of these voltages and currents make it
impossible to open the reactor isolator.
Hence, variations in any of the above discussed system or modelling parameters has the potential to move the
location of the resonance condition towards the Cano substation.
Based on this analysis, the potential for a resonance condition is highly likely and appropriate measures need to be
undertaken to ensure this condition can be abated.
3.5
3
True Resonance
Condition
Total Line Impedance, Ztotal (M )

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
275
300
325
350
375
Line Length [km]

Daven
Cano
Roberts
Lakeside
Figure A-7 Total Line Impedance versus line length for the Daven Cano Roberts Lakeside 275 kV section
Page 130
Total Line Impedance, Ztotal (M )
3.5
True Resonance
Condition
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
Cano
0.5
0
130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150
Line Length [km]

Figure A-8 Total Line Impedance versus line length at Cano 275 kV substation
Test Results
Tests were carried out designed to measure the near parallel resonant condition, which was suspected to be
occurring between the 275 kV 30 Mvar line reactor at Daven and the line capacitance on the Daven - Cano 275 kV
transmission line. This near resonant effect is excited by the closely coupled parallel Daven to Roberts 275 kV line,
when the Daven to Cano 275 kV line is isolated and unearthed at both ends. The resultant effect is (differing)
steady-state high voltages on the unearthed lines (e.g. 140 kV, 100 kV and 60 kV phase to ground, whereas,
nominal phase to ground voltage is 159 kV).
This network configuration commonly occurs when switching the line reactor in and out of service using its
motorised isolator. Prior to the commissioning of Cano substation the steady state induced voltages were close to
0 kV.
The following Table A-4 contains a summary of the test results.
Table A-4 Daven Cano 275 kV Line Resonance Test Results

Condition
Phase Voltage (kV)
Phase Current (A)
Daven Line
Reactor Neutral
Current (A)
Vu
Vv
Vw
Iu
Iv
Iw
In
System Normal
166.8
<0
167.8
<-120
167.8
<120
66.7
67.3
66.9
0.51
Daven Cano 275 kV line

supplied radially from Daven
167.8
<0
168.0
<-120
167.8
<120
67.1
67.4
66.9
0.52

de-energized
134.8
<0
67.8
<172
95.8
<-170
55.9
25.3
36.2
4.7
Page 131
Condition
Phase Voltage (kV)
Phase Current (A)
Daven Line
Reactor Neutral
Current (A)
Vu
Vv
Vw
Iu
Iv
Iw
In

de-energized,
Daven Roberts 275 kV line
supplied radially from Daven
132.8
<0
68.8
<170
92.0
<-169
55.0
25.8
34.8
4.5

de-energized,
Daven Roberts 275 kV line
de-energized
1.25
5.5
0.7
1.9
0.9
0.75

supplied radially from Cano
Test Not Carried Out: Synch Check Relay Operation, Circuit Breaker Operation Fail
(faulty)
From Table A-4, it can be seen that for the two test conditions with both the Daven Cano 275 kV and Daven
Roberts lines in-service, the phase voltages and currents are balanced resulting in a very small line neutral reactor
current of approximately 0.5 A.
However, once the Daven Cano 275 kV line is removed from service and leaving the Daven Roberts 275 kV
line in-service results in differing (unbalanced) steady state high voltages on the Daven - Cano line of 134.8 kV,
67.8 kV and 95.8 kV. This unbalance causes a line neutral reactor current of approximately 4.7 A and unbalanced
phase currents of 55.9 A, 25.3 A and 36.2 A. The cause of this observed unbalance is attributed to the existence of
a true resonance condition occurring between the 275 kV 30 Mvar line reactor at Daven and the line capacitance
on the Daven Cano 275 kV line.
Conclusions and Recommendations

Tests carried out confirmed that under the condition whereby the Cano Daven 275 kV line is removed from
service and the Daven Roberts 275 kV line remains in-service, unbalanced voltages and currents were observed
to be flowing through the line reactor and the reactor neutral. The presence of these high voltages and currents
make it impossible to open the reactor isolator. This phenomenon was attributed to the occurrence of a true
resonance condition occurring between the 275 kV 30 Mvar line reactor at Daven and the line capacitance on the
Daven Cano 275 kV line.
Page 132
A.3 Line Resonance Experienced in 400 kV and 225kV Subnetwork Deenergized for Black-Start Test
This concrete case is based on an electrical circuit that has a resonance frequency near 50 Hz.
This example was recorded during an on-site test on the French grid. This interesting phenomenon appeared
during the preliminary phase of a black-start restoration test. This phase consists in preparing the network in order
to connect the source power plan to the auxiliary transformer of the target power plant.
Network Topology
The network topology at the time of testing is shown in Figure A-9. A section of the over-head transmission grid
between the substations S0 and S4 was de-energized for the test. This sub-network was comprised of:
163 km of 400 kV circuit between the substations S1 and S4,
30 km of 225 kV circuit between the substations S0 and S1,
a 405/240/21 kV autotransformer (Yyd winding) at S1,
two shunt reactors located in the substation S0 (line reactor of 80 Mvar) and in the substation S1
(transformer reactor of 64 Mvar connected to the tertiary winding of the 600 MVA Auto-transformer).
It should be noted that the 400 kV circuit between S2 and S4 substations is of double-circuit construction (i.e.
two circuits on the same tower). In other words, the double circuit line goes from the substation S2 to the
substation S4. The parallel circuit (on the double circuit line) remained energized during this black-start restoration
test.
Auto transformer
YYd 405/240/21 kV
S1
S0
S2
225 kV
80 Mvar
S3
400 kV
64 Mvar
S4
double circuit line
39 km in 225 kV
163 km in 400 kV
Figure A-9 400 kV and 275 kV sub-network de-energized for black-start test
A few measurements have been realized in three different configurations for the presented network. These
configurations are obtained by opening first the line circuit breaker then the disconnector. The following voltage
measurements were obtained on the theoretically de-energized sub-network in the S3 substation, as shown in
Figure A-9:
Page 133
Case #1
S3
Case #2
Case #3
S3
S3
disconnector
circuit breaker
S4 busbar
Urms=346 kV phase-to-phase
(i.e. 0.865 pu on a 400 kV base)
measured at S3 substation.
With the whole line (from the
S0 to the S4 substation to
the S4 substation including
the bus bars of all the
substations).
disconnector
disconnector
circuit breaker
circuit breaker
S4 busbar
S4 busbar
measured at S3 substation
with the whole line but without
the busbar of the S4
substation because the circuit
breaker of the line is opened.
measured at S3 substation
with the disconnectors opened
in the S4 substation.
EMT Simulations done to understand the phenomenon

In order to explain the near-resonance conditions observed during the field tests, the network topology was
modelled using a EMT analysis tool. See Figure A-10.
The model includes a 160 km double circuit HV line section as follows:
The first circuit (circuit #1) is connected to the main grid at the nominal voltage (i.e. 400 kV).
The second circuit (circuit #2) is supposed to be de energized. It is only connected to an auto transformer
with a tertiary winding connected to a reactor of 64 Mvar at the S1 substation and to a line reactor of 80
Mvar in S0.
In this model, an uncertainty of 5% was taken into account to represent the phase to earth capacitances of the
overhead lines.
Page 134
+
MPLOT
10.35kV /_0
11.5/236
+
B US3
a
Data
converter
BUS5
a
b
c
BUS4
a
b
c
P&V&I
Meter
+
k1
m1
k2
m2
k3
m3
k4
k5
PI
m4
m5
m6
k7
m7
k8
m8
?vi
2
1
3
405/240/21
?
+ VM
?v/?v/?v
+ VM
?v/?v/?v
+ VM
?v/?v/?v
400
10
10
10
+ VM
?v/?v/?v
+
6.7Ohm
?vi
b
c
k6
BUS2
a
b
c
BUS1
a
b
c
+
6.7Ohm ?vi
+
6.7Ohm
?vi
728Ohm
?vi
10
420kV /_0
Figure A-10 EMT representation of the 400 kV and 275 kV sub-networks
The double line circuit is represented by a 3-phase PI section component that is computed from the geometrical
configurations of the 8 conductors, their sections and their electrical characteristics.
Simulation results are shown in Figure A-11. We can note that:
- The voltages computed on the circuit #2 are not equal to zero
- The 3 voltages are unbalanced and they dont have the same module.
Figure A-11 Simulation Results

A sensitivity analysis was carried-out to identify the critical factors influencing the voltages appearing on the deenergized sub-network (i.e. circuit #2):
Page 135
Parameter
Influence
power load on circuit #1
No
Voltage level on circuit #1
Yes
Length of circuit #1 connected to the grid
Yes
Type of tower used for the double circuit
Yes
Phase to earth capacitances of the over head

lines
Yes
Neutral connection of the 64 Mvar reactor
No (probably because of the

tertiary winding of the auto
transformer where the reactor is
connected.
Use of the reactor on the tertiary winding of the

auto transformer
Yes
A frequency scan analysis has been done in order to identify the natural resonant frequency of the sub network
(Figure A-12).
PLOT
x 10
ZIN2@zinmag@1
2
1.5
0.5
0
50
100
150
frequency (Hz)
200
250
300
Figure A-12 Frequency scan of the sub-network

The positive sequence frequency of the subcircuit is located just above 50 Hz. That confirms the hypothesis of a
resonant circuit excited at 50 Hz by the main grid. The two peaks of the impedance are probably due to the fact
that the lines are not transposed in the sub network.
Page 136
On site tests performed after the studies in order to check the hypothesis and the conclusions of the
studies
On-site measurements were carried out the two 400 kV circuits:
Circuit #1 : connected to the grid
Circuit #2 : disconnected from the grid and off line.
Auto transformer
YYd 405/240/21 kV
circuit #1
CB2
S1
S0
225 kV
80 Mvar
400 kV
CB3
S4
S2
CB1
S3
circuit #2
double circuit line
64 Mvar
39 km in 225 kV
163 km in 400 kV
Figure A-13 Detailed Network Topology during Field Measurements

The measurements were taken at S3 400 kV substation. Line currents and phase-to-ground voltages were
measured on circuit #1 (connected to the grid) and on circuit #2 (disconnected from the main grid), which is the
analysed resonant circuit.
The initial conditions were the following ones:
CB1: Open
CB2 and CB3: closed
Subnetwork from S0 to S4 isolated
The following switching sequence was carried-out starting from the above initial conditions:
1) CB1 is closed in order to connect the reactor to the tertiary winding of the autotransformer in station S1.
2) Open CB3 in order to interrupt the current in circuit #1. One can note that the voltage is still different than zero.
3) Open CB2 in order to fully de-energize circuits #1 and #2.
The recorded measurements on the 3 phases are presented in Figure A-14.
Page 137
mesures_TEO: VGAU2_1
mesures_TEO: VCIR2_1
mesures_TEO: JCIR2_1
kV
250
200
U dpart Gauglin2
Raccordement self d'Arrighi au rseau d'essai
150
V2
100
V1
50
V3
kV
0
250
200
U dpart Cirolliers2
150
Ouverture dpart Gatinais2 Cirroliers
100
50
kA
0
1.2
1.0
0.8
J dpart Cirolliers 2
0.6
0.4
Ouverture dpart Cirroliers2
0.2
0.0
17:00
17:10
17:20
17:30
17:40
6/8/06
h:m
Figure A-14 Field Measurements

After opening CB2, circuit #1 is fully de-energized but there is still voltage in circuit #2. This is probably due to the
grading capacitors of the circuit breakers located at the borders of the off line network (circuit #2) that still couple it
with the main 50 Hz grid network.
One can note that the measured voltages are unbalanced probably because the double-circuit is not transposed
along the length of tested circuit.
This is probably due to the non symmetrical impedance of each phase: this impedance depends on the height of
the conductors and probably the distance between the conductors located on the two circuits.
Figure A-15 and Figure A-16 below show the voltage waveforms recorded during the connection of the transformer
tertiary reactor (i.e. close CB1). It can be seen that the connection of the reactor creates a resonant circuit.
Furthermore, the three phase voltages are unbalanced and they dont have the same magnitude.
Conclusions
The resonances observed on the isolated sub-network (i.e. circuit #2) are due to:
-
The source of excitation for the isolated 400 kV and 225 kV subnetwork is mainly due to intercircuit capacitive
coupling within the double circuit where separation between conductors from one circuit to the second is
relatively small. However, there is also some capacitive coupling provided by the grading capacitors in the
circuit breakers.
The resonance of the circuit #2 is close to fundamental frequency (50 Hz).
Page 138
The voltages on the circuit #2 would have been higher if the resonance frequency had been closer to 50 Hz.
The transient before the occurrence of the steady state resonance has not been studied, however, it was during
this period that the highest overvoltages were measured and were considered to be hazardous from the standpoint
of equipment insulation.
Figure A-15 Voltage Waveform at Circuit #2 during connection of transformer tertiary reactor
Figure A-16 Zoom-in Voltage Waveform at Circuit #2 during connection of transformer tertiary reactor
Page 139
A.4 High Temporary Overvoltages when a Distribution-Connected Generator

Energizes an Isolated Ungrounded & Faulted High Voltage S ystem
Introduction
High temporary overvoltages can occur when distribution-connected generation (such as an IPP) temporarily
isolates with part of the grid, as can happen during the clearing of transmission faults. The severity of the TOV is
influenced by the following factors: (1) the size of the IPP generator, (2) the shunt capacitance of the isolated
system, (3) whether or not the interconnecting utility transformer provides an HV neutral ground, (4) proximity of the
first series resonance point, as seen by the generator, to power frequency and (5) the available damping provided
by the connected load. Figure A-17 shows an electrical single-line diagram of an actual case which was the subject
of an overvoltage study with an EMT program. A 30 MW IPP proposed to connect to the utilitys grid via a 12 km 25
kV express feeder to distribution Substation P. The substation, which supplies residential and small commercial
loads, is tapped into a 137 km 230 kV overhead transmission line between Station B and Station C. The tap
point on the line is located approximately at the middle of the line. The windings of the interconnecting transformer
at Substation P are configured as LV grounded star and HV delta. The minimum distribution load supplied from
Station P is 4.5 MVA and no other load is supplied by the transmission line. The relevant data for the express
feeder and the generator step-up transformer and the substation transformer are shown on Figure A-17.
As part of a system impact study that was carried out by the utility for the prospective IPP, simulation studies
investigated the expected temporary overvoltages caused by the IPPs generator during the clearing of faults in the
transmission system. The IPP would temporarily isolate with the line because generator over-speed protection and
power quality protection would be relatively slow to trip the unit. This appendix summarizes the result of one such
simulation; the clearing of a sustained single line-to-ground (SLG) fault on the 230 kV transmission line.
System Modelling
The network of Figure A-17, together with the surrounding external system connected to Stations B and C, which is
not shown, were modelled in an EMT program. The IPP generator is rated 32.22 MVA with a terminal voltage of
13.8 kV. The saturated value of the d-axis subtransient reactance, Xd, is 0.16 pu. The generator was modelled as
a 60 Hz sinusoidal voltage source behind Xd. The 25 kV feeder and transmission line were modelled as 60 Hz
distributed parameter lines. Table A-5 provides the positive and zero sequence series impedances and shunt
admittances of the 230 kV circuit. The minimum distribution load of 4.5 MVA was modelled as a lumped linear
impedance R + jX branch to ground. The transformers were represented by standard models comprised of threephase inductively coupled branches. For the purposes of illustrating the basic phenomenon of high TOV on an HV
ungrounded system due to series resonance near fundamental frequency in the presence of neutral shift, the
effects of transformer saturation and surge arrester conduction have not been modelled.
Table A-5 137km 230kV Transmission Line 60Hz Parameters

Positive Sequence
Negative Sequence
From
Bus *
To
Bus *
Length
(km)
R1
Ohms
X1
Ohms
Y1
S
R0
Ohms
X0
Ohms
Y0
S
137
11.7
70.0
443.
36.0
207.6
315.
* Refer to Figure A-17
Page 140
Figure A-17 Distribution IPP Connected to 25kV Feeder Supplied by a 230/25kV Substation
which is tapped into a long 230kV Overhead Line
Clearing of a Transmission Line Fault

Figure A-18 and Figure A-19 show a 300 ms simulation where a sustained SLG fault occurs at time t = 0.116 s on
the 230 kV line near Station B. The faulted line was assumed to be disconnected from the grid 3.5 cycles after fault
inception. The IPP generator was assumed to remain connected throughout the simulation since, in practice, line
protection will trip the faulted line but not the feeder breaker. Moreover, while the IPP generator breaker would
eventually be opened by over-speed protection or power quality protection, this action would occur beyond the
period considered by the simulation. The instantaneous phase-to-ground voltages at the 230 kV bus of Station P
are shown in Figure A-18 while the corresponding voltages at the station 25 kV bus appear in Figure A-19. As is
clearly shown in Figure A-18, there is a rapidly escalating TOV, reaching up to 8 pu on the unfaulted phases of the
230 kV line, commencing as soon as the generator isolates with the faulted line. All three phase-to-ground voltages
become in phase. The 25 kV bus voltages exhibit temporary overvoltages on all three phases but the overvoltage
is not as high in terms of per unit than for the 230 kV voltages. It is worth noting that replacing the simple generator
model with a more detailed model based on a Parks machine produces almost identical results. Also, if saturation
effects and surge arresters (rated for a temporarily ungrounded application) are included in the system model, then
the overvoltage on the transmission line would be expected to be limited to approximately 2.2 pu. The TOV on the
Station P distribution bus would be less than 2 pu but still expected to be unacceptably high.
Page 141
Simulation of TOV When Distribution IPP Isolates With 230 kV Ungrounded System
No Saturation Effects or Surge Arrester Conduction Modelled
2.00E+03
Near Power-Freq. Resonance

High TOV on Unfaulted Phases
V230_A
V230_B
Interconnecting Station 230 kV Phase-Gnd Voltges (kV)
1.50E+03
V230_C
30 MW Distribution IPP Isolates

With 137 km 230 kV Line, Neutral "Floats"
1.00E+03
5.00E+02
0.00E+00
-5.00E+02
Phase A-Ground Fault

on 230 kV Line
-1.00E+03
-1.50E+03
-2.00E+03
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
Time (s)
Figure A-18 Phase-to-Ground Voltages at Station P 230 kV Bus Before, During and After the Generator Isolates
with the Faulted Transmission Line
Simulation of TOV When Distribution IPP Isolates With 230 kV Ungrounded System
No Saturation Effects or Surge Arrester Conduction Modelled
1.00E+02
High TOV Due to Series

Resonance Near 60 Hz
V25_A
8.00E+01
V25_B
V25_C
Distribution Bus 25 kV Phase-Gnd Voltges (kV)
6.00E+01
230 kV Line Opened at Both Ends

4.00E+01
2.00E+01
0.00E+00
-2.00E+01
-4.00E+01
SLG Fault Occurs
-6.00E+01
-8.00E+01
-1.00E+02
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
Time (s)
Figure A-19 Phase-to-Ground Voltages at Station P 25 kV Bus Before, During and After the Generator Isolates
with the Faulted Transmission Line
Analysis of the TOV using Sequence Networks

Insight can be gained by analysing the TOV, while the IPP energizes the isolated and faulted transmission line,
using an interconnection of the equivalent sequence networks. In the case of a sustained SLG line fault, the
Page 142
isolated system can be modelled using the positive sequence, the negative sequence, and the zero sequence
equivalent circuits connected in series at the fault location. Figure A-20 shows the resulting cascaded network,
where resistive losses and the relatively small effects of the station load are ignored. For this analysis the generator
positive sequence model is a sinusoidal 60 Hz voltage source behind Xd. For the negative sequence equivalent it
is assumed that the generator negative sequence reactance is approximately Xd. It is assumed that the effects of
the 230 kV line can be approximated by connecting a single lumped positive sequence charging capacitance to the
substation HV terminals in the positive sequence and the negative sequence circuits. In the zero sequence circuit
the zero sequence capacitance of the line is connected to the HV side of the transformer. It should be noted that
the HV delta windings of the Station transformer effectively disconnects the transformer, feeder and the IPP from
the zero sequence equivalent circuit. The interconnection of sequence circuits can be reduced to the simple circuit
shown in Figure A-21 where the zero sequence capacitance connects the positive and the negative sequence
equivalent circuits. If the driving point impedance, as seen from the generator air-gap, is scanned over a frequency
range around power frequency, the resulting impedance (R and X versus frequency) plot of Figure A-22 is
obtained. The frequency scan clearly demonstrates that the interconnection of equivalent sequence circuits has a
series resonance at 56 Hz (where X=0), as seen by the internal voltage source of the generator. This frequency is
very close to power frequency.
Figure A-20 Interconnection of Sequence Networks Representing the 230/25kV System Isolated with a Solid
Single-Line-to-Ground Fault
Page 143
Figure A-21 Reduced Equivalent Circuit. All Parameters are Referred to 230kV
Impedance Scan of Isolated 230/25kV System With IPP

& Sustained SLG Fault on 230 kV Line - Sequence Equiv.
2000
Impedance R & X (Ohms)
1500
X
Series Resonance
56 Hz
1000
500
R
0
-500
-1000
Z_RE
-1500
Z_IMAG
-2000
30
34
38
42
46
50
54
58
62
66
70
Frequency (Hz)
Figure A-22 Impedance (Real & Imaginary Components) Versus Frequency of the Sequence Equivalent Circuit for
the Isolated 230/25kV System in Figure A-21
Conclusions
1
When the IPP becomes isolated with the faulted 230 kV line, a series resonant circuit is formed by the
combination of equivalent inductance of the source (IPP generator Xd, the leakage impedance of two
transformers in series, and the feeder impedance) and the charging capacitance of the 230 kV line. The
resonant frequency becomes very close to power frequency for sustained SLG line faults.
The sinusoidal voltage source driving the resonant circuit is the generator air-gap voltage.
High TOVs on both the 230 kV as well as the 25 kV distribution systems occur during the clearing of SLG
line faults because of neutral shift in an ungrounded and capacitive 230 kV system having an SLG fault
together with voltage amplification by the series resonance.
Damping of the TOV provided by the station load is ineffective.
Page 144
Analysis using equivalent sequence networks provides useful insight into the explanation of the
overvoltage.
Recommendations
1
A direct transfer trip (DTT) scheme, to be initiated by the 230 kV line protection at Stations B and C, should
be implemented to trip the IPP feeder breaker at Station P. The communication medium could be power
line carrier from both line terminals to Station P.
Opening of the faulted line should be delayed sufficiently to ensure that the IPP feeder breaker has already
opened.
Page 145
ANNEX B
B.1
FERRORESONANCE EXAMPLES
Power Transformer Ter minated Line Ferroresonance
Power transformer ferroresonance can occur when one side of a double circuit transmission line connected to a
transformer is switched out while the other side is still energized. It is the transfer of energy via mutual coupling
from the live circuit into the de-energized circuit that initiates and subsequently sustains the phenomenon. This of
course leads to transformer saturation but more importantly it affects control and protection operation with the
possibility of a double circuit outage in order to successfully isolate the transformer undergoing ferroresonance.
Tests have been performed to establish ferroresonance quenching capability of rotating centre post disconnectors
X113 (Committee Design Type) and X103 (IEC design), shown in Figure B-1.
Bus A, 275 kV
Bus A, 400 kV
T10
T13 F36B
X113
T40
T43 F36A
X413
X103
Line 1
X303
X420
X403
X305
X307
Bus C, 400 kV
Almost all disconnectors including those of modern design are not approved for and usually have not been tested
against ferroresonance quenching duty. Some and especially those designed as open terminal disconnectors do
not have any current switching capability above 0.5A and considering that under ferroresonance conditions where
the current is peaky and can be as high as several hundred amperes, ferroresonance quenching could be a very
onerous duty.
Line 2
Line continues to
another substation
Figure B-1 Single line diagram of the system under invest
A maintenance outage period has been utilised to access and perform switching on the system shown in Figure
B-1. It was thought that the arrangement shown was a particularly suitable network topology where ferroresonance
could be induced due to a reasonable length (approximately 37km) of coupling between Line 1 and Line 2 as well
as the line terminating with a 1000MVA 400/275/13kV power transformer.
The initial status of various plants was as detailed below:
At 400 kV Bus C disconnector X303 is locked open but the rest of the mesh corner is in service,
At 275 kV Bus A circuit breaker T10 is open,
At 400 kV Bus A all disconnectors and circuit breaker X420 are in service and closed.
A point-on-wave (POW) switching was initiated at Bus A 400 kV with circuit breaker X420 to induce ferroresonance
on transformer F36B and Line 1 combination. The circuit breaker was tripped via an external POW control
switching device. After each switching operation the timing of the POW switching control was advanced by 1ms
and at 3ms POW, a sub-harmonic mode ferroresonance was established. The sub-harmonic ferroresonance had a
frequency of 16.6 Hz. High voltage side terminal voltage and line current of transformer F36B are shown in Figure
B-2 for all the phases. The rms values of current and voltage were approximately 9.0 A and 60.0 kV. During
ferroresonance there was a distinctive growling noise coming from the autotransformer clearly audible to all site
personnel involved in the testing.
It should be noted that the ferroresonance detection scheme installed at the substation did not operate.
Page 146
The disconnector X113 which was under investigation regarding its capability of quenching ferroresonance was
eventually opened to quench the established ferroresonance. A barely visible arc was observed with only a small
extension away from the actual contact area. It was able to switch the current with no visible damage to its fixed or
moving contacts.
Tests were continued and at POW +11 ms, a fundamental frequency mode, 50 Hz, ferroresonance was induced.
High voltage side terminal voltage and line current of transformer F36B are shown in Figure B-3 for all the phases.
The rms values of current and voltage were approximately 70.0 A and 315.0 kV with peak values of 210 A and 355
kV respectively. It was noted that this mode of ferroresonance produced a much louder growling noise from the
power transformer audible from further afield. Furthermore, the installed ferroresonance detection scheme
operated correctly.
Again disconnector X113 was opened from the local control room to quench ferroresonance. Arcing, as long as 2m
was observed along the arm towards the centre. Following physical examination presence of some arcing damage
around fixed contacts was established. However the damage did not prevent the disconnector being returned to
service without corrective action.
Further tests were carried out to check ferroresonance quenching capability of disconnector X103. Point-on-wave
control switching of circuit breaker X420 was set to +11 ms, the same POW as the last switching at which
fundamental mode ferroresonance was successfully initiated. It took more than one attempt to initiate another
fundamental frequency mode ferroresonance indicating clearly that the initiation of ferroresonance is stochastic and
dependent upon a number of plant and system parameters such as system voltage, transformer residual flux and
system losses. Upon successful initiation, X103 was opened with a long arc from each contact which was
extinguished successfully. Burn marks on both the fixed and moving contacts as well as around the end pivot in the
arm assembly were observed following physical inspection of the disconnector. It was concluded that damage to
the pivot point could have easily happened, resulting in the switch being unable to close for the next operation.
Page 147
R-ph voltage (kV)
200
150
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
time (ms)
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
400
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
time (ms)
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
400
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
400
R-ph current (A)
100
50
0
-50
Y-ph voltage (kV)
-100
200
150
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
Y-ph current (A)
time (ms)
100
50
0
-50
B-ph current (A)
B-ph voltage (kV)
-100
200
150
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
time (ms)
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
400
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
time (ms)
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
400
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
time (ms)
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
400
100
50
0
-50
-100
220
Figure B-2 Sub-harmonic mode (16.6 Hz) ferroresonance voltage and current
Page 148
R-ph voltage (kV)
400
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
time (ms)
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
400
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
time (ms)
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
400
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
time (ms)
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
400
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
time (ms)
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
400
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
time (ms)
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
400
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
time (ms)
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
400
R-ph current (A)
200
100
0
-100
-200
Y-ph current (A)
Y-ph voltage (kV)
400
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
200
100
0
-100
B-ph voltage (kV)
-200
400
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
B-ph current (A)
200
100
0
-100
-200
Figure B-3 Fundamental frequency mode (50 Hz) ferroresonance voltage and current
Page 149
B.2
Power Transformer Ferroresonance Teed fro m a Multi-Circuit Right of Way
Bus C
This practical example [67] relates to a traction supply case with a single line diagram as shown in Figure B-4. Both
transformers supplying the traction feeder station are 80MVA 400/26.25/26.25kV supplied by two phases on the
HV and are teed from the main overhead line circuits. The circuit lengths associated with the single line diagram
are given in a table within Figure B-4. The lack of HV circuit breakers on the traction supply transformers due to
customers economic consideration should be particularly noted. Ferroresonance was observed upon deenergization of Line 2 where the sequence of events started with the opening X205 at Bus B followed by the
opening of X205 at Bus A. A sustained fundamental ferroresonance of 1.33 p.u. maximum peak was observed on
the red and blue phases as shown in Figure B-5. Here the energy from the adjacent live circuit (Line 1) is coupled
to traction tranformers nonlinear inductance as well as to the de-energized circuit to ground capacitance via the
electrostatic coupling between the two circuits. Once ferroresonance is established the available energy is enough
to sustain it indefinitely in the absence of any system introduced damping. The lack of HV circuit breaker prevents
the disconnection of the transformer from this established resonance circuit and therefore the result is localised
heating of the transformer possibly leading to internal thermal damage. This is mainly due to ferroresonance
leading the transformer into saturation and hence the flux can no longer be confined to the core only but rather to
other ferromagnetic elements of the transformer as well.
Bus B
Bus A
Line 1
Line 2
X205
X205
From
Bus A
Bus A
Bus B
Bus C
To
Bus B
Bus C
Tee point
Tee point
Length (km)
65.8
36.4
13.4
16.0
X113
To traction feeder
Figure B-4 Single line diagram of the traction supply system

The solution adopted for quenching ferroresonance in this case was to adopt the earth switch X113 to be capable
of making onto a ferroresonant condition without sustaining any damage to its moving or fixed contacts used
primarily for earthing function. Ferroresonance quenching earth switch is required to have a certain number of
making operations followed by a breaking operation capability in addition to the breaking requirements appropriate
to Class B of IEC 62271-102 Annex C. The requirement for making onto a ferroresonant condition is set to 350A
peak (100A rms) for the 400 kV system. Waveforms captured for the operation of earth switch X113 with the
successful quenching of fundamental ferroresonance within a second is shown in Figure B-6.
450
Voltage (kV)
300
150
0
-150
-300
-450
38.6
38.7
38.8
38.9
39
39.1
time (sec)
Figure B-5 Fundamental frequency ferroresonance following de-energization of Line 2
Page 150
39.2
600
Voltage (kV)
400
200
0
-200
-400
-600
50.8
50.9
51
51.1
51.2
51.3
51.4
51.5
time (sec)
Figure B-6 Successful quenching of fundamental ferroresonance by use of earth switch
Page 151
51.6
B.3
Ferroresonance of a VT in Ungrounded Neutral Configuration
An independent power producer with two 42 MW and one 26 MW generating units is connected radially to the utility
substation via two 44/13.8 kV generator step-up transformer and independent 4.3 km 44 kV circuits. These
transformers are not paralleled. There are no 44 kV circuit breakers at the IPP facility, only a set of motor-operated
disconnectors at the HV side of each transformer. Figure B-7 shows a simplified electrical single-line for one the
transformers (T5), the dedicated 44 kV inter-tie circuit to the utility, and some details of the LV side of the step-up
transformer to the main breaker. The 44 kV circuit consists of 0.4 km of 1192 MCM and 2.6 km of 1509 MCM
ACSR overhead line and 1.3 km of 44 kV 1000 MCM single-core cables. The step-up transformer is rated 60 MVA
(ONAN rating) 13.8/44 kV having a leakage impedance of 12.75%. The 13.8 kV windings are connected in delta
and the 44 kV windings are connected in grounded star. On the LV side, there are five 15 kV 750 MCM single-core
cables in parallel per phase. Each cable is 10.5 m in length and has a capacitance of about 2.7 nF. There are
three single-phase VTs on the breaker side of the LV cables with a thermal burden of 1750VA which drive critical
metering and protective relays for the generating plant. VTs primary windings are configured as solidly grounded
star. One secondary winding is configured as open-corner delta where zero sequence voltage (3*V0) is monitored
by a relay. The other secondary winding is configured as grounded star and the output is connected to the station
control and synchronizing panel. It should be noted that the burdens on the secondary windings of the PTs are
small and that the VTs are rated for a grounded neutral application and not for an ungrounded or temporarily
ungrounded neutral 13.8 kV system. The VTs will become fully fluxed for line-to-ground voltages less than rated
line-to-line voltage. Neutral shift during transformer energization can therefore be expected to drive the VTs into
saturation.
The utility requires that the line plus main transformer be picked up together rather than energizing the line first
followed by the transformer. As a result of this operational restriction, damage due to overvoltage frequently
occurred in the equipment connected to the secondary circuits of the VTs whenever the 13.8 kV bus was energized
from the utility substation. The problem appeared with both sets of VTs.
UTILITY
SUBSTATION
0.4 km 1192 MCM ACSR

And
2.6 km 1509 MCM ACSR
Overhead 44 kV line
1.3 km 1000 MCM

44 kV cable
T5
60 MVA
44 13.8 kV
12.75% Z
20
5 x 15 kV 750 MCM 10.7m cables

Each cable 2.7 nF capacitance
4A
59B
10A
CB5
TO STATION CONTROL
AND SYNCHRONIZING
PANEL
8400-120/120V
0.3WMXYZ 0.6ZZ
3 P.T.s with dual
secondaries
To 42 MW and 26 MW
Gas Turbine Generators
Figure B-7 Single-line diagram of IPPs 44 kV circuit to 13.8/44 kV generator step-up transformer
Page 152
Field measurements have been performed by the IPP during line and transformer energization when the plant was
out of service for annual maintenance. Voltages in the 120 V secondary circuits of the VTs, for both T1
(transformer not shown in the single line diagram) and T5, were monitored. The results of these tests indicated
highly distorted voltage waveforms and high instantaneous overvoltages. At the time the IPP did not know if the
voltages appearing at the main transformer were also very high. The IPP arranged for the utilitys research division
to attend the site and carry out field measurements of de-energization and re-energization of one of the 13.8 kV
generator busses. Upon review of the IPPs electrical single-line diagram, the failure history, and the previous
measurements by the IPP, it was suspected that the problem was due to a ferroresonance phenomenon. When
the generator is on line, it provides the neutral ground for the LV bus voltages. When the generator is off-line, the
phase-to-ground voltages are floating due to the delta-connected transformer LV windings. The phase-to-ground
connected magnetic VTs are driven into saturation due to zero sequence voltage (neutral shift) during energization
of the 13.8 kV bus with the main LV bus breaker open. The saturated iron cores of the VTs establish an electrical
resonance with existing circuit capacitance and high instantaneous overvoltages are produced.
Instrumentation was set up on the LV side of transformer T5 to monitor the phase-to-ground voltages derived from
the VT 120 V star-connected secondary windings through 120/69 V star-star interposing transformers. In addition,
the open-corner delta voltage was monitored by accessing the rear terminals of the 59B overvoltage protection
relay.
With the generators on-line, an islanding test was performed where the utility substation end of the 44 kV express
line was tripped. This results in a transfer trip to open the main 13.8 kV breaker at the LV side of T5. Figure B-8
shows the recorded voltage waveforms. The upper three traces correspond to the instantaneous phase-to-ground
voltages measured at 120 V secondary of VTs and the lower trace is the open-corner delta voltage. These
waveforms indicate that the voltages decay as would be expected when a saturable transformer is disconnected
with some associated line and cable shunt capacitance.
Figure B-9 shows the field recordings of the re-energization of the 44 kV circuit and T5, up to the open LV main
breaker, from the utility substation.
Figure B-9 (a) shows a 1.5 second recording of the voltage waveforms while
Figure B-9 (b) provides an expanded view (first 500 ms) where more details of the waveforms can be seen. A
chaotic form of ferroresonance commences within about 1 cycle of breaker closing. Phase-to-ground transient
overvoltages exceed 600 Vpeak (3.5 pu on 120 Vrms or 169.7 Vpeak). The open-corner delta transient overvoltage
reaches 1500 Vpeak corresponding to a zero sequence voltage of 500 Vpeak per phase.
For the next energization, a 110 resistive burden was inserted across the open-corner VT secondary to provide
damping of zero sequence voltage transients. The original under-rated 8400-120-120 V PTs were left in place.
Voltage waveforms for the re-energization of the T5 13.8 kV bus from the utility inter-tie substation are shown in
Figure B-10. As can be seen, there is a very large reduction in the transient overvoltages compared to the previous
case. The small distortion in the phase-to-ground voltages is to be expected, due to VT saturation. The maximum
instantaneous overvoltage across the open-corner delta has been reduced by about a factor of 50 and zero
sequence transient overvoltages has been effectively suppressed by addition of the damping resistor.
In summary it can be concluded that the existing VTs should be replaced with ones that are appropriate for the
actual ungrounded application i.e. replaced with VTs that are fully fluxed for applied line-to-ground voltages at or
above normal line-to-line voltage. This will provide accurate voltage measurements during ground fault conditions.
The sizing of the damping resistors across the open-corner delta should be such that the load on the PT secondary
is the full load at which the accuracy of the PT is rated. Reference [39] referred in the main text of this Technical
Brochure, for example, provides guidelines in the selection of damping resistance which depends upon the VT aircore inductance and line-to-ground capacitance.
Page 153
Figure B-8 De-energization of 13.8 kV bus
(b)
(a)
Figure B-9 (a) Re-energization of the 13.8 kV bus from the utility substation and (b) the first 500 ms showing the
ferroresonant overvoltages in more detail
Page 154
Figure B-10 Energization of the 13.8 kV bus with a 110 Ohm burden across the open-corner delta VT secondary
winding
Page 155
B.4 Ferroresonance with Power Transformer Connected to Series Compensated

Line
System studies have shown that load rejection in a 535 km long 500 kV transmission line with series compensation
could lead to ferroresonance6. This transmission line is rated for 2000 A based on the steady-state rating of the
series capacitors (Figure B-11 (a)), and under open circuit conditions, the 500 kV line charging is about 650 Mvar.
Typical high power transfers take place from Station D to Station F, which is about 1800 MW. The tertiary windings
of autotransformers have a total of 225 Mvar shunt capacitors to maintain reactive power margin at Station D
during high power transfer levels. The substation equipment and transmission line are rated for a maximum
continuous operating voltage of 600 kV to withstand line open conditions. A load rejection caused by opening of
230 kV breakers has been identified as a potential ferroresonance condition and the most severe temporary
overvoltage (TOV) condition on equipment at Station D.
The transmission line between Stations D and F will be sectionalized at Station R, about 50 km from Station D
(Figure B-11 (b))The autotransformer at Station R will have an additional 220 Mvar shunt capacitor banks installed.
In the event of a load rejection on the 230 kV side, this extra capacitance would compound the potential for
ferroresonance and temporary overvoltages seen on the 500 kV transmission network.
System studies have shown a number of load rejection scenarios that could lead to ferroresonance in the 500 kV
transmission network. Each scenario constitutes of radial operation of the 500 kV line following a load rejection
caused by opening of 230 kV breakers on the low side of the 230/500 kV autotransformers.
The main contributing factors for ferroresonance are;
Series capacitors in-service.
Radial operation of 500 kV transmission lines.
Load rejection from the 230 kV side of 230/500 kV autotransformer.
The transmission line 602 is expected to operate with series capacitors in-service at all possible times. However,
the probability of radial operation of the transmission lines and the probability of load rejection from the 230 kV side
can be considered very low. The radial operation could be due to maintenance/switching events or due to other
system constraints. A load rejection from the 230 kV side can be due to fault clearing or normal switching
operations. Therefore, the probability of having a network configuration that can initiate ferroresonance can be
considered very low. However, during such configurations, it is very likely to initiate ferroresonance that could result
in severe damage on equipment and significant outage times on a major transmission line.
The temporary overvoltages due to load rejection typically last in the range of seconds. An overvoltage condition of
this nature can be controlled by either switching shunt reactors or capacitor banks, or by using voltage controlling
devices such as static var compensators (SVC). Overvoltage relays are generally used as a last resort to
disconnect equipment. However, studies have shown that if a load rejection initiates a ferroresonance condition in
this 500 kV transmission network, none of these mitigation measures would be fast enough to protect equipment in
substations D and R.
The waveform of voltage showed ferroresonance and, based on the frequency content of voltage waveforms, it
was determined to be period-3 subharmonic ferroresonance mode, when allowed to reach steady state (Figure
B-12). The simulation results also showed that energy dissipation in surge arresters would exceed the 6 MJ rating
within 100 ms (Figure B-13).
Application of a Protection Scheme to Mitigate the Impact of Load Rejection in a 500 kV Transmission System, W.
Chandrasena, D. Jacobson, IEEE EPEC 2011, Winnipeg, Manitoba, October 3-5, 2011
Page 156
Figure B-11 500 kV transmission system

(a) Existing system; (b) Future system after sectionalisation at Station R
Voltage (kV)
500
400
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
-500
x
0.200
V_500_phase A
0.225
V_500_phase B
0.250
0.275
0.300
V_500_phase C
0.325
0.350
0.375
0.400
...
...
...
Figure B-12 Waveform of voltage at Station R showing period-3 ferroresonance
Page 157
12.0k
Arr_en_A
Arr_en_B
Arr_en_C
0.0002k
6.3319k
6.3317k
Min 0.0002k
Max 6.5472k
Diff 6.5471k
10.0k
Energy (kJ)
8.0k
6.0k
4.0k
2.0k
0.0
Arr_current A
Arr_current B
Arr_current C
-0.000
1.963
1.963
Min -1.530
Max 1.974
Diff 3.503
2.0
Current (kA)
1.0
0.0
-1.0
-2.0
1.0k
Riel_voltage A
Riel_voltage B
Riel_voltage C
0.0267k
-0.8129k
-0.8397k
Min -0.8131k
Max 0.7915k
Diff 1.6045k
0.8k
0.5k
Voltage (kV)
0.3k
0.0
-0.3k
-0.5k
-0.8k
-1.0k
x
0.125
0.150
0.175
0.200
0.225
0.250
0.275
0.300
0.325
0.178
0.274
0.096
Figure B-13 Waveform of voltage and energy dissipation in surge arresters following a load rejection at Station
D
An EMT type simulation model was developed by converting a load flow base case to EMT. This approach enabled
development of simulation cases that maintain the correct system topology and proper initialization of the initial
steady-state power flow. The frequency dependent transmission line models with transpositions were used to
represent 500 kV transmission lines. Although a frequency dependent model is not required to model
ferroresonance, the main focus was to develop a system model that can also represent electromagnetic transients
during switching events.
The autotransformers at Station D consist of three single-phase three-winding banks. The autotransformers were
represented using three single phase models with a non linear saturation curve. An open circuit V-I curve
measured up to 1.3 pu voltage was available from autotransformer test reports for Station D. The parameters for
the saturation curve were determined using these measured data. It was assumed that autotransformers at Station
R would have the same rating and saturation characteristics.
The surge arresters were modelled using non linear V-I characteristics obtained from manufacturer data. A special
custom model represented the series capacitor with the detailed protection scheme and MOV. This model
accurately represents the MOV conduction during a transient and it would by-pass the MOV if energy dissipation
exceeds their rating or through an external by-pass signal generated through line protection. The entire system
model represented the network in detail three buses away from the 230 kV buses of Stations D, F and R
Page 158
respectively. Thevenin equivalents represented the remaining network. A special custom model was used to
represent the SVC.7
Simulations were carried out to identify network configurations that could initiate ferroresonance, and also to
investigate the impact of counter measures such as protection schemes at Stations D and R. The time-domain
simulation control logic represented the expected breaker clearing times during a load rejection event based on
signal processing/relay operation times, and circuit breaker operation times to extinguish an arc (Figure B-14). In
order to simulate the worst case scenario for a load rejection, it was assumed that the 230 kV breakers would open
in one cycle, and the 500 kV and 46 kV breakers would follow their rated operating times; i.e. two cycles for 500 kV
breakers, three cycles for 46 kV breakers at Station R and five cycles for 46 kV breakers at Station D. The worst
case scenario to initiate ferroresonance was found to be a stuck breaker condition at Station D or R following load
rejection on the 230 kV side.
Figure B-14 Simulation model of protection schemes at Stations D and R
The radial operation of Station R to Station F showed several network configurations that would not initiate
ferroresonance. Simulation results showed that a load rejection on 230 kV side at Station R would initiate
ferroresonance if both 225 Mvar shunt capacitors and 225 Mvar shunt reactor were in-service or if the shunt reactor
was out-of-service, irrespective of number of shunt capacitor banks in-service (Figure B-15).
7 Sybille, G., Giroux, P., Dellwo, S., Mazur, R., Sweezy, G., Simulator and Field Testing of Forbes SVS, IEEE Trans. On Power Delivery, vol. 11, no. 3,
pp. 1507-1514, July 1996.
Page 159
Analog Graph
800
Riel_voltage:A _ 391
Riel_voltage:B _ 391
Riel_voltage:C _ 391
Riel_voltage:A 404
Riel_voltage:B 404
Riel_voltage:C 404
600
400
Voltage (kV)
200
0
-200
-400
-600
-800
800
600
400
Voltage (kV)
200
0
-200
-400
-600
-800
x
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
...
...
...
1.000
...
...
...
Analog Graph
800
Riel_voltage:A _ 391
Riel_voltage:B _ 391
Riel_voltage:C _ 391
Riel_voltage:A 404
Riel_voltage:B 404
Riel_voltage:C 404
600
400
Voltage (kV)
200
0
-200
-400
-600
-800
600
400
Voltage (kV)
200
0
-200
-400
-600
x
0.900
0.910
0.920
0.930
0.940
0.950
0.960
0.970
0.980
0.990
Figure B-15 Radial operation from Station R to Station F; all shunt capacitors out-of-service
Shunt reactor out-of-service (ferroresonance); (b) shunt reactor in-service (no ferroresonance)
Other radial network configurations such as Station D radial to Station F with Station R out-of-service or Station D
radial to Station F with Station R 230 kV side open conditions showed ferroresonance irrespective of the status of
shunt reactors.
One of the three main contributing factors for ferroresonance on this transmission system is the status of series
capacitors. The sensitivity of by-passing series capacitors following a load rejection was simulated as in Figure
B-16. Results show ferroresonance until the series capacitors are by-passed, followed by a network reconfiguration into a non-ferroresonant state.
The utility currently uses higher rated equipment to withstand temporary overvoltages along with a protection
scheme to remove the equipment within reasonable time so that any impact of such overvoltages is mitigated. For
Page 160
example, the 500 kV transmission line and associated substations are rated for 600 kV continuous operation. In
addition, a protection scheme is being used to isolate equipment if network configurations that could lead to high
temporary overvoltages and possible ferroresonant conditions are detected. This approach maintains an optimal
balance between capital investment on transmission assets and mitigating potential risks. In addition, this approach
minimizes the duty on line arresters and allows single-column IEC Class 5 arresters to be used.
It is difficult to interpret the published arrester energy ratings to determine if they are suitable for a ferroresonance
application. The energy ratings typically include:
1. Two-impulse- IEC 60099-4 (clause 8.5.5) defined switching surge operating duty test demonstrating 2
impulses over 1 minute.
2. Routine test energy- Production test demonstrating 3 impulses over 1 minute.
3. Single-impulse energy: Design test demonstrating maximum permissible energy, which the arrester may
be subjected to in a single impulse of 4 ms duration.
For this case, the ferroresonant event is closest to a single-impulse event. A typical high-voltage single-column
arrester has a single-impulse thermal energy rating between 7 and 18 kJ/kV. The arrester specification asked for a
single-impulse (4 ms) capability of 14 kJ/kV. This value was calculated by taking the worst case maximum energy
absorbed during the ferroresonant event and dividing the energy by the arrester rated voltage.
Analog Graph
1.0k
Riel_voltage 500 kV:A SC_BP
Riel_voltage 500 kV:B SC_BP
Riel_voltage 500 kV:C SC_BP
0.8k
0.6k
0.4k
Voltage (kV)
0.2k
0.0
-0.2k
-0.4k
-0.6k
-0.8k
x
0.150
0.200
0.250
0.300
0.350
0.400
Figure B-16 Impact of by-passing the series capacitors following a load rejection
Page 161
...
...
B.5
Ferroresonance of a Line VT with Circu it Breaker Grading Capacitors
A ferroresonant incident was experienced during the commissioning tests of a line bay in a new 400 kV substation
in Ireland. The circuit configuration is shown in Figure B-17 where the inductive voltage transformers are on the
substation side of the line disconnector (DL).
Following a live test consisting of the energization of the VTs from busbars with the line disconnector (DL) open,
the line VTs were de-energized by opening the circuit breaker (CB). These unusual switching operations
inadvertently left the VTs energized through the circuit breaker grading capacitors (CG), which resulted in the
formation of a ferroresonant circuit.
A loud humming noise combined with very high voltage readings alerted the commissioning engineers of the
problem, who immediately closed the circuit breaker again. This quick reaction terminated the ferroresonant
oscillation and prevented the catastrophic failure of one VT. An inspection of the disturbance records (Figure B-18)
revealed a highly distorted voltage waveform in T-phase, with amplitude of 2 pu. The other two phases presented
normal voltage waveforms.
400kV
Busbar
CT
CB
DA
400kV
Line
DL
CG
Inductive DE
VTs
DEM
Figure B-17 400 kV Line Bay

CB Closing
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
2.5
2.0
1.5
S
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
T 0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
VR
[pu]
V
[pu]
V
[pu]
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Time (ms)
Electrotek Concepts
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
TOP, The Output Processor
Figure B-18 Recorded ferroresonant voltage waveforms
As a consequence of this incident, the commissioning of the line bay was deferred and an investigation was
initiated to understand the nature of the disturbance and to assess mitigation options. The next section describes
Page 162
one of the options that were considered as part of the studies and some of the field tests carried out to evaluate its
effectiveness.
Following the VT manufacturers recommendations, a 0.5 damping resistor was connected across the open-delta
secondary windings and additional controlled tests were carried out. The circuit configuration and switching
sequence were as in the original commissioning tests: Close DA => Close CB => Open CB. The line disconnector
(DL) remained open during these switching operations and the 0.5 open-delta damping resistor was inserted into
the circuit. Several switching operations were performed resulting in two different outcomes.
The first and second switching tests resulted in normal voltage waveforms in all the phases (Figure B-19).
Following some initial oscillations, all the voltages settled to a normal steady-state suggesting that the damping
resistor had successfully prevented the onset of ferroresonance. The third switching test, however, produced a
completely different response with, apparently, the same initial conditions. The recorded waveforms are included in
Figure B-20 showing the severity of the continuous overvoltages. It can be seen that some quasi-periodic
oscillations followed the CB switching operation but, after nearly 300 ms, two phases jumped to a ferroresonant
steady-state with voltages reaching 2p.u. These waveforms were identical to those recorded on the initial tests and
demonstrated that the 0.5 open-delta damping resistor failed to suppress the harmful ferroresonant oscillations.
CB opening
V [pu]
2.0
VR
VS
VT
VN
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
1050
1100
1150
1200
Time (ms)
Figure B-19 Recorded normal voltage waveforms with 0.5
damping resistor
The frequency spectrum of the recorded ferroresonant waveforms is shown in Figure B-21 and reveals a
predominant fundamental frequency component with a number of decaying odd harmonics including the 3rd, 5th, 7th
th
and 9 . This frequency spectrum is typical of a fundamental frequency ferroresonant mode. Additional switching
tests were carried out keeping the line disconnector (DL) closed, which introduced the large zero sequence
capacitance of the line (785 nF) into the circuit. Each of these tests produced the very same response
corresponding to the normal discharge of a line through inductive VTs (Figure B-22).
Page 163
V [pu]
VR
VS
VT
VN
CB opening
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
1050
1100
1150
1200
Time (ms)
Figure B-20 Recorded ferroresonant voltage waveforms with 0.5
50
100
150
200
250
300
Frequency (Hz)
350
400
damping resistor
450
Figure B-21 Frequency Spectrum of Recorded Ferroresonant voltage waveforms of Figure B-20
The 400 kV substation was modelled in detail using an EMT type software with the purpose of simulating the
ferroresonant incident and to gain a better understanding of the phenomena. This model, when validated, was
employed to evaluate remedial actions. The model included VTs, CB, disconnectors and relevant busbars and bay
sections:
The circuit breaker grading capacitance and line bay stray capacitance were 600 pF and 460 pF,
respectively.
The VTs were modelled as three single-phase, three-winding transformers. The secondary windings were
Wye connected and the tertiary windings were in an open-delta configuration. The tertiary delta
connection was closed using a 0.5 resistor.
The magnetic behaviour of the core was represented by means of its saturation curve, derived from the noload V-I curve supplied by the manufacturer (Figure B-23).
Page 164
The VT losses were represented as a lumped resistor (182 M ) connected in parallel with the magnetizing
reactance. This resistor reproduces the no-load losses measured at rated voltage and power frequency
(293 W).
The simulation results of the switching operation leading to a sustained fundamental frequency ferroresonance are
shown in Figure B-24. These compare well with recorded waveforms shown in Figure B-20. The shape and
amplitude of the sustained ferroresonant overvoltages were reproduced with very good accuracy. The quasiperiodic oscillations prior to the steady-state ferroresonant condition, from 200 ms to 500 ms in Figure B-20, were
almost impossible to replicate, although the simulated waveforms also displayed a quasi-periodic behaviour. Even
though the exact wave shapes were slightly different, the simulation results presented sufficient replication of the
field measurements to validate the model and to use it as a basis for evaluating mitigation options.
Several mitigation options were assessed and these can be summarized as follows:
0.5 open-delta damping resistor was not effective in suppressing ferroresonance, as proved by field tests
and simulations. Lower resistance values were not practical due to thermal limitations in the secondary
windings.
50 M resistor connected across the HV winding could suppress ferroresonance. This solution, however,
would imply extra losses of 28 MWh per year.
50
resistor connected across the Y secondary can successfully quench resonance. Consideration
should be given to the effect of this added load on the operation of protection relays connected to the same
winding.
1 Mvar air-core reactor connected across the HV winding can prevent the onset of ferroresonance.
Capacitive VTs were not an option since fast line discharge is essential for the auto-reclose scheme.
VT relocation to the line side of DL was considered. The permanent connection of the 95 km long line
capacitance (785nF) detunes the circuit and prevents ferroresonance. Field tests and simulation results
confirmed it.
An interlocking scheme to prevent the series connection of the VTs with the CB grading capacitors when
DL is open and DA is closed was also considered.
VTs with higher saturation knee are under consideration for future installations.
VR
[pu]
VS
[pu]
VT
[pu]
8_u-Voltage (Mag pu) 7_u-Voltage (Mag pu) 6_u-Voltage (Mag pu) 5_u-Voltage (Mag pu)
CB Opening
VN
[pu]
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Time (ms)
Electrotek Concepts
TOP, The Output Processor
Figure B-22 Recorded line discharge voltage waveforms with DL closed
Page 165
450
400
350
U [kV]
300
250
200
150
100
50
I [mA]
0
0
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Figure B-23 400 kV VT Saturation Curve
2.500
[V ]
1.875
1.250
VR
[pu]
0.625
0.000
-0.625
-1.250
-1.875
-2.500
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
[s]
1.0
0.4
0.6
0.8
[s]
1.0
0.4
0.6
0.8
[s]
1.0
(f ile VT_resonanc e_sc an_s tray -c ap_266.2_VT_1ph.pl4; x-v ar t) v :SV_VTA
2.500
[V ]
1.875
1.250
VS
[pu]
0.625
0.000
-0.625
-1.250
-1.875
-2.500
0.0
0.2
(f ile VT_resonanc e_sc an_s tray -c ap_266.2_VT_1ph.pl4; x-v ar t) v :SV_VTB
2.500
[V]
1.875
1.250
VT
[pu]
0.625
0.000
-0.625
-1.250
-1.875
-2.500
0.0
0.2
2.500
1.875
1.250
VN
[pu]
0.625
0.000
-0.625
-1.250
-1.875
-2.500
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Figure B-24 Simulation of Ferroresonant Condition
Page 166
0.8
[s ]
1.0
B.6
Ferroresonance on Transformer Energization from a Weak Network
Progressive re-energizing of transformers can be made from hydroelectric or gas turbine power units in view to
avoid transient resonances.
However, the risk of ferroresonance subsists, especially when the total rated power of the transformers reaches a
high value, depending on the short-circuit power value of the network [30], [43], [44], [53], [90].
One case of steady-state ferroresonance has been encountered during one of the earliest black start restoration
field tests performed with a hydroelectric power unit, in 1982.
Figure B-25 shows the network used. The hydro unit apparent power is 90 MVA, and the rated generator voltage is
15kV. There are two sets of nuclear power unit step-up and auxiliary transformers (total of 2x1140 MVA). The
network is composed of 225kV lines, 340km long, and of two 400 kV lines between the nuclear units and the grid
connection point, 20km long, and includes a 300MVA autotransformer. Due to the high reactive power generated
by the unloaded long EHV lines, partial reactive power compensation is needed. For this purpose, a 64 MVar shunt
reactor is connected to the tertiary of another 300 MVA autotransformer whose 400 kV winding is not connected to
the bus.
In spite of progressive raising of the voltage on the lines and at the terminals of the different transformers and
autotransformers, and despite the low set-point of 0.9 p.u. applied to the automatic voltage regulator of the hydro
unit, ferroresonance appeared at the end of this process. The ferroresonance was characterized by slowly
fluctuating overvoltages and overcurrents, with harmonics. The hydro unit had to be disconnected to stop the
phenomena.
The ferroresonant phenomenon appears pseudo-periodic. The overvoltages were up to 1.2 p.u. on the generator
terminals and up to 2.5 p.u. on the 225 kV at the grid connection point of the hydroelectric unit (Figure B-26).
After this unsuccessful test, different tests were performed, which conclude to the feasibility of the black start of
only one set of nuclear power unit step-up and auxiliary transformers totalizing 1140MVA. The tests performed
regularly for the last thirty years confirm this conclusion, no other ferroresonant phenomena have been noticed.
The theoretical studies done on this ferroresonant case with the help of bifurcation theory, demonstrate the
difficulty of predicting such pseudo-periodic phenomena [30], [43], [44], [53], [90].
In practice, the limitation on the number of transformers or the total MVA of the transformers to be re-energized, in
association with a reduced set-point applied to the AVR and a very progressive raising of the voltage, are the key
factors for successfully re-energizing these transforms through long lines during a black start. The progressive
raising of the voltage may take a few tens of seconds, and can be easily achieved by means of a numerical ramp
on the AVR.
Page 167
Figure B-25 Black supply EHV network configuration leading to ferroresonance
Page 168
Figure B-26 Recordings of the three generator terminal voltage, of one phase-to-ground line voltage, of the
generator field voltage and frequency, during the ferroresonant phenomena
Page 169

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RESONANCE AND

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Resonance and Ferroresonance in Power Networks

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Resonance and Ferroresonance in Power Networks

Resonance and Ferroresonance in Power Networks

Resonance and Ferroresonance in

INTRODUCTION TO RESONANCE AND FERRORESONANCE ........................................... 8

UNDERSTANDING RESONANCE AND FERRORESONANCE ........................................... 11

Introducing Resonance ..................................................................................................................... 11

TYPICAL NETWORK TOPOLOGIES LEADING TO RESONANCE IN TRANSMISSION

RESONANCE IN SHUNT COMPENSATED TRANSMISSION CIRCUITS ............................. 44

Resonance and Ferroresonance in Power Networks

NETWORK CONFIGURATIONS LEADING TO FERRORESONANCE................................. 88

Ferroresonance in voltage transformers (VT)..................................................................................... 88

Analytical Solution Methods .............................................................................................................. 99

MODELLING AND STUDYING ........................................................................................... 99

MITIGATION OF FERRORESONANCE ............................................................................ 109

Mitigation of VT Ferroresonance ..................................................................................................... 109

RESONANCE EXAMPLES ................................................................................................. 124

Resonance and Ferroresonance in Power Networks

FERRORESONANCE EXAMPLES...................................................................................... 146

Power Transformer Terminated Line Ferroresonance ...................................................................... 146

Resonance and Ferroresonance in Power Networks

Compilation of technical documentation related to the phenomena of resonance and ferroresonance in

Resonance and Ferroresonance in Power Networks

Resonance and Ferroresonance in Power Networks

INTRODUCTION TO RESONANCE AND FERRORESONANCE

Resonance and Ferroresonance in Power Networks

Resonance and Ferroresonance in Power Networks

Resonance and Ferroresonance in Power Networks

UNDERSTANDING RESONANCE AND FERRORESONANCE

2.1 Introducing Resonance

2.1.2 Series and Parallel Resonance

Resonance and Ferroresonance in Power Networks

Figure 2-1 Series (a) and parallel (b) resonant circuits

2.1.3 Duality of Series and Parallel Resonant Circuits

Resonance and Ferroresonance in Power Networks

a) Excitation by Voltage Source

b) Excitation by Current Source

Resonance and Ferroresonance in Power Networks

Resonance and Ferroresonance in Power Networks

(file current_injection.pl4; x-var f ) v:C_S

(file current_injection.pl4; x-var f) a:C_S

Figure 2-4 Driving impedance of series-parallel circuit as a function of frequency (C S = CP = 1 nF, L = 1 H)

Resonance and Ferroresonance in Power Networks

50kohm_source_impedance.pl4: v:L_____100kohm_source_impedance.pl4: v:L_____500kohm_source_impedance.pl4: v:L_____1Mohm_source_impedance.pl4: v:L_____-

500kohm_source_impedance.pl4: v:L_____1Mohm_source_impedance.pl4: v:L_____3Mohm_source_impedance.pl4: v:L_____5Mohm_source_impedance.pl4: v:L_____-

Resonance and Ferroresonance in Power Networks

f (resonance) = 5.02 kHz for CP = 5 pF

f (resonance) = 3.55 kHz

Figure 2-8 Shifting in resonance frequency in a series-parallel circuit as a function of CP (C S = 1 nF, L = 1 H)

2.1.4 Free Oscillations in Electric Circuits

Resonance and Ferroresonance in Power Networks

(file Fig_2-1.pl4; x-var t) v:U_L -

Figure 2-9 Behaviour of undamped circuit (a) Ideal L-C Circuit

(b) Free oscillations in ideal L-C circuit

(f ile Fig_2-2.pl4; x-v ar t) v :U_L

Figure 2-10 Behaviour of damped circuit (a) R-L-C Circuit

(b) Damped free oscillations

Resonance and Ferroresonance in Power Networks

(f ile f ig_2-3a.pl4; x-v ar t) v :U_L -

(f ile f ig_2-3b.pl4; x-v ar t) v :U_L