Journal of Food Engineering 78 (2007) 13431354

www.elsevier.com/locate/jfoodeng

Laminar ow of soursop juice through concentric annuli:

Friction factors and rheology
A.C.A. Gratao a, V. Silveira Jr. a, J. Telis-Romero

b,*

Departamento de Engenharia de Alimentos, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, C.P. 6121,
Campinas, 13083-862 SP, Brazil
Departamento de Engenharia e Tecnologia de Alimentos, Universidade Estadual Paulista, Sao Jose do Rio Preto, 15054-000 SP, Brazil
Received 29 July 2005; accepted 4 January 2006
Available online 24 February 2006

Abstract
Laminar axial ow of a pseudoplastic uid food (soursop juice) in annular ducts has been experimentally investigated. In the rst part
of the manuscript, the rheological behavior of soursop juice, being essential for the annular ow analysis, was completely determined
from 9.3 to 49.4 Brix and temperatures from 0.4 C to 68.8 C, using a rotational rheometer equipped with coaxial cylinders. In order
to test the adequacy of the rheology results, pressure loss data in the laminar pipe ow were collected and then experimental and theoretical friction factors were compared, showing excellent agreement, which indicated the reliability of the Power-Law model for describing the soursop juices. In the second part, pressure loss in annular regions was measured and used to estimate friction factors, which were
then compared to those resulted from analytical and semi-analytical equations. The principal contributions of this article are to provide a
review on the determination of friction factors-Reynolds number of pseudoplastic uids in annuli, and also supply extensive new experimental data on the rheological properties and pressure loss of an important shear-thinning uid food, which is of particular interest for
the food engineering process design.
 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Soursop juice; Rheology; Power-Law; Friction factor; Laminar ow; Concentric annuli

1. Introduction
Laminar ow of non-Newtonian uids in annuli has
many industrial applications such as the drilling of oil wells
and the extrusion of molten plastic and polymer solutions.
Annular geometries are also found in industries leading
with the transport of slurries and suspensions such as processed foodstu, sewage and other industrial waste, synthetic bers and even blood. Of particular interest for the
food industry is the ow of non-Newtonian liquids in concentric annular ducts used as regenerators in pasteurization
processes. Thus, the annular space is an important geometric conguration in the design of many uid-ow and heat

Corresponding author. Fax: +55 17 32212299.

E-mail address: javier@ibilce.unesp.br (J. Telis-Romero).

0260-8774/$ - see front matter  2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2006.01.006

transfer devices, such as the cored-cylindrical extruders and

the double-pipe and triple-pipe heat exchangers.
Fredrickson and Bird (1958a) were perhaps one of the
rst to theoretically analyze the isothermal and laminar
fully developed ow of an incompressible, inelastic
Power-Law uid in concentric annuli. In a subsequent
paper, Fredrickson and Bird (1958b) showed how their previous results could be interpreted in terms of the friction
factors, usually used in engineering process design. Hanks
and Larsen (1979) simplied the solution of Fredrickson
and Bird (1958a), while Prasanth and Shenoy (1992) and
David and Filip (1996) derived algebraic equations for
the pressure drop predictions. Kozicki et al. (1966)
extended the RabinowitschMooney equation for PowerLaw, Bingham and Rabinowitsch uids in ducts of arbitrary cross section (circular, slit, concentrically annular,
rectangular, elliptical and isosceles triangular ducts); they

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A.C.A. Gratao et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 78 (2007) 13431354

Nomenclature
a
dvz
dr

D
Dh
Ea
f
fexp
ftheo
K
L
n

n
r
r*
R
Ri
Rh
Reg
Remr

geometric constant dened by Kozicki, Chou,

and Tiu (1966) (dimensionless), Eq. (11)
local shear rate (s1), Eq. (1)
tube diameter (m)
equivalent diameter (m)
ow activation energy (J mol1), Eq. (20)
Fanning friction factor (dimensionless)
friction factor obtained from experimental
pressure loss data (dimensionless)
Fanning friction factor obtained theoretically
(dimensionless)
consistency index (Pa sn), Eq. (1)
tube length (m)
ow behavior index (dimensionless), Eq. (1)
average ow behavior index (dimensionless)
radial coordinate in cylindrical systems (m)
dimensionless radial coordinate (r/R)
internal radius of the outer cylinder for two
coaxial cylinders (m)
external radius of the inner cylinder for two
coaxial cylinders (m)
hydraulic radius (m)
generalized Reynolds number (dimensionless),
Eq. (7)
MetznerReed Reynolds number (dimensionless), Eq. (4)

also presented a generalization of the Fanning friction factor-Reynolds number based on a numerical determination
of the velocity proles, which requires the determination of
two geometric parameters. Tuoc and Mcgiven (1994) also
proposed a new theoretical derivation for the friction factor applicable to all time-independent non-Newtonian uids, which is identical to the expression proposed by
Delplace and Leuliet (1995) for cylindrical ducts of arbitrary cross-section (concentric annuli, isosceles triangular
and elliptical ducts). Vaughn and Bergman (1966), Russel
and Christiansen (1974) and Ilicali and Engez (1996) proposed similar design methods to predict pressure loss in
fully developed annular ow of Power-Law uids from
pipe ow data, while the laminar entrance region was theoretically studied by Tiu and Bhattacharyya (1973), Nouar,
Ouldrouis, Salem, and Legrand (1995) and Maia and
Gasparetto (2003).
In the last 10 years, purely numerical procedures have
been used to solve the complete problem of uid ow
and heat transfer of non-Newtonian uids in concentric
and eccentric annular geometries with and without
centre-body rotation (Escudier, Oliveira, & Pinho, 2002;
Escudier, Oliveira, Pinho, & Smith, 2002; Fang, Manglik,
& Jog, 1999; Kaneda, Yu, Ozoe, & Churchill, 2003; Manglik & Fang, 2002; Nouar, Benaouda-Zouaoui, & Desaubry,

RemrRh Reynolds number based on the mean hydraulic

radius (dimensionless)
Ren,j
Reynolds number dened by Fredrickson and
Bird (1958b) (dimensionless), Eq. (14)
T
temperature (C or K)
vz
local axial ow velocity (m s1)
vz
average axial ow velocity (m s1)
xs
content of soluble solids (Brix)
Greek letters
DP
pressure drop (Pa)
/
function dened in Eq. (8) (dimensionless)
c
function dened by Fredrickson and Bird
(1958a), Eq. (16)
g0
model parameter (Pa sn), Eq. (20)
j
annulus aspect ratio (dimensionless)
k
location of maximum uid velocity in an
annulus (dimensionless), Eq. (17)
q
uid density (kg m3)
srz
local shear stress (Pa), Eq. (1)
t
parameter dened in Eq. (8) (dimensionless)
n
geometric parameter (dimensionless), Eq. (9)
Xp
function of the volume rate of ow dened by
Fredrickson and Bird (1958a), Eq. (15)

2000; Soares, Naccache, & Mendes, 2003; Viana, Nascimento, Quaresma, & Macedo, 2001), which is very interesting from a theoretical point of view, but not easily
applicable. On the other hand, few studies report experimental pressure loss and friction factors-Reynolds number
data (Escudier, Gouldson, & Jones, 1995; Ilicali & Engez,
1996; Tuoc & Mcgiven, 1994; Vaughn, 1963; Vaughn &
Bergman, 1966). Also, since the early experimental work
of Tiu and Bhattacharyya (1974), extensive attention has
been undertaken to determine experimental velocity proles (Escudier et al., 1995; Nouri, Umur, & Whitelaw,
1993; Nouri & Whitelaw, 1994).
The soursop juice was chosen as the uid test in this
manuscript due to its rheological behavior (shear-thinning
uid) and its important potential for the international market. Soursop (Annona muricata L.), known as graviola in
Brazil and guanabana in Mexico, is a popular fruit tree cultivated throughout the tropical regions of the world and
prized for its very pleasant, sub-acid, aromatic, juicy esh
and distinctive avor. The soursop pulp is widely used
for manufacturing various juice blends, nectars, syrups,
shakes, jams, jellies, preserves and ice creams (Ledo,
1996; Umme, Salmah, Jamilah, & Asbi, 1999); it is also a
raw material for powders, fruit bars and akes (Umme,
Bambang, Salmah, & Jamilah, 2001). Like most tropical

A.C.A. Gratao et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 78 (2007) 13431354

fruits, the soursop has a great potential for exportation and

it is able to compete in the international market, either as
puree, juice or as mixtures with other juices (Jaramillo-Flores & Hernandez-Sanchez, 2000). Its pulp has been already
found in European, North American and Brazilian
markets.
The rheological parameters of soursop juice are essential
subsidies for the evaluation of friction factors. Actually,
the determination of rheology is totally concerned with
the modeling and optimization of the unit processes. In the
food industry, juices are the most important liquid derivatives of fruits and their ow characteristics have been
an extensive topic of study in the last years (Cepeda & Villara`n, 1999; Giner, Ibarz, Garza, & Xhian-Quan, 1996;
Ibarz, Garvin, & Costa, 1996). However, to the authors
knowledge, no studies on the rheological behavior of soursop juice have been reported. Therefore, the design of unit
operations, such as pumping, mixing, heat exchange and
evaporation are hindered due to the inexistence of simple
mathematical equations that express the temperature and
concentration dependence of the rheological parameters.
Many uids of interest in industrial practice are non-Newtonian in nature and dierent empirical equations are available for the description of their rheological behavior, such
as the HerschelBulkley model (Barbosa Canovas & Peleg,
1983; Saenz & Costell, 1986; Saravacos & Kostaropoulos,
1995) and the Ostwaldde Waele model, also known as
the Power-Law, which is one of the most extensively used
to describe the rheological behavior of fruit juices (Rao,
Cooley, & Vitali, 1984). The two-parameter Power-Law
model is often sucient for industrial purposes and provides a reasonable representation of many practical
shear-thinning uids.
According to the facts described previously, the principal aim of this manuscript is to provide extensive new
experimental data on pressure loss and friction factors of
a pseudoplastic uid food owing through a concentric
annulus in laminar, fully developed regime; the current
work also summarizes dierent methodologies to determine the friction factors-Reynolds number. In addition, a
complete rheological characterization of soursop juice
was obtained, and simple equations were established to
correlate the rheological data under dierent temperature
(0.4 C to 68.8 C) and concentration (9.349.4 Brix) conditions. Finally, the adequacy of the Power-Law model for
describing the soursop juices was veried through the
experimental values of pressure loss in the laminar pipe
ow of soursop juices.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Raw material: soursop juices
All the experimental measurements were made with
samples prepared from the same batch of concentrated
soursop juice (51.2 Brix and 2.8% pulp content), produced
from soursop fruit (Annona muricata L.) in a single-stage

1345

T.A.S.T.E. evaporator and stored at 17 C. In order

to acquire dierent water contents, the concentrated juice
was diluted with distilled water to obtain juices containing
9.3, 19.1, 24.3, 29.4, 34.6, 38.8, 44.6 and 49.4 Brix. The
density of soursop juice at dierent temperatures (0.4
68.8 C) and concentrations (9.349.4 Brix) was obtained
in triplicate by pycnometry (Constenla, Lozano, & Crapiste, 1989).
2.2. Rheological measurements and ow characterization
Rheological measurements were carried out using a
Rheotest 2.1 (VEB-MLW Prufgerate-Werk, Germany)
Searle type rheometer, equipped with a coaxial cylinder
sensor system (radii ratio of 1.06). The instrument can be
operated at 44 dierent speeds, which are changed stepwise
with a selector switch. The speed of the rotating cylinder
varied from 0.028 to 243 rpm. A thermostatic bath (model
Ma-184, Marconi) containing ethyl alcohol was used to
control the working temperature within the range 0.4
68.8 C. Shear stress values at the surface of the internal
cylinder were obtained by multiplying torque readings by
the rheometer constant, whereas shear rate values were
evaluated according to Krieger and Elrod (1953). The
widely known empirical expression for the stress tensor,
the Power-Law model, was used for describing the ow
behavior of soursop juices. For the Power-Law model the
local shear stress depends on the local shear rates as follows
(Bird, Stewart, & Lightfoot, 2002):
 n1  
dvz 
dvz
srz K  
1
dr
dr
where srz (Pa) is the local shear stress, K (Pa sn) is the consistency index, n (dimensionless) is the ow behavior index
and dvz/dr (s1) is the local shear rate.
2.3. Pressure drop measurements in pipe ow: the
apparatus
The apparatus specied in full details by Telis-Romero,
Telis, and Yamashita (1999) was used to measure pressure
loss during laminar pipe ow of soursop juices. It consists
of a heat transfer, circular section, which is submerged in
a large thermostatic bath (model MA-184, Marconi
Equipamentos para Laboratorio Ltda., SP, Brazil) containing water at constant temperature. Flow experiments were
carried out during the heating of the samples by the solution
in the thermostatic bath. The equipment was made with two
horizontal steel circular tubes with nominal diameters of 3/4
in and 1 12 in (Schedule 40), connected to a stainless steel
cylindrical tank with a capacity of 270 L. The total length
of the section was 1.2 m providing a maximum length-todiameter ratio (L/D) of 54.8. A distance of 1.50 m provided
the developing length of the ow regime for all experimental
tests. Dierential pressure transmitters (model LD-301,
Smar Equipamentos Industriais Ltda., SP, Brazil) connected to pipes were used to measure static pressure along

1346

A.C.A. Gratao et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 78 (2007) 13431354

the equipment. Temperature transducers (model TT-302,

Smar Equipamentos Industriais Ltda., SP, Brazil) were
used to measure the temperature at the beginning and at
the end of the test section. The less concentrated soursop
juices were pumped by means of a peripheral pump (model
P-500, KSB Bombas Hidraulicas S.A., SP, Brazil), while the
most concentrated used a gear pump (model Triglav, KSB
Bombas Hidraulicas S.A., SP, Brazil). A static mixer was
placed at the end of the equipment to homogenize the nal
temperature of the juices. A ow meter (model LD100,
MLW Prufgerate-Werk, Germany) was used to initially
adjust the desired ow rate in each experiment, but exact
measures were obtained by weighing uid samples collected
at determined time intervals. A HP data logger model
75.000-B, an interface HP-IB and a HP PC running a data
acquisition and control program written in IBASIC monitored temperatures and pressures. The tested samples were
soursop juices containing 9.3, 24.3 and 34.6 Brix. The average ow velocities were varied from 0.05 to 2.50 m s1,
totalizing one hundred experimental values of pressure loss
for each sample.

surements in pipe ow, but the circular pipes were replaced

by two sections of horizontal steel coaxial cylinders with
dierent annulus aspect ratios. The external diameter of
the inner cylinder was xed at 0.0140 m, while the internal
diameter of the outer cylinder was 0.0381 m and 0.0590 m,
thus providing the respective values of 0.0060 m and
0.0113 m for the hydraulic radius, and the values of
0.3675 and 0.2373 for the annulus aspect ratio (j). The
total length of the test section was 1.2 m. According to
Tiu and Bhattacharyya (1974), a distance of 0.15 m is sufcient for the development of the ow regime; hence, the
annular ducts were extended at each end by 0.15 m. The
experiments were conducted during the heating of the samples by owing water in the internal cylinder between
33.8 C and 52.4 C. The water was pumped by a centrifugal pump (model C-1010, KSB Bombas Hidraulicas S.A.,
SP, Brazil). The wall surface of the outer cylinder was insulated with glass wool to minimize the heat exchange with
the environment.

2.4. Evaluation of friction factors in pipe ow

For the annulus, the fexp is dened as given by Eq. (5),

which is identical to Eq. (2), with D replaced by Dh (Bird
et al., 2002):

The friction factor for an incompressible uid moving

in a straight pipe of uniform cross section may be written
in terms of pressure loss, as given by Eq. (2). The quantity
fexp calculated from experimental data on pressure loss is
sometimes called the Fanning friction factor (Bird et al.,
2002),
fexp

DPD

2qv2z L

in which q (kg m3) is the uid density, vz (m s1) is the

average axial ow velocity, D (m) is the tube diameter
and DP (Pa) is the pressure drop observed in a length L
(m) of the tube. For the fully developed laminar pipe ow
of Power-Law uids, the friction factor is given by an analogous expression of the well-known dimensionless form of
the HagenPoiseuille equation (Darby, 2001):
ftheo

16
Remr

in which ftheo is the friction factor estimated theoretically.

By using the Power-Law model for simple ducts, such as
the circular pipe, it is possible to analytically solve the
momentum equation and to obtain the generalized
Reynolds number dened by Metzner and Reed (1955):
n
 2n n 
qvz D
4n
Remr
4
1 3n
8n1 K
2.5. Pressure drop measurements in annular ow: the
apparatus
The apparatus used to measure pressure drop in the
annular region was practically the same described for mea-

2.6. Evaluation of friction factors in annular ow

fexp

DPR1  j2 DPDh

qv2z L1 j 2qv2z L

in which j is the annulus aspect ratio (Ri/R), Ri is the external radius of the inner cylinder and R is the internal radius
of the outer cylinder for two coaxial cylinders.
For annular geometries, there is no simple analytical
velocity prole and a simple theoretical expression for Reynolds number cannot be easily found. Thus, one of the
commonest used relations for evaluation of friction factor
for non-Newtonian ow in ducts of arbitrary cross section
is based on the mean hydraulic radius concept (Bird
et al., 2002). In that case, the friction factor is obtained
from the expressions for laminar ow of non-Newtonian
uids in cylindrical pipes, given by Eqs. (3) and (4), using
the hydraulic radius (4Rh) or the equivalent diameter
(Dh) instead of the pipe diameter (D). In this work, the
Remr will be called RemrRh when the mean hydraulic radius
concept is used.
There have been a few attempts to develop correlations
for predicting the isothermal friction factors for various
non-Newtonian uid ows in non-circular ducts. The
semi-theoretical expressions proposed by Kozicki et al.
(1966), Tuoc and Mcgiven (1994) and Delplace and Leuliet
(1995) were used to generalize the Reynolds number.
According to these authors, the Fanning friction factor
can be calculated through:
ftheo

2n
Reg

A.C.A. Gratao et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 78 (2007) 13431354

where Reg is the generalized Reynolds number, which is

written in the same form as the Remr dened by Eq. (4)
for circular ducts:
Reg

qvz2n Dnh
n

n1

K/n nj

tn 1
t 1n

81  j
nj 1j2
1 j2
ln j

n
1
8a

1  j2
h

io
a n
1j2
1j2
4 1  2 ln1=j
1  ln 2 ln1=j
24
n

dr

15

1=n 21  j
Xp n; j

k2
 r
r

1=n

dr 

1
k

16

1=n
k2

r  
dr 0
r

17

in which k (n, j) represents the local of maximum uid

velocity in the annular region. Engez (1995) (cited by Ilicali
& Engez, 1996) used the charts supplied by Fredrickson
and Bird (1958a) to t an expression to the c (n, j) data, valid for j P 0.2, which is given by Eq. (18).


0:0166
0:0219
j 0:497 
n
n

18

2.7. Calculus and data analysis

11

The numerical integrations were performed by adaptive

Lobatto quadrature using the software MatLab 6.1 (The
MathWorks Inc., 2001). All tted functions were
performed using Nonlinear Estimation Procedures from
MatLab 6.1 (The MathWorks Inc., 2001), which solves
nonlinear curve tting problems in the least square sense.
The adequacy of the tted functions was evaluated by the
correlation coecient (R2), the magnitude of the root mean
square (RMS) calculated according to Gabas, Menegalli,
Ferrari, and Telis-Romero (2002), the chi-square values
of t (v2) and the sum of squares of the dierence between
data and t values (SSR). The performance of the friction
factor models was assessed by the RMS values and the
absolute relative errors between observed and predicted
values, as given by Telis-Romero, Cabral, Gabas, and Telis
(2001).

12

3. Results and discussion

10

Fredrickson and Bird (1958b) suggested an expression

for the Reynolds number that requires a relatively simple
numerical integration. They derived from the momentum
equation an expression for the friction factor of a pseudoplastic uid in annuli, valid for axial ow in annulus of
length L formed by cylindrical surfaces at r = jR and
r = R:
16
Ren;j
#
 2n n "
qvz D
1 j
n

Xp
n1
2n3 K
1  j2

1=n

r

1=n2

cn; j

cn; j 0:5017

For the ow of Power-Law uids in concentrically

annular ducts, the relations derived by Kozicki et al.
(1966) are given by Eqs. (10) and (11), which are expressed
in terms of two parametric constants (a and n), characteristics of the shape of the ow cross section. The constant
a(j) is obtained in a similar fashion to n(j), by normalizing
the wall shear stress for laminar Newtonian ows in an
annular duct to the wall shear stress in a circular tube of
the same hydraulic diameter. For Tuoc and Mcgiven
(1994) and Delplace and Leuliet (1995), the function t is
given by Eq. (12). One notes that for the circular cross section a = 1/4, and the functions /(n) = (3n + 1)/4n, t = 3
and n = 8.

2 1=n1

jk2  r j

8
2

1
j

The function /(n) is described by the hyperbolic form

given by Eq. (8), and the geometrical parameter n(j), given
by Eq. (9), is the product of the friction factor and the Reynolds number for a Newtonian uid under laminar ow
conditions in concentric annuli, which is easily obtained
theoretically.
/n

Xp n; j

1347

ftheo

13

Ren;j

14

The functions Xp(n, j), c(n, j) and k(n, j) were dened

according to Eqs. (15)(17), respectively. Fredrickson and
Bird (1958b) tabulated these functions for 0.1 6 n 6 10
and 0.01 6 j 6 0.9.

3.1. Density of soursop juice

The tting of Eq. (19) to the experimental soursop juice
density was satisfactory (R2 = 0.999, RMS = 0.2%, v2 = 3
and SSR = 147). The developed model was parameterized
with a sub-set of the total experimental data, and the
remaining data were used to conrm the reliability of
Eq. (19). The absolute relative errors between predicted
density and the remaining experimental data were calculated and presented a maximum value of 4.2%, with a
minimum of 0.1% and an average of 2.2%. The RMS value
was 2.5%.
q 981:4 4:5xs  0:23T

19

in which xs (Brix) is the content of soluble solids and T

(C) is the temperature.

1348

A.C.A. Gratao et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 78 (2007) 13431354

3.3. Eect of temperature and concentration on the

rheological parameters

3.2. Flow behavior of soursop juices

ln rz (Pa)

Rheograms of soursop juice were obtained in the range

of shear rates from 0.7 s1 to 529.5 s1. In the tested
ranges the samples behaved as pseudoplastic uids, and
the Power-Law model was satisfactorily tted to the experimental data, with 0.991 6 R2 6 0.999 and 0.76 6
RMS(%) 6 2.50. The HerschelBulkley model was also tted to the experimental data and provided good statistical
results (R2 0.999 and RMS 1.00%) since it is a threeparameter model, though the yield stress values were negative, which is meaningless from a physical standpoint.
Polizelli, Menegalli, Telis, and Telis-Romero (2003) also
obtained negative yield stress values in the rheological
characterization of aqueous solutions of sucrose and xanthan gum. The experimental shear rate and shear stress
for the soursop juices having 29.4 Brix are presented in
Fig. 1; similar rheograms at the same temperatures were
obtained for the other samples. The shear rates were nearly
constant as the temperature was increased from 0.4 to
68.8 C.
The tting of Eq. (1) to the experimental data permitted
the evaluation of K and n, which are presented in Table 1.
The Power-Law is a very simple empirical model extensively used for engineering calculations due to its simplicity
of having only two parameters. It has been used for
describing many liquid foods, such as apple, peach and
pear purees (Saravacos, 1970), orange juice concentrate
(Crandall, Chen, & Carter, 1982), guava puree (Vitali &
Rao, 1982), low-pulp concentrated orange juice (Vitali &
Rao, 1984), lemon juice (Saenz & Costell, 1986), concentrated raspberry juice (Ibarz & Paga`n, 1987), aqueous solution of carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) (Nouar et al., 2000),
sucrose-CMC model solution (Berto, Gratao, Silveira, &
Vitali, 2003) and many others.

100

10

100

ln dvz /dr (s-1)

Fig. 1. Rheograms of soursop juice having 29.4 Brix at several temperatures. Experimental values: (j) 0.4 C, (s) 8.3 C, (m) 19.7 C, (+) 28.4
C, (h) 37.8 C, (d) 48.2 C, (n) 59.2 C and ( ) 68.8 C. Predicted
values: () Power-Law model, Eq. (1).

The temperature eect on the consistency index was

given by an Arrhenius-type relationship, according to Eq.
(20). As expected, K exponentially decreased with the rise
in temperature, being the reduction more accented for the
concentrated samples.


Ea
K g0 exp
20
8:314T
where g0 is a model parameter (Pa sn), Ea is the ow activation energy (J mol1), 8.314 J mol1 K1 represents the
ideal gas constant and T is the absolute temperature (K).
In Table 2, g0 and Ea are presented together with the results
of R2, SSR, RMS (%) and v2. The activation energy was almost constant for all the tested samplesits mean value
was 11.39 with a standard deviation of 0.40while g0 increased with the increase in the content of soluble solids.
The rheological properties of most of the liquid foods
exhibit substantial changes during the processing stages
because of their dependence upon temperature and concentration. That is the case of orange juice (Crandall et al.,
1982; Rao et al., 1984; Telis-Romero et al., 1999), fruits
purees (Guerrero & Alzamora, 1998), claried fruit juices
(Ibarz, Gonzalez, & Esplugas, 1994; Ibarz, Gonzalez,
Esplugas, & Vicente, 1992), concentrated milk (Velez-Ruiz
& Barbosa-Canovas, 1998) and coee extract (TelisRomero et al., 2001). In general the viscosity of liquids
decreases with increase in temperature and a measure of
the temperature inuence on the rheological parameters
is usually obtained from the Arrhenius type equation
(Berto et al., 2003; Ibarz et al., 1996; Kaya, 2001; Saravacos, 1970), while the concentration eect is generally written in terms of power-type or exponential relations (Vitali
& Rao, 1982).
For the description of the ow behavior index of soursop juices as a function of temperature, the linear, powertype and exponential models were tested, but they did
not provide good ttings. For each concentration, a small
uctuation of the ow behavior index values was observed
when the temperature raised from 0.4 C to 68.8 C; as
expected, the ow behavior index slightly increased with
the rise in temperature. In Fig. 2, the ow behavior index
is presented as a function of temperature for several concentrations, along with the predictions by the linear model,
which displayed the best statistical results.
Adorno (1997) obtained a similar uctuant behavior for
n in the rheological characterization of various Brazilian
tropical fruit juices (mango, passion fruit, papaya and pink
guava). Furthermore, Adorno (1997) did not nd good
models to describe n as a function of temperature and concentration. For fruit juices, the ow behavior index usually
decreases with the increase in concentration of soluble solids; also, n slightly increases as the temperature rises. Generally, these variations are quite small and that is why some
authors adopt n as a constant (Vitali, 1981). Vitali and Rao

A.C.A. Gratao et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 78 (2007) 13431354

1349

Table 1
Rheological properties (K and n) of soursop juices
Content of soluble solids, xs (Brix)

Temperature (C)

9.3
Consistency index, K (Pa sn)
0.4
2.29
8.3
1.99
19.7
1.58
28.4
1.45
37.8
1.19
48.2
1.11
59.2
0.94
68.8
0.81
Flow behavior index, n (Dimensionless)
0.4
0.413
8.3
0.402
19.7
0.422
28.4
0.417
37.8
0.408
48.2
0.423
59.2
0.444
68.8
0.435

19.1

24.3

29.4

34.6

39.8

44.6

49.4

19.25
17.75
14.36
11.82
10.43
8.88
7.74
6.94

44.93
35.56
28.93
28.20
23.47
19.32
17.43
15.96

65.41
59.49
48.52
42.38
35.59
34.20
28.56
23.87

115.86
96.99
86.60
69.91
64.72
58.28
49.83
42.91

176.83
145.45
124.35
106.02
96.98
78.42
70.99
65.00

258.82
216.63
185.33
158.47
141.41
119.20
111.75
96.41

335.93
290.98
241.46
203.11
182.86
157.95
145.09
129.35

0.308
0.337
0.323
0.325
0.325
0.338
0.331
0.341

0.299
0.306
0.295
0.315
0.303
0.320
0.313
0.326

0.284
0.285
0.300
0.298
0.310
0.315
0.309
0.314

0.270
0.288
0.287
0.281
0.291
0.301
0.298
0.322

0.271
0.269
0.279
0.277
0.303
0.287
0.314
0.304

0.264
0.266
0.273
0.284
0.273
0.278
0.299
0.294

0.262
0.262
0.266
0.274
0.282
0.283
0.289
0.288

Table 2
Model parameters (g0 and Ea) and statistical results (R2, SSR, RMS and v2) obtained from the tting of Eq. (20) to the consistency index data
xs (Brix)

g0 (Pa sn)

Ea (kJ mol1)

R2

SSR

RMS (%)

v2

9.3
19.1
24.3
29.4
34.6
38.9
44.6
49.4

0.014
0.102
0.238
0.522
0.972
1.081
1.876
2.447

11.59
11.98
11.83
11.02
10.84
11.54
11.17
11.18

0.996
0.993
0.982
0.993
0.991
0.995
0.996
0.996

0.01
1.02
12.55
11.12
39.41
57.96
92.14
132.29

1.1
1.0
1.9
1.5
1.4
1.2
1.0
1.1

0.0
0.2
7.0
1.7
6.8
10.6
15.4
22.1

(1982) observed nearly constant values of n for their entire

samples (guava puree from 9.8 to 16 Brix) over a temper0.46
0.44

Flow behavior index

0.42
0.40
0.38
0.36

ature range of 2560 C; its mean value was 0.430 with a
standard deviation of 0.031. In the present manuscript, n
can also be considered almost constant as the temperature
rises from 0.4 C to 68.8 C (Fig. 2). The mean values of the
ow behavior index n are presented in Table 3, along
with the standard deviations (sd) for each studied
concentration.
Finally, the concentration eect on the consistency and
ow behavior indices was satisfactorily given by powertype models. The exponential models were also tested

0.34
0.32

Table 3
Mean values of the ow behavior index n and standard deviations (sd)
for each studied concentration of soursop juices

0.30
0.28
0.26
0.24
270

280

290

300

310

320

330

340

350

Temperature (K)
Fig. 2. Flow behavior index of soursop juices as a function of temperature
for various concentration. Experimental values: (j) 9.3 Brix, (s)
19.1 Brix, (m) 24.3 Brix, ( ) 29.4 Brix, (h) 34.6 Brix, (d) 38.9 Brix,
(n) 44.6 Brix and (+) 49.4 Brix. Predicted values: () Linear model.

xs

n

sd

9.3
19.1
24.3
29.4
34.6
38.9
44.6
49.4

0.421
0.329
0.310
0.302
0.292
0.288
0.279
0.276

0.014
0.011
0.010
0.012
0.015
0.017
0.012
0.011

A.C.A. Gratao et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 78 (2007) 13431354

and provided good statistical results, but not the best

ones. As expected, the consistency coecient decreased,
and the ow behavior index slightly increased as the concentration diminished. In fact, for engineering process
design, it is very useful to obtain a simple correlation
describing the combined eect of temperature and concentration. Therefore, a single equation was established to
describe the rheological parameters (K and n) of soursop
juices as functions simultaneously dependent on temperature and concentration.


11; 203
2:915
K 3  105 exp
x s
21
RT
0:260

n 0:407 1:1  1003 T xs

100

Friction factor in pipe flow

1350

3.4. Friction factors in pipe ow

The pressure loss experiments in pipe ow permitted
the evaluation of friction factors according to Eq.
(2). The ranges of the experiments were: 0.01 6 fexp 6
153, 568 6 DP 6 160,044 (Pa) and 1017.5 6 q 6 1133.9
(kg m3). The experimental friction factors calculated
from Eq. (2) were compared to those estimated by Eq.
(3), with the Reynolds number evaluated according to
Eq. (4). The results are presented in Fig. 3. The consistency index of the samples varied from 1.47 Pa sn to
78.32 Pa sn, and the ow behavior index ranged from
0.292 to 0.412, while the MetznerReed Reynolds number
(Remr) assumed values from 0.11 to 2259, demonstrating
that the experiments were conducted only in the laminar
regime. Metzner and Reed (1955) indicate that stable laminar ow of time-independent non-Newtonian uids
extends to a value of Remr of 20002500. The maximum
absolute relative errors between the analytical results
(ftheo) and the experimental friction factors (fexp) was
46.6%, with a minimum error of 0.1% and an average
of 7.4%, while the RMS value was 10.4%.

10

0.1

0.01

22

The tting of Eq. (21) to the consistency coecient

data presented the following statistical results: R2 =
0.998, RMS = 13.0%, SSR = 786 and v2 = 12.9, while
the tting of Eq. (22) to the ow behavior data presented R2 = 0.938, RMS = 3.6%, SSR = 8.4 103 and
v2 = 1.4 104. In Eq. (21), the correspondent term
to the temperature eect (Ea = 11.20 kJ mol1) is similar
to that of the Arrhenius type equation. The higher the
ow activation energy is, the higher the temperature eect
is.
For the evaluation of friction factors and Reynolds
numbers in the following sections, Eq. (19) was used for
determining the soursop juice density, Eq. (20) was used
for determining the consistency index, together with the
parameters presented in Table 2, and Eq. (22) was
employed for estimating the ow behavior index. Density,
consistency and ow behavior indices were evaluated at the
average temperature between the initial and nal conditions attained by the samples during the ow experiments.

9.3 Brix
24.3 Brix
34.6 Brix
Predicted Values, Eq. (3)

0.1

10

100

1000

Remr
Fig. 3. Experimental friction factors calculated by Eq. (2) and predicted
values by Eq. (3) for the fully developed laminar pipe ow of soursop
juices.

The experimental friction factors and Reynolds numbers

(Remr) of soursop juices in the laminar pipe ow were also
submitted to nonlinear regression analyses, resulting in Eq.
(23). The model parameters obtained in Eq. (23) were very
similar to the theoretical values in Eq. (3), and the tting
results were very satisfactory, with R2 = 0.997, RMS =
10.4%, SSR = 137 and v2 = 0.5.
f

16:2
Remr

1:00

23

The good agreement between friction factors calculated

from experimental data on pressure loss and those estimated from analytical equations can be taken as an indicative of reliability of the adopted rheological model to
describe the ow behavior of soursop juices, as suggested
by Telis-Romero et al. (2001). In addition, these results validate the experimental apparatus for pressure loss measurements. On the other hand, we may say that the alteration of
the velocity prole due to the sample heating, and hence
the decrease of the consistency index, was not so expressive, because the theoretical friction factor analyses are
based on the assumption of isothermal ow, and the experiments were conducted during the heating of the samples.
The bulk inlet temperatures were about 19.9 0.5 C,
which resulted in bulk outlet temperatures of 30.3
3.4 C. These variations of approximately 10 C between
the inlet and outlet resulted in a decrease of the consistency
index of about 15% during the experiments.
3.5. Friction factors in annular ow
The pressure loss measurements in the laminar annular
ow of soursop juices permitted the evaluation of
experimental friction factors (fexp) according to Eq. (5).
The ranges attained in the experiments were: 0.01 6 fexp 6
157, 571 6 DP 6 149,073 (Pa) and 1017.7 6 q 6 1131.9
(kg m3). The theoretical friction factors (ftheo) were evalu-

A.C.A. Gratao et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 78 (2007) 13431354

ated according to the following methods: (i) the mean

hydraulic radius concept, using Eqs. (3) and (4) with Dh;
(ii) the generalization of the Fanning friction factorReynolds number proposed by Kozicki et al. (1966), in
which ftheo is evaluated by Eq. (6), and the Reynolds numTable 4
RMS values and absolute relative errors between fexp obtained from Eq.
(5) and ftheo calculated from Eqs. (3), (6) and (13)
Tested
methodologies

% Maximum
error

% Minimum
error

% Average
error

% RMS

(i) Eqs. (3)

and (4) Rh
concept
(ii) Eqs. (6)(11)
(iii) Eqs. (6)(9)
and (12)
(iv) Eqs. (13)(17)

60.33

0.05

17.53

19.8

53.50
53.50

0.03
0.03

7.31
7.31

10.3
10.3

53.82

0.06

7.41

10.5

1351

ber is obtained from Eqs. (7)(9), with t and a performed

respectively by Eqs. (10) and (11); (iii) the derivations of
Tuoc and Mcgiven (1994) and Delplace and Leuliet
(1995), with t estimated from Eq. (12), and nally, (iv)
the expressions proposed by Fredrickson and Bird
(1958b), where ftheo is evaluated by Eq. (13), with the Reynolds number computed from Eq. (14), and the functions
Xp(n, j) and k(n, j) obtained from Eqs. (15) and (17),
respectively. When evaluating the Reynolds numbers, K
values ranged from 1.49 to 73.78 Pa sn, and n values varied
from 0.294 to 0.412. In Table 4, the RMS values for each
tested methodology are presented, along with the absolute
relative errors between the fexp and the ftheo estimated from
Eqs. (3), (6) and (13). The agreement between the experiments and the calculations is clearly satisfactory.
The fexp values were also submitted to a nonlinear
regression analysis, and the obtained models are given by
Eqs. (24)(26).

Table 5
Pressure loss, friction factors and Reynolds numbers for the fully developed laminar ow of soursop juices in concentric annuli
j

mz

n 0:492

0.237
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5

DP

fexp
(Eq. (5))

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

ftheo
(Eq. (3))

RemrRh
(Eq. (4))

ftheo
(Eq. (6))

Reg
(Eq. (7))

ftheo
(Eq. (6))

Reg
(Eq. (7))

ftheo
(Eq. (13))

Ren,j
(Eq. (14))

1501
1974
2330
2710
3003

0.111
0.036
0.019
0.012
0.009

0.086
0.028
0.015
0.010
0.007

186.8
570.3
1,064.9
1,682.1
2,375.2

0.103
0.034
0.018
0.011
0.008

225.5
688.2
1,285.5
2,030.5
2,867.7

0.103
0.034
0.018
0.011
0.008

225.5
688.3
1,285.7
2,030.8
2,868.1

0.102
0.033
0.018
0.011
0.008

157.1
479.4
895.6
1,414.7
1,997.9

0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5

3460
4533
6498
6705
7109

0.136
0.045
0.028
0.017
0.011

0.112
0.037
0.019
0.012
0.009

142.9
437.3
825.8
1,295.3
1,855.3

0.136
0.044
0.024
0.015
0.010

173.9
531.9
1,004.8
1,576.2
2,257.4

0.136
0.044
0.024
0.015
0.010

173.9
531.9
1,004.8
1,576.3
2,257.5

0.135
0.044
0.023
0.015
0.010

118.5
362.7
685.0
1,074.6
1,539.0


n 0:310
0.237
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5

20,067
20,703
22,654
25,763
28,037

1.386
0.358
0.174
0.111
0.077

0.981
0.301
0.155
0.096
0.067

16.3
53.1
103.0
166.9
240.0

1.143
0.351
0.181
0.112
0.078

20.3
66.2
128.5
208.3
299.5

1.143
0.351
0.181
0.112
0.078

20.4
66.3
128.5
208.3
299.5

1.128
0.346
0.179
0.110
0.077

14.2
46.2
89.6
145.2
208.8

0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5

33,801
41,077
83,873
64,203
61,028

1.250
0.380
0.345
0.148
0.090

1.212
0.372
0.189
0.118
0.081

13.2
43.0
84.5
135.9
198.6

1.420
0.436
0.222
0.138
0.094

16.6
54.2
106.4
171.2
250.2

1.420
0.436
0.222
0.138
0.094

16.6
54.2
106.4
171.2
250.2

1.410
0.433
0.220
0.137
0.094

11.3
37.0
72.6
116.7
170.6

n 0:292

0.237
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5

36,499
44,913
50,254
56,833
60,778

2.419
0.744
0.370
0.235
0.161

2.195
0.662
0.337
0.206
0.143

7.3
24.2
47.5
77.5
112.0

2.530
0.763
0.388
0.238
0.165

9.2
30.5
59.9
97.8
141.3

2.530
0.763
0.388
0.238
0.165

9.2
30.5
59.9
97.8
141.3

2.496
0.753
0.383
0.235
0.162

6.4
21.2
41.7
68.2
98.5

78,804
94,430
129,449
128,918
133,111

2.797
0.838
0.511
0.286
0.189

2.663
0.802
0.404
0.249
0.169

6.0
19.9
39.6
64.2
94.4

3.087
0.930
0.469
0.289
0.197

7.7
25.4
50.4
81.7
120.2

3.087
0.930
0.469
0.289
0.197

7.7
25.4
50.4
81.7
120.2

3.066
0.924
0.465
0.287
0.195

5.2
17.3
34.4
55.7
82.0

0.367

0.367

0.367

0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5

1352

A.C.A. Gratao et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 78 (2007) 13431354

19:6
RemrRh

0:97

R2 0:993;

SSR 366 and v2 1:2

17:1
R2 0:994;
f
Ren;j 0:97

RMS 18:9%;
24
RMS 18:5%;

SSR 326 and v2 1:1

2:3n
R2 0:994; RMS 18:2%;
f
Reg 0:97
SSR 329

and

25

v2 1:1

26

The measured DP, the computed experimental friction

factors (Eq. (5)), the theoretical friction factors (Eqs. (3),
(6), (13)) and the Reynolds numbers (Eqs. (4), (7), (14))
for the fully developed laminar ow of soursop juices in
concentric annuli with j = 0.237, 0.367 and 
n 0:421
(9.3 Brix), 0.310 (24.3 Brix), 0.292 (34.6 Brix) are presented in Table 5 for some of the experimental ow rates
tested. It was observed an increase in the friction factors
and a decrease in the Reynolds numbers by increasing
the annulus aspect ratio. Obviously, in the highly shear
thinning ows 
n 0:292, the Reynolds numbers were
smaller. The experimental results are consistent with previous works for non-Newtonian uid ow in annular
geometries.
In Fig. 4, the experimental friction losses obtained from
Eq. (5) together with the theoretical friction factors estimated by Eq. (13) are presented; the other used correlations for estimation of friction factors-Reynolds number
provided very similar graphics. Concluding remarks on
the RMS values, on tting results and on the absolute relative errors reveal that the expressions proposed by Fredrickson and Bird (1958b), Kozicki et al. (1966), Tuoc and
Mcgiven (1994) and Delplace and Leuliet (1995) displayed
better results than the hydraulic radius concept. Besides,
the combination of Eqs. (5), (13) and (14) for n = 1 leads

9.3 Brix
24.3 Brix
34.6 Brix
Predicted values, Eq. (13)

Friction factor in annular flow

100

10

0.1

0.01
0.1

10

100

1000

Ren,
Fig. 4. Experimental friction losses estimated by Eq. (5) and predicted
values from Eq. (13) for the fully developed laminar ow of soursop juices
in annular regions.

to the exact solution for laminar, Newtonian ow in annuli, while the hydraulic radius concept does not. It is clear
that all the theoretical friction factors are in excellent
agreement with the experimental data; moreover, all the
tested methodologies provided practically identical friction
factors among themselves, although the methods of Kozicki et al. (1966), Tuoc and Mcgiven (1994) and Delplace
and Leuliet (1995) predicted higher values of the Reynolds
number than the expressions of Fredrickson and Bird
(1958b), which have the great inconvenience of requiring
numerical integration techniques.
The equations of Kozicki et al. (1966), Tuoc and
Mcgiven (1994) and Delplace and Leuliet (1995) displayed
practically the same results and turned out to be excellent,
principally because the relation f-Reynolds is explicitly
evaluated, eliminating extensive and laborious calculations;
however, the expressions of Kozicki et al. (1966) require
the determination of two geometric constants (a and n),
while the denitions of Tuoc and Mcgiven (1994) and Delplace and Leuliet (1995) have the great advantage of
involving the estimation of only one geometrical parameter
(n) to dene the generalized Reynolds number.
Regarding Eq. (18) dened by Engez (1995), if it is used
for determining the function Xp(n, j), the friction factors
are nearly equal to those ones found when estimating
Xp(n, j) by Eq. (15); therefore, the expressions proposed
by Fredrickson and Bird (1958b) together with the tting
equation dened by Engez (1995) also provide an explicit
and outstanding method for determining the friction factors of pseudoplastic uids in annuli ow, though it is
important to notice that this methodology is valid only
for j P 0.2; the method consists of evaluating the friction
factor by Eq. (13), the Reynolds number by Eq. (14), and
the functions Xp(n, j) and c(n, j) by Eqs. (16) and (18),
respectively.
4. Conclusions
In the rst part of the manuscript, the rheological
behavior of soursop juice was experimentally determined,
and the Power-Law model was satisfactorily tted to the
data in the tested ranges (9.349.4 Brix and 0.468.8 C).
The combined eect of temperature and concentration on
consistency coecient and ow behavior index was well
described by Eqs. (21) and (22), respectively, which are
quite useful for engineering applications. Although, we recommend the use of Eq. (20), together with the parameters
presented in Table 2, for determining the temperature
dependence of consistency index, because Eq. (20) seemed
to be more accurate than Eq. (21). In addition, experimental values of friction factors in the fully developed, laminar,
pipe ow of soursop juices were reported, and the excellent
agreement between analytical and experimental friction
losses conrmed the veracity of the Power-Law model for
describing the ow behavior of soursop juices in the tested
ranges, and also the experimental apparatus for pressure
loss measurements was validated. In the second part, the

A.C.A. Gratao et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 78 (2007) 13431354

pressure loss data and the friction factors-Reynolds numbers of soursop juices owing in annular geometries are
presented. All the tested methodologies for determining
friction factors versus Reynolds showed to be in good
agreement with experimental data. From the analyses of
tting and statistical results, we concluded that the simplest
and most accurate method to calculate the friction factors
for the annular ow of a pseudoplastic uid is: determining
the friction factor from Eq. (6), the Reynolds number from
Eq. (7), and the functions /(n), n(j) and t from Eqs. (8), (9)
and (12), respectively. Besides, the proposed empiric correlation given by Eq. (26), along with the Eqs. (7)(9) and
(12), may be used for manufacturers of soursop juice and
similar products when dealing with practical applications
involving fully developed laminar ow in concentric annular systems, as in the pasteurization processes in doublepipe and triple-pipe heat exchangers.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the National Council
for Scientic and Technological Development, CNPq,
and Sao Paulo State Research Fund Agency, FAPESP
(Proc. 2002/02461-0), for their nancial support.
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