Melody Baglione

Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering

melody@cooper.edu

Introduction
41 Cooper Square uses six air handling units (AHU) to heat, cool, humidify, and ventilate all
indoor spaces. The Building Management System (BMS) utilizes an array of sensors to
identify heating, cooling, and ventilation demands throughout the building. The BMS
analyzes this data with a series of computational algorithms, and subsequently controls the
buildings AHUs to maintain comfortable indoor conditions in an efficient manner.

Figure 1. Exterior view of an AHU from the roof of 41 Cooper Square.

Air handling units are large heat exchangers, in which a flow of air is heated or cooled using
water-filled heating and cooling coils. The air handling units draw air from outside the
building using large centrifugal fans, and pass this flow through various smaller heat
exchangers, filters, and humidifiers to supply air at the temperature and relative humidity
specified by the BMS. Additionally, carbon-dioxide levels are monitored throughout the
building in order to ensure that air-handling units are providing a sufficient flow of fresh air
to keep indoor spaces safely ventilated. Figure 2 depicts one type of air-handling unit
installed at 41 Cooper Square.

Figure 2. Schematic of 100% Outside Air AHU with Dehumidification Coil.

Figure 2 shows an AHU that treats a flow consisting of only outside air. Some other units in
41 Cooper Square are fitted with humidifiers or recirculation systems. This schematic,
however, provides a good overview of the basic components of an AHU. First, the flow
passes through a damper, which can be opened or closed to allow air to be taken into the
unit. The air is subsequently filtered and passed through three radiator coils that heat, cool,
and dehumidify the flow. It should be noted that these coils are filled with primary hot or
chilled water from the boiler or chiller, respectively. The treated air, at the desired
temperature and relative humidity, is subsequently passed through a centrifugal fan before
it is directed to indoor spaces at the desired flow rate using supply dampers.

Background
Psychrometrics:
The study of the thermodynamic properties of humid air (a water vapor and air mixture) is
known as psychrometrics. Psychrometrics allow engineers to define and quantify the state
and energy content of a water vapor and dry atmospheric air mixture using seven distinct
properties [1], listed below:
1.

Dry Bulb Temperature: The Dry Bulb Temperature is the temperature of the air and

water vapor mixture as measured by a simple thermometer. (Measured in Celsius or

Fahrenheit)
2.

Wet Bulb (or Saturation) Temperature: When discussing a mixture of water vapor and

air, the Wet Bulb Temperature is the temperature that a volume of air would have if
cooled adiabatically to saturation by the evaporation of water, all latent heat being supplied
by the volume of air. This property is usually measured using a wet bulb thermometer or
psychrometer (Measured in Celsius or Fahrenheit).
3.

Relative Humidity: A quantity used to describe the ratio of water vapor to air in a humid

air sample. Thermodynamically, this quantity is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure
of water vapor in the air-water mixture to the saturated vapor pressure of water at the same
conditions (pressure and temperature of the mixture). (Usually stated as a percentage)
4.

Dew Point: The temperature at which the water vapor in humid air begins to condense.

When air is at 100% relative humidity, it is at dew point and water vapor will begin to
condense if it is cooled any further. (Measured in Celsius or Fahrenheit)
5.

Humidity Ratio: The Humidity Ratio is defined as the mass ratio of liquid water to dry

air in a gas and vapor mixture. This quantity is usually expressed in pounds of moisture per
pound of dry air.
6.

Specific enthalpy: Enthalpy is a thermodynamic quantity equivalent to the total heat

content of a substance, equal to the internal energy of the mixture plus the product of
pressure and volume: h = u + pv. Specific enthalpy is the enthalpy of the humid per unit
mass of dry air, and is usually expressed in Btu/lb of dry air or KJ/kg of dry air.
7.

Specific Volume: The volume of an air and water vapor mixtusre that contains one unit

mass of dry air. Usually expressed in cubic meters per kilogram of dry air, or cubic feet per
pound of dry air.
These seven properties are graphically represented on psychometric chart, also known as
Mollier Diagram, shown below in English units. The colored lines represent constant values
of the corresponding property shown in the legend. Note, however, that the Dew Point line

only exists where it is depicted in blue, coinciding with the line of constant 100% Relative
Humidity (RH). This blue curve is also known as the saturation line.

Figure 3. Psychometric Chart. [2]

Using this chart, any two properties of humid air can be used to determine the other five
thermodynamic properties listed above. A psychometric chart allows HVAC engineers to
completely define the state of a water vapor and dry air mixture on a single diagram. Using
this chart, it is possible to determine which processes are necessary to treat outside air to a
desired temperature and humidity content. For example, the following two figures show the
manner in which hot, humid summer air is treated to comfortable set points.

Figure 4. Cooling and dehumidification process shown on psychometric chart.

Figure 5. Schematic of cooling and dehumidification process in AHU.

The outside air starts at a dry bulb temperature of 80 F and 80% relative humidity,
depicted as Point 1 in the figures above. After passing through various filters, the flow is
cooled by the cooling coils to the dew point temperature. As it cools further, water
condenses out of the mixture, effectively dehumidifying the air until it reaches point 2. At
this point, the flow is passed through a reheating coil that brings the temperature of the flow
up to the nominal AHU supply set point of 55 F, while decreasing the humidity level to
60% [3]. Note, the first heating coil is not utilized in this process. This heating coil is
primarily used to heat outside air during the winter months.

AHU Design
41 Cooper Square uses six air handling units to provide treated air to classroom, office,
auditorium and laboratory spaces. There are two main design differences between the six
AHUs in 41 Cooper Square. First, AHUs can either be fitted with a humidifier or reheating
coil. Second, the AHUs can either utilize 100% outside air or be fitted with a recirculation
system. The application and principle of operation of these different designs are briefly
covered in the following two sections [4].

Humidifier vs. Reheat Coil

The Rose Auditorium and most of the classrooms and offices in 41 Cooper Square are
fitted with a radiant heating and cooling system. When in cooling operation, it is possible for
the surface of the copper tubing in the radiant panels to be below the dew point
temperature of the indoor air, and consequently cause condensation. This condensate can
drip down from the panels and potentially damage electronic equipment. Consequently, it is
important to dehumidify the air that enters spaces fitted with radiant cooling system. To
accomplish this, AHUs 2, 3, and 6 are fitted with reheating coils. The reheating coils allow
humid air to be dehumidified as illustrated in the Background section. Below is a BMS
screenshot of AH-3, which utilizes a reheat coil to provide treated air to classrooms and
offices in the cellar and on the ground floor.

Figure 6. BMS Screenshot of AH-3, which uses 100% outside air and a reheat coil.

Laboratory spaces in 41 Cooper Square are not fitted with radiant cooling systems.
Consequently, air for these spaces is supplied by AHUs fitted with humidifiers that serve to
increase the moisture content in the flow of air. These humidifier units simply spray droplets
of liquid water into the dry air. The droplets absorb heat from the air to evaporate and form
a vapor-gas mixture. Humidifiers are usually fitted downstream from heating coils so that
dry winter air that has been heated can be brought up to a comfortable humidity level. The
figures below depict this heating and humidification process on a psychometric chart and
air handler schematic, respectively.

Figure 7. Heating and humidification of cold, dry air shown on psychometric chart.

Figure 8. Schematic of heating and humidification process in AHU

The psychometric chart and schematic show how cold outside air is drawn in at 40 F and
20 % Relative Humidity, depicted as point 1. From point 1 to point 2, the dry bulb
temperature increases and the relative humidity decreases as the flow passes through the
heating coil. At point 2, the flow is at the nominal supply temperature of 55 F, but is very
dry (RH 10%). Thus, the flow is passed through the humidifier, effectively increasing the
relative humidity to a comfortable 60%.The screenshot below shows a BMS diagram of AH1, which is fitted with a humidifier to serve laboratory spaces in Lower Level 2.

Figure 9. BMS Screenshot of AH-1, which uses 100% outside air and a humidifier.

100% Outside Air vs. Recirculation System

Building codes require that all air which is circulated through laboratory spaces must be
immediately exhausted outside the building in order to prevent potential contamination of
the air supply system by harmful substances present in these laboratories. Using an air
handling unit which treats 100% outside air to ventilate these spaces would be extremely
wasteful and inefficient, as the energy invested into cooling or heating the air would only be
utilized momentarily before being exhausted back outside. Consequently, 41 Cooper
Square utilizes an innovative re-circulation system that allows treated air from nonlaboratory spaces air to be recycled, and used to ventilate laboratory spaces before being
exhausted.
41 Cooper Square has a large central atrium around which most classrooms and offices
are located. These classroom and office spaces are ventilated using AHUs that treat 100%
fresh air. This fresh treated air enters the classroom and office spaces and is naturally
exhausted to the large central atrium. At the top of the atrium, large air handling units reuse this treated air to meet ventilation demands in the buildings laboratories. The
schematic below represents an AHU system with recirculation.

Figure 10. Schematic of Air-Handler with Recirculation from Atrium.

The schematic above illustrates the manner in which the recirculation system can be used
during the winter months to efficiently ventilate the building with warm air. The recirculation
system draws warm indoor air from the top of the atrium using a large centrifugal fan. Some
of this flow is exhausted outside the building, while the other portion is directed towards the
air handling unit. At this point, the warm return flow is mixed with fresh, but cold, outside air
and treated to the appropriate temperature and humidity set points. By mixing the warm
return air with cold outside air, the AHUs heating load and energy consumption are
significantly reduced. Theoretically, it would be most efficient to treat only the return flow of
air in a continuous loop. However, as air is passed through the building, it is contaminated
with carbon dioxide from the occupants. Thus, it is always necessary to mix a certain
amount of fresh air with the return flow in order to keep the building properly ventilated.
The flow rates of the outside air, return, exhaust and supply flows is modulated using
variable air dampers. The BMScontrols the position of these dampers (the degree to which
they are opened or closed) by monitoring the flow rate, temperature, humidity, and carbon
dioxide levels of the four flows with a large array of sensors. By analyzing the collected
data, the BMS is able to calculate a ratio of return air and outside air that can be treated
efficiently to meet the buildings ventilation demands, and subsequently output appropriate
commands to the AHUs dampers and other components. Below is a BMS screenshot of
AH-4, which ventilates laboratory spaces on levels 3 through 9 of 41 Cooper Square.

Figure 11. BMS screenshot of AHU #4, which controls most of the lab spaces in 41
Cooper Square.

The BMS screenshot above shows the location of various sensors in the air handling unit.
It should also be noted that this air handling unit is connected in parallel with AH-5, which
also recirculates air from the atrium. A similar system is used in the Rose Auditorium,
where significant energy savings can be achieved in treating the large space with a
recirculation system.
AHUs with re-circulation systems have a greater upfront cost than those that use only
100% outside air. This increase in cost is largely due to the installation of the ducts and
hardware necessary to collect and recirculate the return flow. 41 Cooper Squares central
atrium, however, allows the return flow to be conveniently collected at single point using
natural ventilation. Thus, the building is able to efficiently treat small spaces with high
occupancy rates, like classrooms and offices, with 100% outside air, and cheaply re-use
this air to treat spaces with high ventilation demands, like the auditorium and laboratories.

Air Delivery: VAV Dampers and Reheat Coils

Once air is treated by the AHUs, it is sent through a channel of ducts to rooms throughout
the building. Each room in 41 Cooper Square is fitted Variable Air Volume (VAV) dampers.
These dampers control the flow of air into each room. Using these VAV dampers, the BMS
is able to supply each room with the minimum amount of air required to maintain
comfortable indoor conditions. For example, if an office is unoccupied, the VAV will only be

opened slightly so that 40 CFM of air is allowed into the space, the minimum airflow
required by New York Building codes. Reducing the airflow when unoccupied reduces the
buildings overall energy consumption. Below is a BMS screenshot of an unoccupied office
space illustrating the manner in which the VAV damper is used to control airflow into the
room.

Figure 12. BMS Screenshot of HVAC systems in an office, regulated by AHU #6.

Some VAV dampers in the building, particularly those found in large spaces like classrooms
and laboratories, are fitted with reheat coils that treat the flow of air prior to entering the
room. These reheat coils allow the supply air temperature to be modulated according to the
needs of individual spaces. Below is a BMS screenshot that shows a reheat coil fitted to the
VAV damper in laboratory 407. In addition, the BMS laboratory 407 control panel illustrates
the extensive fume hood exhaust systems that are installed in laboratory spaces to ensure
that dangerous fumes can be safely ventilated out of the building.

Figure 13. BMS screenshot of HVAC systems in a lab space, highlighing the VAV
damper that regulates airflow supplied into the room by the AHU.

Control:
The BMS controls the operation of the AHUs to efficiently deliver air at the specified
temperature and humidity. In addition, the BMS controls the flow of supply air to the various
spaces to meet ventilation requirements. A brief overview of the various control sequences
utilized by the BMS to operate these various air handling systems is provided the following
sections.

Control of AHU with 100% Outside Air:

The AHUs that treat 100% outside air consist of a single flow of treated air. Below is a BMS
screenshot of AH-6 that highlights the various sensors and actuators used to monitor and
control this type of AHU. First, the BMS opens the outside air (OA) damper to allow the unit
to intake fresh outside air to be treated. This outside air is passed through various filters. In
order to ensure that the filters are not clogged and functioning properly, the differential

pressure (the difference between the air pressure before and after the filter) is measured
using a differential pressure (DP) sensor. If the BMS detects a pressure drop exceeding a
safe set point, an alarm is activated to notify technicians [3].

Figure 14. Components of an AHU as viewed by the BMS. This particiular air handler is
AHU #6, which controls the airflow through most of the classrooms and offices in 41
Cooper Square.

After filtration, the flow passes through various heating and cooling coils. The exact number
and arrangement of these coils depends upon the type of room served by the AHU, as
outlined in the Background section. However, after each heating or cooling coil, the
temperature of the airflow is monitored by a resistance temperature detectors (RTD)
temperature sensor. Using this temperature data, the BMS regulates the flow rate of
primary water through the coils. For example, if the BMS detects that the airflow is too cold
upon exiting the heating coil, the electronic valve actuator opens the valve allowing a
greater primary hot water flow rate to enter the coil [3].

Treated air at the desired temperature and relative humidity is subsequently passed
through a large centrifugal fan. The AHUs fan motor is controlled using a Variable
Frequency Drive (VFD), which allows the BMS to modulate the operating speed and power
consumption of the fan to meet ventilation demands. The BMS controls the fans
operational speed as a function of the static pressure (SP) in the supply duct. When the
supply SP is detected as falling below 2 inches of water column the fan speed is
increased [3]. Conversely, when this SP set point in exceeded, the fan motor is ramped
down to conserve energy. After exiting the fan, the temperature and humidity level of the
flow are fed back to control the heating, cooling, and humidifying elements in the AHUs.

Control of AHUs with Re-Circulation:

There are additional sensors and actuators necessary to control the mixture of outside air
and return air that is input to an air handling unit with re-circulation. Below is a BMS
screenshot of AH-4, which depicts the various sensors and actuators used to control the recirculation system.

Figure 15. Components of AHU#4, viewed from the BMS.

As described in the Background section, the return airflow for AH-4 is collected at the top of
the atrium. The temperature, relative humidity, and carbon dioxide content of this return
flow are monitored using sensors in the return duct. The return flow is subsequently passed
through a centrifugal fan. The fans speed is controlled by a VFD as a function of the static
pressure at the discharge point.
After passing through the fan, the flow is either exhausted outside the building or redirected towards the air-handling unit. The flow rate of air that is exhausted and recirculated is controlled using variable air dampers, which are opened or closed by the BMS.
The outside air damper in this type of unit is also variable, and the BMS is consequently
able to control the exact ratio of fresh and return air that is treated by the AHU. This ratio is
mainly controlled as a function of the carbon dioxide content in the return airflow.
The flow rate of air to the various spaces is controlled by the required ventilation in the
various building spaces. Ventilation rates to indoor spaces are commonly quantified in
terms of the number of times all the total volume of air in the space has been exhausted
and replaced with treated air. For example, occupied laboratory spaces are programmed to
receive between 10 and 12 air changes per hour. In order to conserve energy, this set point
is lowered to 4 air changes per hour when the laboratory is unoccupied [5].
AHUs with re-circulation systems are also outfitted with a free cooling feature, which allows
the unit to detect when conditions allow for maximum use of the re-circulation system to
reduce energy consumption. As outlined in the Sequence of Operations, the AHU detects
that the outside supply air (OSA) enthalpy is greater than the return air enthalpy, and closes
the OSA damper to provide only the minimum amount of fresh air to meet ventilation
demands. Thus, the AHU is able to conserve energy by utilizing return air that is already
cooled below atmospheric conditions to lower the units cooling load [3]

[1]Y. engel and M. Boles. Thermodynamics: an engineering approach, 7th ed. New York,
McGraw-Hill, 2011[2] "Psychrometric Chart Use (inner frame)." Homepages Web Server UITS - University of Connecticut. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Feb.
2012. http://www.sp.uconn.edu/~mdarre/NE127/NewFiles/psychrometric_inset.html[3] G.
Sampton. Sequence of Operation The New Academic Building of Cooper Union.
Morphosis Architects, Los Angeles, CA, Rep. 15959, June 2005. p. 4-6.
[4] GMP Set - The New Academic Building of Cooper Union Modular Outdoor Air
Handling Units. Syska Hennessy Group, New York, NY, 2007.
[5] Laboratory Ventilation Codes and Standards, Rev. 4, Siemens Building Technologies
Inc., Munich, Germany, 2002, pp. 19.