Muslims in Spain After The Fall of Granada

MUSLIMS IN SPAIN AFTER THE FALL OF GRANADA: SUPPRESSION, RESISTANCE, ECLIPSE, AND
RE-EMERGENCE
Author(s): M. ALI KETTANI
Source: Islamic Studies, Vol. 36, No. 4 (Winter 1997), pp. 613-631
Published by: Islamic Research Institute, International Islamic University, Islamabad
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/23076032
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Islamic
Studies
36:4
MUSLIMS
(1997)
IN SPAIN
SUPPRESSION,
EMERGENCE
AFTER
THE
FALL
OF GRANADA:
AND
RE
ECLIPSE,
RESISTANCE,
M. ALI KETTANI
INTRODUCTION
The genocide to which the Andalusian Muslims were subjected in the 16th and
17th centuries is a sordid tragedy of colossal magnitude which has left its scars
on
the memory
both
of the Muslims,
the descendants
those
especially
of the Andalusians
and
of the Western
others.
It is sad
Mediterranean,
to note
that the two
main perpetrators of this genocide against the Andalusians, the so-called Catholic
were
rulers,
moral
by the Vatican.
glorified
of the Vatican
prestige
We
shall
in
attempt
It would
to have
the
have
been
excommunicated
following
more
conducive
to the
relate
tragic
them.
to
pages
briefly
the
developments which not only put an end to the last vestiges of Muslim political
in the
power
Iberian
but
Peninsula,
also
the extraordinary
describe
persecution
which made it virtually impossible for the Andalusian Muslims to live openly as
Muslims.
The
to an
came
present
faithful
to Islam.
in
hearts.
their
from
to
their
of
fact
after
During
Andalusian
phenomenon
of Islamic
THE
FALL
OF GRANADA
After
a series
of agonising
and
Aragonese
forces
their
that
observance
the public
Andalusians
generation
the
ancestors
were
the twentieth
century
nationalism,
which
revival
on
while
of
populace
Generation
memory.
rise
the
Muslim
The
that
argues
paper
the
end,
tried
Andalusians
Muslims
has
Islam
to remain
Islam
kept
was
a number
of
its best
never
alive
erased
of developments
paved
the
led
for
way
the
in Islam.
wars,
January
Granada
2,
was
1492,
taken
twenty
over
three
by the united
days
Castellan
before
the
date
agreed upon between them and its last Nasrid ruler, Abu 'Abd Allah. The
capitulations comprised 47 articles in which the victorious Catholic monarch
guaranteed
the protection
of the
Islamic
faith,
its institutions
such
as
mosques
and madrasahs,, imams and qds, and Islamic laws. They also guaranteed
freedom of religion and protection of the Arabic language.
in Spain
m. ali kettani/Muslims
614
After the Fall of Granada
Granada, however, was not the firstMuslim city to fall to the Christian
forces.
since
Indeed,
cities such as Toledo

had
Muslims
fallen
11th
the
12th
centuries
and
ce) and Saragossa
(1085
under
and
the Christian
the
of other
Islamic
ce), large numbers of
(1118
control.
fall
were
they
Although
subjected
to much persecution, they were allowed to keep their Islamic faith. The Muslims
who were thus subjugated and called Mudejars, were organized into jam'ats
with their mosques, their madrasahs and theirfuqah'. They even developed a
literature in the Spanish language written in Arabic script, called Aljamiado. In
the beginning of the 16th century, a quarter of the population of Arayon (its
capital is Saragossa) and one third of the population of the Pais Valenciano (its
capital is Valencia) were Muslims.
After the collapse of their resistance, the Muslims of the Kingdom of
Granada
feared
that
be
would
they
that the Catholic
showed
rulers
did
like
treated
not
the
their
respect
Mudejars.
commitments,
Later
events
and
that the
Catholic Church exceeded all limits of propriety in their effort to destroy all
traces
of Islam
from
Spain,
no
sparing
whatsoever.
atrocities
AND THEIR FORCED

OF THE ANDALUSIAN
MUSLIMS
OPPRESSION
CHRISTIANIZATION
(1492-1568)
After the fall of Granada, the Catholic rulers appointed Count de Tenda as the
of the conquered
Governor
of Granada,
Kingdom
and
Herando
de
Talevera
as
its Bishop. As for the general population, several members of Muslim

aristocracy decided to emigrate to Muslim countries because of their lack of
faith in the promises of the Catholic rulers. Some of them, including a few
princes, even succumbed to professing Catholicism, but the masses remained
loyal to Islam and decided to resist all external pressures in order to protect their
faith.2
The
first act of betrayal
when
century
and
Church
the
Great
converted
to pressurize
zealots
Mosque
into
witnessed
was
a cathedral.
the Muslims
even
Granada
of
was
Then,
to convert
the
before
taken
the end
over
priests
by
organised
of the
the
15th
Catholic
parties
of
to Christianity.3
In 1499, the Catholic rulers invited Cardenal de Cisneros to Granada
in
order
to
increase
the
pressure
upon
Muslims
so
that
they
might
accept
Christianity. The Cardinal seized most of the mosques and changed them into
churches.
He
concentrated
his
efforts
on
the
Andalusian
elite
such
as
the
'ulama', pressurizing them to convert to Christianity. This led to a revolt under

the leadership of Ibrahim ibn Umayyah in the popular quarters of Albaicin in
Granada which spread to the Alpujaras Mountains in 1500. The rebellion was
put down by a relentless use of force. The mujhidn were virtually exterminated
and their families sold into slavery. The same happened in 1501 in Almeria and
Ronda.4
In 1500, the Spanish State and the Catholic Church launched forcible
baptization of the Muslims on a mass scale. In 1501, all the remaining mosques
were converted into churches. On October 12, 1501 a royal decree was issued
ordering all books written in Arabic to be put to the fire. Piles of books were
Islamic
Studies
thus
615
36:4(1997)
at many
together
brought
reduced
Andalus
and
against
learning
and
in the
places
to ashes.
This
was
that can
culture
different
be
hardly
and
cities
of the several
one
The
forgotten.
towns
crimes
of
al
perpetrated
next
was
step
to
prohibit the use of Arabic language, a prohibition whose violation invited the
penalty of death. The Muslims of al-Andalus solicited help from abroad but
these
had
pleas
little
effect
Sultan
on
Allah
'Abd
Abu
of
or
Morocco,
the
Ottoman Sultan Bayezid, or Sultan al-Ashraf of Egypt. In due time the Catholic
established
Church
trace
means,
howsoever
passed
harshest
in order
Inquisitions
sentences
whom
confiscated
against
the corrupt
by
the
rarely
flimsy
his properties
of these
victims
Many
priest-judges.
no
They
most
and
no
spared
faith.
the
on
death
escaped
remained
Christian
them
basing
people,
seize,
there
tribunals
Inquisition
to profess
people
they could
that
to ensure
The
Peninsula.
to force
cruel,
Anyone
grounds.
were
the
left in the Iberian
of Islam
tribunals
were burnt alive along with their families in groups of "auto da fes" in great
feasts
which
people.
had
were
witnessed
gleefully
Many
of the
victims
good
fortune
of
the
alive
them
burning
As
their cries
could
the Granadan
they
Muslims
their
gave
burnt
being
deaths
and
but
alive,
before
the
the common
of them
many
end
outrageous
of
them.5
to the Muslim
for help
stratagem:
befall
avert
natural
dying
the nobles
by the King,
could
no
could
lands
went
tormentors
the
put
longer
unheeded,
up
had
they
and
a different
followed
that
impression
resistance
open
they
accepted
Christianity. In strict secrecy, however, they did their best to maintain their
Islamic faith and practice. They were called Moriscos or New Christians and
were
to merciless
subjected
In
were
the
on
imposed
decree
forbade
Moriscos.
books
of Muslim
burning
persecution.
a royal
1508,
and
In
the
1511,
forbade
Islamic
dress.
In
another
royal
decree
animals
slaughtering
new
1510,
taxes
the
ordered
to Islamic
according
rules, etc. Similar decrees continued to be issued until the death of the Catholic
in
Ferdinand
King
Granadan
Ferdinand's
1516.
with
Muslims
son,
a degree
of leniency.
Moriscos
complained
Carlos
But
V,
in
treated
initially
he
1523,
issued
the
a royal
decree ordering the baptism of all the remaining Muslims. All those who refused
were
to be
The
enslaved.
to the King
the unfairness
about
of the decree, pointing out that they had never truly embraced Christianity, but
they
had
been
to Granada
Moriscos
Muslims
to
were
investigate
upon
the
true Christians
whom
truth
and
Christianity
of the
that they
was
statement
should
imposed.
only
obey
Carlos
to conclude
the laws
came
that
the
of the Catholic
Church. The Moriscos collected 80,000 gold ducats and paid it to the King in
exchange for exercising leniency in the implementation of his decrees. The King
promised to grant the Moriscos a reprieve of 40 years during which period they
were to become assimilated to Christianity. A special annual cess was imposed
on
the Moriscos
as
a fee
for keeping
these
harsh
laws
in abeyance.6
Carlos V died in 1555. He was succeeded by his son, Philip II, a

fanatic
who
was
a weak
monarch
and
was,
therefore,
completely
controlled
by
the Catholic priests. In 1566, at the end of the 40 years period decreed by his
father, Philip II decided to implement the de-Islamizing laws intending to force
m ali kettani/Muslims
616
people
from
away
those
laws
with
Islam
with
full force.
imprisonment,
As
in Spain
a result
he punished
confiscation
expulsion,
the violators
and
of property
of
burning
people to death. This decree was read by the judges of the Inquisition tribunals
in processions
across
escape
fledged
GREAT
Some
Muslim
valiantly
themselves
fled
groups
a police
children
in the churches
to
the lines
formed
that Morisco
they
from
force
would
towards
the
started
the
of
and
be
Granada
and
of a full
Valencia
of the enemy.
As
the new
including
to implement
raised
In such
circumstances,
end
1567.
of
them
helped
in terms
(1568-1570)
mountains
be seized
to think
this nightmare.7
of communication
as Christians.
in Albaicin
no effort of the Moriscos
As
OF GRANADA
REVOLT
breaching
of Granada
cities.
of this decree,
to free
uprising
THE
met
and
towns
the implementation
laws,
under
the care
a group
made
They
after
the Governor
the law
of the priests
of Muslim
leaders
to rise
plans
in revolt.
After making due preparation both within the country and outside, they did rise
in
revolt.
These
from
seeking
received
sent
revolutionaries
their
rulers
in return
secret
were
before
money
all
of those
and
Algiers
starting
Within
virtually
the numbers
to
delegations
promises.
to Muslims
estimated
they
and
generous
delegations
returned,
sent
arms
the
they
organizers
the country.
When
the revolt
to join
ready
All
the
al-Andalus,
across
Morocco,
revolt.
they
at 45,000.
They found only the Muslims of the provinces of Granada, Malaga and Almeria
who
effectively
did
Aragon
succeed.
come
it for
support
they
somehow
and
help
rescue
of Murcia,
feared
the hope
the organizers
Subsequently,
the Muslims
strongly
they entertained
Moreover,
to their
But
the revolt.
supported
not
that
the
that eventualy
from
their
of the Revolt
them
met
Valencia
revolt
and
would
the Ottomans
not
would
state.8
present
for the second
in
time
Albaicin, studied the reports of the delegate that had visited differentparts of al
Andalus
as well
as Morocco
and
and
Algiers,
to start the revolt
decided
in April
1568. This date had to be postponed as the Christian authorities got wind of the
revolt
held
and
in
started
elected
1568
de
Fernando
immediately
took
a new
January
date,
started
actually
the
arresting
September
1,
Muslim
Cordoba
Muslim
1569,
December
23,
the
start
1568.
The
the
third
the
leaders
of
as
Sultan
the
Muhammad
name,
for
In
leaders.
26
Albaicin,
Valor
up his
on
in
of
the
reason
ibn
was
of
got
and
The
revolt
that a group
was
together,
al-Andalus.
Umayyah,
revolt.
that
meeting
revolt
He
decided
however
of Spanish
soldiers started committing excesses against the people of Cadiar in Alpujaras.

Enraged by these acts, a group of Muslim mujhidn reacted violently
whereupon Muhammad ibn Umayyah left Granada and reached the Alpujaras
Mountains where people renewed their oath of fealty to him on December 29,
1568.
Ibn
Umayyah
appointed
the
commanders
of
the
making it the temporary capital of al-Andalus.
Laujar,
governors
to the provinces.
Thereafter
he launched
army
and
settled
in
He also appointed
the struggle
with
a two-fold
aim: (1) to expel the Christian army and priests and to convert the churches
back into mosques, to restore the Islamic identityof the Andalusians by reviving
their Muslim names and dress and establishing Muslim public prayers; and (2)
Studies
Islamic
to seek
36:4
(1997)
from
support
In
the
beginning
the
two
armies
disorganized.
Then,
in
and
East,
from
support
from
and
Empire
of Morocco
the rulers
Spanish
that
army
in
launched
old
men
left
the
the
West.
were
Murcia
the
by sending
1569
in
the
The
with
8,
January
massacred
solicited
army
The
ferocity.
2400
Muslim
in
Jubiles.
The
earth
policy'
and
night
the
and
Murcia
Spanish
great
when
one
'scorch
slow
from
Spain
it received.
population
followed
was
rebels
Subsequently,
which
on
State
Spanish
to attack
the civilian
was
and
of
formed
of Europe
to attack
attack
women
children,
were
states
started
atrocious
reaction
Granada
the Christian
that left Granada

most
the Ottoman
abroad.
delegations
the
617
destroyed the families of the mujhidin whom they found on their way, killed
all of them,
almost
into
slavery.
the tactics
to follow
the honour
violated
In the course
of time
of what
of the women
the mujhidin
is presently
and
were
called
sold
the few
left no
other
the guerilla
warfare
survivors
option
but
against
the
Spanish army.
hordes
The
hand
in the revolt.
leaders
of the Muslims.
went
that
on
all
confiscated
This
mujhidin,
on March
were
along.
and
thereby
of whether
further
from
the rulers
arrived.
The
Ottomans
problem
of Cyprus,
they
whereas
the
the North
of
and
those
awaited
Africa
never
with
occupied
to use
the
joined
much
of North
seemed
Africans
ibn
or not.
men
the
too
of death
of the Muslims
more
were
they
no
150
Muhammad
the revolt
revolt:
had
gathered
properties
However,
Empire
that
pleaded
brother
All
insurrection.
of the Ottoman
first
and
who
in an orgy
mercy
supported
inflamed
the
the authorities
without
spared.
those
even
spare
1569,
father
were
reinforcing
support
the
Only
cruelty
not
17,
all killed
Francisco,
regardless
brazen
did
Reconquesta
They
night
Antonio
Umayyah,
were
of the
In Granada,
the
the Andalusians
simply as a pawn in their game of international politics.

In due
which
were
was
to
able
extended
by
expel
their
the Christians
the King
course
led
his
the
the large
a new
Juan
soldiers
to Almeria
with
formed
brother,
Christian
operations
only
of Spain
illegitimate
de
from
in the East
and
more
most
and
powerful
But
Austria.
of
the
mountains,
in the West,
Ronda
army
the mujhidin
and
leaving
cities.
As the Christians feared a revolt in the city of Granada in May 1569,

they expelled its Muslim population and dispersed them in Castilla. Then the
Juan
of
army
Mountains.
led
the
de
But
on
Christians
Austria
moved
from
this occasion
to
resort
to
the
coast
the mujhidn
a
ruse.
to
put up
They
spread
the
reconquer
a fierce
the
Alpujaras
resistance.
This
that
Sultan
rumours
Muhammad ibn Umayyah, was ready to yield to the enemy to rescue his father
and brother. Thus they succeeded in dividing the ranks of the mujhidin, which
led to the assassination of Sultan Muhammad ibn Umayyah in October 1569 in
Laujar. Thereupon the mujhidin chose Muhammad ibn Abbou as the new
Sultan.
The
latter
He
commanders.
Mountains,
and
the
reorganized
was
extended
able
to
army
liberate
the areas
of
the
Orgiva,
of the liberated
mujhidin
the
capital
and
of
appointed
the
new
Alpujaras
territories.
m. au kettanl/Muslims
618
The
its
of
under
was
the
orders
over
sprinkled
The
weakened.
dated
unheeded.
Sultan
armies
put
difficult
Day
when
11,
for help,
the
last
Muslims
letter
concluded
If we
nor
power
the
Ibn
he entreated
these
be
the
and
salt
today.
gradually
of North
Abbou
Africa
to the Mufti
for his intercession
words:
of
and
1570,
invaders
"We
in the coming
on
will
which
a resistance
February
even
avail
of
with
are
facing
two
battle,
Allah
will
of Judgement;
Day
any
of
the
by
exterminated
the rulers
of Sultan
Sultan
pretext
After
in ruins
and
defeated
to the Ottoman
questions
neither
was
against
with
are
in
city
remains
in which
1570,
of the enemy.
that
held
of Galera
women.
its population
the number
territory
the conquest
to the Ottomans
The
its efforts,
Muslim
Galera
by
up
for help
February
the Ottoman
strong
cries
largely
Istanbul
land.
put
was
entered
the
reconquer
inlcuding
Austrian
the whole
doubled
events
army
the
resistance
Their
remained
Christian
of Juan
to
grievous
by Muslims,
the
months,
then
it began
of the most
defended
strongly
three
the Austrian
and
increased,
One
mujhidln.
was
of Juan
army
soldiers
in Spain
to
him
on
the
from
His
judgement".9
Under
defeat.
But
these
circumstances
continued
they
it was
to battle
as
natural
small
for the Andalusians

of mujhidln,
groups
to suffer
to
preferring
die fighting rather than surrender. In March 1571, Sultan Ibn Abbou was killed
by
an
enemy
even
and
after
THE
his
was
body
of the city.
gate
death
until
DISPERSION
main
The
when
1573
OF
to Granada,
brought
in the
decapitated
at the main
display
His
agent.
in procession
Muslim
it was
THE
carried
His
square.
dead
resistance,
completely
MUSLIMS
across
the city
was
body
on
put
continued
however,
overpowered.10
AFTER
THE
REVOLT
as a result
of enforcing
(1570-1608)
After
the expulsion
decree
the royal
of the people
of March
of the city of Granada

a new
1570,
the people
befell
tragedy
of al-Andalus.
The Christian authorities decided to punish the entire population of the former
of Granada
Kingdom
and
properties
totally
them
dispersing
reduce
them,
uproot
them
by expelling
all
them
from
across
their
Spain.
to utter
homes,
The
poverty,
was
purpose
and
all
confiscating
scatter
their
to
obviously
them
among
the
Christians so that they lose their Islamic identify."

After the expulsion of about 7,000 Moriscos from the city of Granada
to other parts of Spain in compliance with the royal decree of March 1570
the expulsion
ordering
of Moriscos
from
the remaining
parts
of Granada,
these
Moriscos too were dispersed all over Spain. Thus about 50,000 Moriscos were
brought
together
and
were
Cordoba,
Sevilla
and
La
forced
by
and
Mancha,
the
to walk
army
from
there
in groups
to other
to
Toledo,
More
places.
than
17,000 died of exhaustion on the way. The Christian army persisted in its effort
to disperse the Moriscos to different towns and villages of the country till the
end of 1570. Subsequently a new decree was issued in November 1571 ordering
the dispersal
80,000
over
of more
Andalusian
Spain
and
Granadan
Muslims
reduced
Moriscos.
had
been
to a terrible
Thus,
driven
state
by the end
out
of
of poverty,
their
of 1571,
homes,
misery,
and
more
scattered
sickness.
than
all
Islamic
Studies
36:4
The
Spanish
banished.
time
many
also
continued
619
and
over
gave
this
However,
Granadans
home
resistance
up
however,
kept
presence
of
the homes
effort
and
into
who
failed
in the countryside
to expel
in the
since
Christians
many
orders
issuing
Christians
of the Muslims
50,000
brought
to them
colonization
returned
to put
Government,
then
government
of Granada
Kingdom
been
(1 997)
left.
and
course
of
Muslims
Many
the
Muslims
the
had
mountains.
from
The
Granada
until
1585.
The
feelings
State
coming
no
more
what
etc.
the
forbidding
Aragon
and
victims
and
undermine
Church
had
would
lost
men
them
Moriscos
other
provide
to
or
Muslims
the
But
to
third
was
where
demographic
ships
their
another
Muslims
of
of their
this
them
on
the
often
all
from
failed
to
abandon
the
Ottomans
landed
on
their
to eradicate
men
the Catholic
Muslims
of
the following:
(1)
savage
to muster
(2)
gradually;
of time
that they
into
to Islam.
allegiance
solutions
course
France,
oppressors.
and
be exterminated
so
of
these
their
solutions,
upon
lands. The
Catholic
State
who
the shores
Protestants
to convert
in the due
would
by
not
separating
be
able
to
Spain.
increasing
of 'Christian'
by the prospect
But
support.
souls,
all evidence
despite
the
against
they would
castrating
gained
with
able
decided
or
strength
of
number
all
make
the Spanish
be
able
instantly
solution
Christians
both
drastic
quarters
the loss
worried
be
consider
them
them
would
They
by
kept
after
the
the
who
scared
decree
contact
focussed
contact
problem.
to banish
about
to be
hand,
were
with
would
either
or
women,
or (3)
worried
one
torment.
Ottoman
16th century,
to
therefore,
The
was
and
increased
Moriscos,
them.
that they
or that they
to special
from
Islamic
Church
freed.12
hands
of the
to the Muslim
procreate;
revived
that the
Ottomans;
and
also
greater
maintained
join
the hope
true Christians,
to exterminate
the
sea
Castilla
of the
issued
they
Moriscos
with
also
By the end
began,
with
the
even
of the
be
the
scared
Inquisitions
to
would
contact
Aragon
hoping
all Moriscos
near
The
contacts
was
carrying away hundreds of families to Muslim
that they
nature,
live
of
hopes
of al-Andalus,
They
panic
to
faith
they
in close
of
of
religions
day
The
their
in
result
were
They
of
them
subjected
Muslims
The
state
etc.
Valencia,
that one
Moriscos
Moriscos
the
remained
In
Granadan
Muslims.
to do.
scared
together;
proselytism,
hope
Mudejar
among
knew
the
the
the Catholic
as they continued
to the contrary.
The
the Muslims
of banishing
to the Mediterranean
Muslim
Church
to consider
State,
the
on
the
for this might
states.13
THE
GREAT EXPULSION
(1608-1613)
In November 1608, the Spanish government decided to banish all the Moriscos
of
Spain.
leave
The
the country
decision
with
was
kept
secret
their possessions.
as
they
did
At the same
not
time
want
due
the
Moriscos
preparations
to
were
made to banish first of all the Muslims of the Pais Valenciano. In November
1609, the Spanish King signed the order to banish all Mariscos, men, women
and children, of Valencia to North Africa within three days after which all those
who
had
failed
to leave
would
be
imprisoned
and
those
who
resisted
expulsion
620
be killed.
would
the officers
take
The
Moriscos
of the State.
with
them
more
were
Those
than
what
to stay
required
who
were
in Spain
thus
could
they
in their homes,
banished
were
personally
to
permitted
All
carry.
for
waiting
not
those
who
destroyed or hid their belongings were to be punished by death. The properties

left behind
by these
were
persons
handed
over
to the Christians.
Children
under
the age of six were handed over to Christian families to be raised
as
Christians.14
Muslims
Many
chose
They
exterminated.
Others
found
accept
cruel
to willy
nilly
Alicante,
Denia,
who
away
took
between
were
North
Many
on board
a decree
the
the dead
brought
After
the
Moriscos
the
Muslims
Moriscos
were
and
to
a slave,
and
ports
coasts
of
belongings
of
the
In May
1611,
a Muslim
brought
gold
Thus,
Muslims
the
in the sea.
30
as
mobs
carrying.
on
the
to whoever
pounds
as
such
Valenciano
dumped
steal
but
option
by Christian
130,000
creatures
than
from
1609,
these
of
to whoever
pounds
King
in April
them
were
They
Extramadura
Andalusia,
issued
61,000
condition.
In December
expelled
were
orders
More
harrowing
of
gold
attacked
that they were
in ships
hapless
Region,
Aragon.
of Catalogna.
Moriscos
of
the Valencia
under
transported
no other
saw
in different
high
were
they
of a Muslim.
body
of
him
of keeping
and
about
preferred
those
of 60
they
1610,
of Spain
dump
until
were
the
against
mountains
herded
belongings
owners
a prize
right
They
January
ship
were
their way,
out
and
announced
with
and
resistance
the
overpowered
the meagre
transported
Africa.
passengers
them
armed
up
in
themselves
On
1609
put
fighting
orders.
Valencia.
September
forcibly
alive
kept
from
to
on
handedness.
followed
and
Murcia.
In
forcibly
about
by
4,000
the expulsion
about
Thus,
December
to banish
then
111 ordered
Philip
provinces.
1610
were
1609
52,000
something
similar happened in Castilla. The Spanish King ordered the expulsion of the
Muslims
of Castilla,
whereafter
about
estimated
that
50,000
Muslims
were
from
expelled
that
region.
it is
Thus,
Muslims
were
circumstances,
banished
from
with
carrying
between
them
no
1609
under
Spain
more
and
the
than
330,000
and
tragic
bodies.
their
about
1614,
most
In
inhuman
March
King Philip III walked at the head of a long procession of Leaders,

thanks
to God
for purging
the country
of its Muslim
1611,
giving
populace.
Of the expelled Andalusian Muslims, about 60,000 settled in Morocco,

160,000 in the Ottoman Empire including about 65,000 in Algeria and 55,000
in Tunisia, and many in Izmir, Istanbul and Bosnia. About 10,000 Andalusian
Muslims settled in the Christian states of Europe and America. About 70,000
were
killed,
having
been
drowned
in the sea
and
30,000
managed
to return
to
Spain.15
Spanish history books claim that this great expulsion purged Spain of
Muslims and that the places which the Muslims left were resettled by Christian
immigrants.
However,
historical
evidence
shows
that the percentage
of those
of
Muslim origin in Spain amounted in the beginning of the 17th century to about
35 per cent of the population, or about 2,000,000 people. Of these, only few
Islamic
Studies
Muslims
from
left
Spain
In
1614,
provinces
asking
Expulsion
was
They
were
have
returned
THE
The
only
to be
required
found
was
was
on.
with
even
considered
They
less
dead
in
it?16
stop
an
order
the Great
to the
hidden
to be put to death
and
since
the
who
if they
the
governors
to their
homes.
ordering
of returning
governors
those
of
Expulsion
of
Moriscos
to this were
decrees
guility
of Spain.
to stay
men,
with
not
exceptions
banished
Royal
against
were
did
seeking
stop
allowed
and
Aragon
17TH CENTURY
issued
King
to
from
population
and
Islam
But
years.
in Spain
Spanish
them
over.
who
Moriscos
900
those
hence
women
purposes,
practical
DURING
the
and
children,
of about
of
of the Muslim
20%
Christians,
all
of Muslims
number
great
than
slaves,
For
a presence
persecution
1609.
less
good
as
IN SPAIN
ISLAM
The
considered
of Islam.
after
and
i.e.
leaderless,
knowledge
621
expelled,
rest were
were
(1997)
Andalusia,
were
Valencia
The
36:4
had
the
Great
returned.
were
to
all
found
to
the
pursue
King Philip III died in 1621. His son King Philip IV received a report
in 1621 from the Inspector of Royal Properties in Catalogna, informing him that
a large
number
country,
and
that
home,
Inspector
did
an
the
1623,
on
advised
were
to take
action
In
tribunals
been
Valencia
against
had
had
banished
not left the
in fact
by
powerful
those
Moriscos,
protected
declared
had
stop
much
and
returned
The
persons.
but the King
new
accepting
made
the King
the King
was
no
to issue
been
to put
a royal
for a decree,
need
of
denunciations
about
had
injustice
requested
requested
felt that there
to be
continued
that
returned
the Cortes
King
to
however,
Complaints,
who
1624,
The
the question.
the
Cortes
Spanish
the Moriscos
against
to the chapter.
end
had
to respond.
In
decree
and
Catalogna
who
and
in peace
the King
requested
committed
of those
many
lived
they
care
not
in Aragon,
of Moriscos
that
the Moriscos
but
Moriscos.
in Castilla
and
Andalusia.
In 1625, the City of Seville published a report stating that a large
number
and
of Muslims,
both
them
Muslims.
raised
1626
in
which
in the
remained
as
he
slaves
But
ordered
as
country
and
that
"no
long
as
had
freemen,
the
King
harm
they
kidnapped
decided
finally
be
should
lived
away
Christian
done
from
to
the
children
a decree
to issue
Moriscos
coast".
in
who
But
the
Spanish State did not forget the Moriscos, as in 1634 an official report from
Murcia claimed that it was full of Moriscos. The King ordered that they should
be
and
watched
checked
whether
were
they
good
Christians
or not.
As for the Inquisitions, they continued to persecute Muslims in the 17th

century. In 1616, this infamous tribunal in Denia and Valencia inquired as to
what should be done with the enslaved Andalusians who were planning to flee
to Muslim lands. In 1620 and 1625, the same tribunals condemned Moriscos
accused
of witchcraft.
In
1625,
the
tribunal
of
Seville
executed
a Morisco
in
front of a crowd of Christians, and in 1625 the tribunal condemned an enslaved

Morisco
to
100
lashes,
to hard
labour
on
the
boats
for
four
years
and
then
622
in Spain
imprisonment for the rest of his life. All this was merely because of writing
Muslim
on
slogans
In
the gate
of a church.
the Inquisition
1633,
tribunal
of Cuenca
for two
persecuted
years
Muslim and his family who had returned from exile on flimsy grounds. In 1667,
the Inquisition tribunal of Almadn condemned a Morisco to lashing for joking
about
in
rituals.
Christian
front
of
In
a man
1680,
as
crowd,
huge
he
from
was
Cadiz
was
accused
of
burnt
in Madrid
alive
converted
having
from
Christianity to Islam. In 1689, the Inquisition tribunal of Cordoba expelled from

the
a group
city
of
slaves
tribunals
Inquisition
and
to Islam
fled
who
of Spain
to Muslim
were
accused
after they
lands
of
at least
persecuted
Muslims.
being
177
were
In
Christians
somehow
who
in wars
caught
the
fact,
converted
with
Spain.17
Another
continuous
hope
the State
1624,
and
Cuellars
of being
of Muslim
proof
of many
Council
Muslims
secretly
In
who
1641,
But
Estepona.
since
1644
distributed
them
and
1650,
many
in bands
torture.
five
that
to the
These
the
Granada,
accused
of North
by an
Africa.
Andalusian
seized
revolt
was
after being
of
of which
themselves
organized
caravans,
descendants
notable
In
yoke.
were
They
led
have
of them
four
the
from
Muslims
of a popular
plan
of
the most
Muslims
Government
executed,
revolts
popular
with
is the
century
Thir al-Horr died in battle near
the
the
The
poor.
the century,
throughout
attacked
were
leaders
of
families
in Andalusia,
was discovered.
descendants
17th
the Christian
industry.
contacts
for a revolt
from
two
the silk
of having
a conspiracy
prince, Thir al-Horr,
on
controlled
and
in the
for freedom
a report
presented
the.Madrids
in Spain
presence
communities
and
in
to cruel
subjected
the
Muslims
the revolts
being
spoils
discovered
persisted
of especially
Cordoba and Seville.18

visitors
Many
kept
their
'Abd
Islam
al-Whid
to Andalusia
a secret.
The
in the
most
an Ambassador
al-Ghassnl,
made an official visit to Andalusia

informed
officials,
him
17th
known
that they
secret
met
them
among
of Sultan
in 1690.
were
century
Muslims
was
Isma'Tl
who
Muhammad
of Morocco,
Many Andalusians,
had
Ibn
who
including
Muslims.19
ISLAM IN SPAIN IN THE I8TH CENTURY

The fact that Muslims survived in Spain in the 18th century is evident from the
decisions made by the State Council on September 20, 1712 ordering the
"expulsion of Muslims to North Africa". The order, however, remained
It was
unimplemented.
century
after
the Great
The
every
trace
Inquisition
of
Andalusians
Muslims.
accused
the
last
decree
of
Expulsion
of
tribunals,
however,
In
these
being
1724,
the
against
more
Moriscos,
than
one
1609.
Muslims.
continued
their
tribunals
expelled
In
they
1726
task
a large
prosecuted
to
eradicate
number
of
in Granada
alone no less than 1,800 persons (360 families) who were accused of professing
Islam
secretly.
All
this
proves
the
existence
of Islam
on
a large
scale
in Spain
in that period.
Studies
Islamic
36:4
Similar
in
Granada
fanatic
623
element
In
held
46
1728,
May
Islam
were
of the city
its Muslim
were
prosecutions
1727.
professing
persons
of
(1997)
As
and
their
late
as
in
October
Islam
28
1728,
to purify
to the King
a secret
of
in
other
confiscated.
their properties
request
1769
accused
people
and
persons
condemned
renewed
population.
against
was
mosque
The
Granada
discovered
in
Cartagena in the province of Murcia, indicating that Muslims were secretly

organized their.
In fact several
presence
of Islam
secretly.
He
also
Alicante.
He
travellers
in that land,
to Spain
in the
in secrecy.
albeit
18th century
reported
In
1768
1766
and
about
the
of
the Sultan
Morocco sent his ambassador to Spain, Ahmad Ibn al-MahdT al-Ghazl, himself
an Andalusian who originally hailed from Malaga, met many persons among the
people and officials in the provinces that he visited were Muslims, albeit
and
visited
several
observed
cities
about
such
the
as
Seville,
of Loja
people
Jaen,
(a
Murcia
Granada,
of Granada):
province
"They are similar to the people of Granada in their attraction of Muslim origin,
and
women
men,
others
say
In the years
and
Andalusia
In
families.
make
the
that
had
he
of
Sultan
'Uthmn
ibn
of Muslims
all
in Loja
that a judge
and
in the
live
of the
that
believe
people
Muslims
secret
signs
of belonging
to Islam,
sent
He
Swinburne
Henry
Granada
Muslim
ambassador
another
that
reported
visited
secret
many
he
to
had
met
Spain,
a
great
another British traveller, Joseph Towsend,
Muslims
mountains,
in
Granada.21
Inquisition
Both
traveller
met
Morocco
al-MaknasI.
Finally, in 1786-1787,
reported
some
the British
1775-1776,
informed
1779,
Mohammed
number
some
children,
it openly".20
and
tribunal
told
of Granada
and
Jews
are
numerous
most
Jews
are
in large
him:
"Today,
in Spain.
Most
Both
cities.
keep
their faith completely secret". This was confirmed by another British traveller,
George
Barrow,
in 1787.22
Furthermore,
a large
number
of Muslims,
joined
the bands
of gypsies
in order to avoid anything similar to the Great Expulsion of 1609. This explains
the great Muslim influence on the culture of the Spanish gypsies of today.23
BIRTH
THE
CENTURY
In the
19th
OF
century,
ANDALUSIAN
several
travellers
NATIONALISM
who
visited
Andalusia,
IN
such
THE
19TH
as a Britisher
who visited the town of Alhamara in 1809, the writer Miniano who visited
Alpujaras in 1828, and the English traveller Ford who also visited Alpujaras in
1848. They all reported the presence of a diluted Islam in Andalusia.
The feeling of being differentfrom the Christians, of being oppressed
alien
identity which imposed itself on them by force grew in the whole
by an
country, especially its southern part after the invasion of Spain by the armies of
Napoleon in 1808. For the first time the enemy of the Andalusians had been
defeated by foreign forces. The Andalusians rose against the French invaders,
not as Spaniards,
The
French
for the first time
but as Andalusians,
marines
surrendered
on
July
14,
1808
since
to the
the fall of Granada.

Andalusians,
and
the
m- ali kettani/Muslims
624
French
1808.
was
army
In
1818
19, 1812,
defeated
by their
armies
formed
the Andalusians
in Spain
at Bailen
a secret
in Seville
a new constitution in Cadiz,
they proclaimed
on
of Jaen)
(province
government
on
July
March
called the Cadiz
Constitution.
This
Constitution
with
monarchy
limited
that
first time
visualized
powers
was
Spain
made
Spain
as
to the Church
and
of several
up
democratic
the King.
nations
constitutional
It declared
not
(and
one
for the
the
nation),
Andalusian nation being one of them. This Constitution visualized a federal

system for Spain with the underlying principle of equality between the nations
that constitute
in
the
it. The
context
of
Andalusian
its
of course,
nationality,
Islamic
historical
can
be understood
only
The
background.
Cadiz
Constitution
remained the basis of all the liberation movements in Spain throughout the 19th
century.
After
the
Cadiz
the French
forces
were
September
1812.
He,
in
country
and
his
re-established
own
driven
out
despotic
the King
of Spain
however,
abrogated
as
authority
returned
to
the
Constitution
of
as
the authority
of
well
the Catholic Church. On January 1820, the people of Seville rose in rebellion
and
demanded
to the
whole
rebels.
At
Cadiz
the
and
The
Andalusia.
same
time
on
Constitution
revolted
of the Cadiz
the establishment
of
attacked
he
and
for help
appealed
October
The
1823.
3,
down
burned
to accept
pretended
King
The
Constitution.
the
from
France
people
of
the Inquisition
rebellion
spread
demands
of
and
abrogated
Andalusia
the
the
thereupon
the symbols
tribunals,
of
their oppression.
On
March
of
province
Cadiz.
and
he
However,
in
rebelled
established
was
for
and
expelled
the
administration
local
cities
The
The
followed
latter
set
was
the confiscation
re-establishment
executed.
until
up
then
on
an
Then
the
the
army
forced
of the property
in
of
rebellion
to accept
the
of
Constitution
the
people
the
Government,
of
of
Constitution
which
in
Algesiras
the
of
representative
based
Malaga
Andalusians
rebelled
Torrijos
the
defeated
1835,
Government.
including
called
March
Andalusian
Andalusia.
General
1831,
28,
Cadiz
spread
defeated
the
conditions
Church.
and
Other
Cadiz.
to
the
of the Catholic
Malaga
parts
of
army
all
of
the
of the
rebels
But
the rebels
formed in Andujar in the province of Jaen a "Higher Council of the Revolution"

which wrote the Constitution of Andujar in which Andalusia was to have local
autonomy. This Council was disbanded on October 19, 1835, but remained
important in forging the Andalusian identity. Spain was back again to its former
it lay
condition:
at the tender
mercy
of the state
and
the church
which
have
for
long kept it under subjugation and oppression.

On
June
6,
1857,
Andalusian
farmers
launched
an
insurrection
in
Seville demanding the return of the lands which had been confiscated from their
Muslim
rebellion
ancestors
was
and
crushed
had
been
after
the death
given
to the church
of 25
of their
and
leaders
the nobility.
and
But
the execution
their
in
cold blood of 25 others. In 1861, the farmers of Malaga and Granada also rose
in rebellion, but they were also crushed by the army.
Islamic
Studies
Queen
and
36:4
on
Again
the
and
with
(1 997)
the Spanish
Andalusians
for
as state
returned
On
basis
19th century
nation
was
with
a well-
to give
defined
to France,
a federal
republic
disestablishment
of the country
of
again
Republic
a concrete
established
on the
movement
of the
to the idea
expression
Andalusian
was
Party
the Andalusian
Thus,
This
territory.
of an Andalusian
movement
was
openly
anti-Catholic and struggled to rehabilitate the Islamic past of Andalusia.

was
Bias
who
provided
born
Infante,
on
to the Andalusians
leadership
of Andalusian
philosophy
in Caceres
1885
5,
July
and
1883.
of Antequera.
able
control
the
against
fled
Queen
into
demanded
took
the Federal
1884,
rebelled
The
of Spain
also
the army
3,
January
10,
January
Andalusians
Cordoba.
They
But
religion.
of the Constitution
near
the conversion
Andalusia.
on
the
1868,
army
demanded
autonomy
the Queen
8,
September
defeated
Catholicism
625
and
in the
But it
of Malaga,
the basic
developed
in the beginning
Nationalism
Province
and
concept
of the 20th
century.24
BLAS INFANTE
AND HIS MISSION
Bias Infante was bom in a typical Andalusian family. In 1897, at the age of 11,
he
moved
to
Archidona
studies
secondary
in
certificate
the
of
province
in 1900.
He
Cordoba
where
returned
to work
then
he
his
received
with
his
father
in Caceres before joining the Faculty of Law in the University of Granada from
where
he graduated
In
with
Granada
of Andalusia.
history
matter
of race,
honours
Infante
He
but
came
rather
in
had
1906.
time
ample
to realize
a matter
to
familiarize
himself
that the Andalusian
of history
and
culture.
identity
In
with
was
the
not
he moved
1907,
a
to
Seville and in 1910 he was nominated a judge in Cantillana in the province of

Seville. He lived in Seville and commuted from there to his place of work.
In Seville, Infante was influenced by Andalusian thinkers. He joined
their circle and quickly became one of their leaders, especially after he was
in the Council
accepted
of Lawyers
in November
the Ateneo of Seville over the 'Andalusian

became
the basis
In
followed
by
work
1916,
Infante
other
similar
a review
al-Andalus,
and
of his
the Andalusian
In January
on
'Andalusian
established
centres
the
in other
that represented
nationalist
1918,
a meeting
and
Ideology'
his
after
in
speech
in March 1914. This
Nationalism'.
first
Andalusian
Andalusian
the point
movement
1913
of view
headed
of the Council
Centre
cities.
by
He
also
in
Seville,
published
of the Andalusian
Bias
Infante
of Andalusian
centres
himself.
Provinces
was
held in Ronda in the province of Malaga, in which the participants gathered to

work
out
the programme
the following
1.
two
To recognize Andalusia
antonomous
2.
of Andalusian
Nationalism.
That
programme
included
demands:
as a country, a nation, and a democratic
region.
To adopt the white and green flag, (which, in fact, was the Muslim
flag), as the flag of the Andalusian people.
ali kettani/Muslims
626
Infante
Blas
of Nations
and
Jose
Andres
Pasques
the Andalusian
to recognize
in Spain
presented
a request
to the League
Nation.
By 1921, Bias Infante had started linking up with Andalusians all over
the
world,
1923,
entered
Andalusian
the
in the
especially
Spain
a long
Centres
and
State.
Bias
Spanish
and
Maghreb
accused
in South
The
the Andalusian
Infante
America.
of dictatorship.
period
maintained
On
January
13,
Government
closed
the
nationalists
a
low
of working
and
profile
against
moved
to
the
of Huelva.
Province
On September 15, 1923, and during the war of liberation of al-Arriir

Muhammed ibn 'Abd al-Karlm al-KhattabT in the Rif mountains, Bias Infante
went
to Morocco.
where
Aghmat
Arab
He
he
movements
In
province
with
now
declared
his
Islam.
the dictatorship
He
Seville.
strong
of Al-Mu'tamid
the tomb
He
then
ibn
tried
'Abbd
to contact
of Seville
the
Islamic
in
and
the world.
around
1930,
of
visited
was
renewed
Islamic
emphasis,
history,
culture
Andalusian
land,
stranglehold
of the Catholic
activism
as
Church
and
removed,
his
for
Infante
Infante
moved
Andalusian
demanded
and
identity
from
the lives
and
back
to the
nationalism,
but
the
restoration
removal
the
of
of
the
of the Andalusians.
By 1936, however, the Civil War broke out in Spain, on August 2,

the
militia of General Franco kidnapped Bias Infante and on Monday
1936,
10,
August
"Long
slogan:
shot
1936,
live
free
him
to death
in a street
of Seville.
He
died
the
shouting
Andalusia".25
THE
FIRST MUSLIM
ORGANIZATIONS
Since the great expulsion of 1609, it looked as if Islam had ceased to exist in
Spain. The persecution of Muslims continued and the Catholic Inquisition
its sinister
continued
immigration,
By
the
1990,
which
250,000
These
a new
law
task
was
until
from
especially
number
of
included
Muslim
the
Muslims
about
in 1964
in
Spain
World
increased,
had
reached
War
especially
the
II,
Muslim
after
1960.
of
about
figure
Moroccans.
were
which
After
century.
slowly
140,000
immigrants
enacted
19th
Morocco,
able
allowed
to organize
themselves
for the existence
only
after
of non-Catholic
religious organisations. In 1967 a new law was enacted which permitted a

slightly greater degree of religious freedom. Arab students, mostly from the
Greater Syria region, established the first Islamic Students Association in
Granada in 1966, which seems to have been a direct sequel of the visit of
Shaykh Ab'l Hasan 'All al-NadawT of India to Spain in 1963. This association
was officially registered only in 1971 under the name of "The Islamic
Association in Spain". After 1974, this association opened branches in Madrid,
Oviedo, Saragoza, Valencia, Santander, Santiago and Malaga in addition to its
headquarters
in Granada.
Until 1978, the "Islamic Association in Spain" remained basically a

campus
association.
Later
on
it moved
to
the
community
but
split
into
two
groups after the establishment of "The Islamic Centre in Spain". The latter had
Islamic
Studies
36:4
its headquarters
and
(1997)
627
in Madrid
with
branches
in Barcelona,
Palmas,
Seville
Granada,
Malaga.
Later on in 1981, Prince Salman, the Governor of Riyadh, Saudi

built
a mosque near his palace in Marbela in the province of Malaga.
Arabia,
In the 1990s
another
province
construction
of
In
the
World
Muslim
was
mosque
of Malaga.
Islamic
built
by the Saudis
the Kingdom
1990,
Centre
of
in nearby
of Saudi
Arabia
which
Madrid,
is
the
completed
administered
the
by
League.
In 1990,
the number
of mosques
and
of prayer
places
established
immigrant Muslims increased dramatically throughout Spain,

Andalusia, Madrid, Valencia and Catalugna.
Until
to emigrate
in the
Fuengirola
also
the Andalusian
1960,
to a Muslim
country,
Muslims
had
usually
their
kept
in
especially
Islam
or had
secret,
But after the death
Morocco.
by the
of Franco
in 1975, Spain changed completely as it became, for the firsttime since the fall
a multicultural
of Granada,
three
year,
young
and
England
decentralized
from
people
became
Muslims
democratic
Puertollano
at the hands
country.
that same
During
(Province
of Ciudad
Real)
went
of a Scottish
Muslim,
Sheikh
Abd
to
al
Qdir al-Sufi (now al-Murbit). They were followed by others, and in 1977,
their
Sheikh
ordered
them
to move
to Cordoba
and
start an
Islamic
movement.
This group did not remain for long time in Seville, and then in Huelva,
moved
they
the
to Granada
Return
1980
of Islam
under
the name
This
Spain".
of
an organization
It was
became
it. However,
of
its name
his
very
(from
the
for
of Justice
in
for the Propagation
of Islam
in
hundreds
and
Sufi
names
to
to
of Andalusians
of its Scottish
personality
(from
above
"Association
the Ministry
strong
the strong
direction
the
called
with
registered
Association
"Religious
changes
and
Murbit)
formed
soon
through
continuous
the
of
association
Islam
joined
and
to Spain".
to
DarqawT
"Islamic
leader,
to
Mlikl,
Association
in
Spain" to "al-Murbitn") led to the division of this association into a multitude

of
most
associations,
of
them
centred
in
the
of
province
most
Granada,
specifically in the city of Granada and mostly in the old quarters of Albaicin.26
this association
Although
has,
over
the course
ceased
of years,
to have
a leading role in Islamic activities, it played an important role in the beginning

and
a strong
provided
drive
to
seems
be
push.
its
lack
One
of
of the
reasons
major
appreciation
of
the
why
this
historical
lost
group
dimension
its
of
Andalusia.
DE AL-ANDALUS
Y AM A A ISLAMICA
(YIA)
In 1980, the Spanish Courts approved a law guaranteeing freedom of religion.
In the same year, Andalusia with its eight provinces, and with Seville as its
THE
was
capital,
recognized
the
adopted
the
granted
Bias
Infante
political
status
programme
national anthem of the Region.

kilometres
created
and
a population
a favourable
of
as its founder
climate
of about
of
an
and
Bias
Autonomous
all the political
Infante,
Regipn.
This
elements
unanimously
inlcuding
the
flag
region
and
The Region has an area of 87,268

seven
for the rivival
million
people.
of Islam
This
development
in Andalusia.
the
square
has
628
The
first
Islamic
established
organization
in Spain
Andalusians
by
was
the
Islamic Association of Cordoba in 1980. The City of Cordoba then offered the
Islamic Association the mosque of Cadi Abu Othman which then lay in ruins.
This
had
mosque
been
converted
The
of Cordoba.
conquest
to have
the original
into
the
Convent
Church
Catholic
of the mosque
position
of
resisted
Santa
restored.
the
of the Muslims
Muslim
The
after
Clara
the efforts
efforts
could
not succeed owing to the stiffopposition put up by the Church. In fact by 1983
even
the
Islamic
Association
the three
during
At
the
of
the
Cordoba
of its existence
years
the
present
Islamic
to
ceased
Andalusians
many
exist.
which
organization
Nevertheless,
embraced
Islam.
carries
mainly
the
Andalusian Islamic tradition is the "Yamaa Islamica de Al-Andalus" (YIA). It

was established in Seville in 1982 by a group of young Andalusians who had
become Muslims around 1981. This organization spread very quickly from
to all
Seville
the provinces
of many
attack
Arab
trend
the Islamic
New
were
who
the beginning
indicating
centres
It had
of Andalusia.
nationalists
of the
Yamaa
to face,
from
happy
to see
not
however,
the
the
to Andalusia.
in Granada,
opened
of
emergence
of Islam
of the return
were,
the beginning,
Jerez
and Malaga in 1983, and in other cities. Later in 1986, the Yamaa established
itself in Cordoba by buying a house which it converted into an Islamic centre
with
the result
that the entire
centre
community's
of gravity
moved
from
Seville
to Cordova.
In October 1983, the Yamaa organized its firstpublic activity in Seville

in memory of al-Mu'tamid Ibn 'Abbd. It was a great success which is evident
the
from
started
river
more
The
where
organized
the
In January
protest
1984,
of Granada
manner
unseemly
were
on
Andalusian
celebration
near
in congregation
in an old
palace
1983,
in Malaga
Culture"
the
in the quarter
to the audience
explained
In November-December
started
the Yamaa
by the Church
and
the
the
Yamaa
in co-operation
most
of
the
at the celebration
which
the officialdom
and
and
its protest
a celebration
by the Christians,
momentum
gained
to an end
of Islam
The
participants.
prayers
Maghrib
came
recited.
Week
thousand
of Malaga.
University
conquest
function
were
"Cultural
four
of the
the teachings
of al-Mu'tamid
poems
than
the performance
Guadalquivir.
of Triana
with
of
presence
with
was
of the Spanish
citizens
of
Granada
of the
conducted
in an
State.
The
demanded
the
abolition of this celebration and its replacement by acts which signify fraternal
the
towards
feelings
Muslims.
In
July
the
1984,
Yamaa
organised
camp
seminar in Collogos Vega near Granada where 200 Andalusian Muslims stayed
for several
together
in a truly
days
Islamic
In July 1985 the Yamaa

in
Muslims
Seville
the
discovering
in
worth
an
effort
of
Islam
atmosphere.
organized the First Congress of European

to
co-ordinate
in different
the
parts
work
of
of
Europe.
those
who
were
Representatives
arrived from Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Germany, Britain, Cyprus and
many
other
countries.
In December
established
centre
in
1987, the Yamaa organized a conference in its newly

Cordoba
as
the
headquarters
of
the
Andalusian
Muslim
Islamic
Studies
36:4
In
community.
had
deep
In September
in
held
Castellar
la
in
THE
AVERROES
From
the very
acute.
The
centres.
spoke
Spanish
prove
adequate
thus
This
of the Muslim
in
too
Arabia,
created
from
after
community
their
who
sending
young
of
young
Morocco,
since
did
others
return
very
Islam
not always
Dozens
problems
and
did
started
Tunisia,
Algeria,
was
the Moroccans
countries.
shock,
a new
to teach
this solution
Yamaa
certain
cultural
as
Muslims
countries
barrier,
the
part.
Islam
extent.27
Spanish
Muslim
Muslim
was
congress,
UNIVERSITY
However,
Hence,
Arabic
this
took
to a great
ISLAMIC
from
In
to establish
the language
reasons.
suffered
as
of Andalusians
Cadiz.
the world
made
of educating
teachers
sent to Saudi
Malaysia.
abroad
the work
around
was
as teachers.
and
of
in this effort
overcome
several
Islam
study
and
went
to bring
preferred
for
were
Pakistan
successful
To
Islam
recognized
Congress
province
effort
the problem
tried
were
Andalusians
the
diaspora
vigorous
beginning,
Yamaa
Spain
International
in
INTERNATIONAL
in its different
who
the First
It was
of
roots.
Frontera
1980s,
in Andalusia.
people
Government
of the Andalusian
Thus,
to
the
Spanish
1989,
de
representatives
reality
629
1989
July
which
religion
(1997)
to their
Jordan,
students
many
not contribute
to
homeland.
Thus, the idea of establishing an Islamic University in Cordoba was

born.
The
March
first
1989.
house
was
Andalusian
house
followed
near
bought
It was
cathedral).
to plan
meeting
It was
the
renovated
architectural
and
this
was
by other
Great
the
tradition.
in the
result
The
Cordoba
that
forms
in Cordoba
mosque
Madrid
of time
a
(presently
it became
Mosque
of
University
in the course
and
of
Mosque
with
is the first regular
held
meetings
of
this
the conquest
after
Catholic
conformable
part
in
an old
to the
renovated
of that city
in 1236. The building was inaugurated in October 1994 and classes were started
in October
1995
The
International
including
with
25
official
Averroes
de
The
General
of
International
Board
of instruction
and
This
the
from
Amadou
as
its
chairman.
to provide
of teachers
is meant
University
Muhtar
to serve
is from
members,
and
several
Muslim
M'Bow,
the former
Director
assistance
and
Islamica
of 30
Europe,
were
Agreements
as
Spain.
"Universidad
by a Board
Andalusia,
Mr
for exchange
is
It is headed
Al-Andalus".
Universities
of whom
University
elected
UNESCO,
Islamic
of
Muslims
distinguished
countries.
the majority
students,
name
in drawing
reached
with
up the courses
students.
the centre
of
Islamic
scholarship
in Andalusia. Most of its teachers and students are Andalusians. Uptil now it has
been
well
received
by the Andalusian
THE
ANDALUSIAN
Since
the fall of Granada,
of
Andalusian
community
at large.
DIASPORA
emigrants
and
who
even
fled
before
from
that there
their
has
homeland
been
a continuous
to
owing
the
flow
brutal
oppression to which they were subjected. They especially emigrated to the coasts
of
the
Muslim
Andalusians
countries
during
16th,
on
the
Mediterranean.
17th
and
18th
centuries
Thus,
left Andalusia
great
number
to settle
of
down
AL| KETTANi/Muslims
630
in
Algeria
and
of these
three
Morocco,
populations
Most
of
the
but
Tunis),
Tetuan,
Testour,
The
countries.
them
in
led
continued
many
Muslim
of
of culture
as
of
the
origin.
Tlemcen,
settlements
(Rabat,
the
African
and
since
these
also
economy.
became
European
of the effort
to ensure
of
Many
and
invasion,
against
the security
of
them.
the
to
Lebanon,
North
regions
Andalusians
culture
to subjugate
are
to
coastal
locals.
countries
emigrated
emigration
the
than
the vanguard
Turkey,
this
cent
per
Marrakech,
new
culture
in politics,
especially
Andalusians
Bosnia-Herzegovina.
(Fes,
the
Arabicizing
the efforts
against
Other
Traces
to
of the Maghrebi
to serve
lands
10
of Andalusian
established
Andalusian
brought
fields,
many
about
considered
cities
even
etc.).
level
the defence
that
so
be
existing
them
contributed
a higher
much
could
in
of
Andalusians
had
leaders
some
Soliman,
They
refugees
countries
settled
emigrants
Algiers,
so
Tunisia,
in Spain
Syria,
Ottoman
Egypt
even
observable
State,
and
in
today
the
including
the Arabian
the
Peninsula.
name
of
many
families.
not
However,
to move
opportunity
of reaching
in the hope
many
of
Islam
and
them
were
of
"New
but
America,
were
it was
fled
from
not
always
in the
of them
Mountains
the Appalachian
The
also
Christians"
Some
With
Andalusians
who
America.
to
easy
embraced
America
their
Islam
in Andalusia
territories
conquered
As
prohibition.
were
where
forbade
state
this
to be
but
memory.
Inquisitions
to North
or the other
Christianized
Spanish
implement
World,
believed
The
the
Switzerland
reason
their
to the newly
moving
New
fled
are
to
and
were
they
from
had
country
to France
for one
but
time
erased
their
fled
fled
lands,
so.
not completely
discovered
them.
persecute
Some
Ottoman
to do
were
who
Andalusians
countries.
Muslim
Andalusians
so-called
Muslims
the
unable
al-Andalus
Many
these
all
to Muslim
established
to
the Melungeons
in
descendants.
in recent
years
were
very eager from the beginning to establish links with this Andalusian diaspora.
This
was
of
one
Andalusian
the
reasons
the
underlying
in Castellar
Conference
of
holding
de la Frontera
the
First
International
of Cadiz)
(Province
in 1989.28
CONCLUSION
It is quite evident that the Andalusians did not leave Islam of their free will. On
the contrary,
for
they were
several
almost
culture,
subjected
centuries.
their
to the most
Eventually,
roots
and
their
atrocious
became
they
But
identity.
continuously
persecution,
deprived
a
of
flicker
their
of
names,
love
for
their
Islam
always remained in their hearts. More specifically, the feeling of being different
from
the rest of Spain

Blas
was
the
Intante,
never
quite
obliterated.
man
who
developed
the
theory
of
Andalusian
nationalism, based it on its Islamic roots. He paid for this effort with his life.
His 'crime' lay in telling the Andalusians that they were different from other
Spaniards.
the death
But
Infante's
of Franco
in
efforts
1975,
enabled
which
soon
the
led
return
of
Islam
to the restoration
to Andalusia
of democracy
Spain.
after
in
Islamic
Studies
36:4
In 1980,
have
there
63 1
was
At the present,
associations.
of which
Spain
(1 997)
been
50
are
the
in 1996,
in Andalusia
established
At
not a single
Islam
are
180
Of those
alone.
by the Andalusian
pesent
in Spain
mosque
there
as
a few
only
and
mosques
Islamic
in
halls
prayer
in Andalusia,
returnees
is recognized
and
more
than
half
to Islam.
a religion
in Spain.
With
effect
from 1996-97, Islamic education will be imparted in public schools to Muslim

children. The Islamic Commission of Spain, representing all the Muslims of the
country,
has
been
established
to negotiate
with
the State
as regards
guaranteeing
Muslims their rights.

as the Muslims
Thus,
century,
than
felt until
they
forward
have
they
to a bright
two
in Spain
reasons
good
decades
future
when
stand
to feel
ago.
For
the tragic
at the threshold
much
more
good
rupture
of the twenty-first
at home
reason
they
between
in their
have
Islam
homeland
to look
begun
and
Spain
will,
in all likelihood, become a relic of the past.
'.A.
1969).
Quesada, Los Mudejares de Castilla en Tiempo de Isabel I (Vallalolid:
de Baeza, Las Coses de Granada, ed. M. Muller (Gottingen: 1863).
del Marmoral Caravajal,
Historia del Rebelion Y Castigo de los Moriscos (Madrid:
Ladero
^Hernando
'Luis
Revista de Occidente,
"A. Domnguez
1978).
Ortiz y Bernard Vincent,
Historia
de tos Moriscos
(Madrid:
Revista
de
Occidente,
1978).
5J. Caro Baroja,
Los Moriscos
del Reino de Granada
(Madrid:
1976).
'ibid.
1lbid.
"Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, ed. (Madrid: 13, Blanco Gonzalez, 1970).
''As'ad Hammd, Mihnat al- 'Arabft -Andalus (al-Mu 'assasat al- 'Arabiyyah li -Dirst wa
Nasr).
"'Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, op. cit.
"Bernard Vincent, L. Expulsion des Morisques
du Royaume de Granada
vol. VI, 1970.
(1570-1571),
Melanges del Casa Velazquez,
l2Pedro Longas, Vida Religiosa de tos Moriscos (Madrid: 1915).
"B. Vincent, op. cit.
et leur Repartition
en Castille
Lea, History of the Moriscos of Spain, Their Conversion and Expulsion (London: 1901 ).
Islamic Research Institute, 1992).
Kettani, Inbi'th al-Islm fi'l-Andalus (Islamabad:
"'Boront y Barrachina, Los Moriscos Espaoles y su Expulsion (Valencia:
1901).
"A. Domnguez Ortiz, "Felipe IV y los Moriscos", MEAII, voi. VII, No. 8.
HH.C.
"M.A.
'"Fernando
'''Muhammad
Repiso,
ibn
Smbolos y Derechos Andaluses

al-Wahhb
al-GhassnT,
'Abd
(Sevilla:
"Rihlat
1980).
al-WazTr
Rabat, Morocco.
Manuscript No. 11329, al-Khiznah al-Hasaniyyah,
2"Ahmad ibn al-Mahd
ai-Ghazl, Natljat al-Ijtihd fi' al-Muhdanah
Haqq
(Beirut:
fi Iftikk al-Asr",
wa'l-Jihd,
ed. Ism'TI
1980).
Travels Through Spain in the Years 1975 and 1976.

"Joseph Towsend, A Journey Through Spain in the Years 1786 and 1887,
23Manuel Barrois, Las Oscuras Raices del Flamenco (Sevilla:
1986).
3 volumes.
MJuan Anstonio Lacomba
Contemporanea
2lHenry Swinburne,
Abellan, Regionalismo
y Autonomia en la Andaluca
(Granada:
1988).
(1835-1936)
!5Manuel Ruiz Lagos, Blas Infante (Fondation Blas Infante, 1984).
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Minority Affairs, vol. 7, No. 1, January 1986.
of the Institute of
op. cit.
2KIbid., chapter 12.
"Kettani,

Muslims in Spain After The Fall of Granada

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MUSLIMS IN SPAIN AFTER THE FALL OF GRANADA: SUPPRESSION, RESISTANCE, ECLIPSE, AND

that the two

After the Fall of Granada

cities such as Toledo

ce) and Saragossa

ce), large numbers of

that the Catholic

AND THEIR FORCED

its Bishop. As for the general population, several members of Muslim

first act of betrayal

In 1499, the Catholic rulers invited Cardenal de Cisneros to Granada

'ulama', pressurizing them to convert to Christianity. This led to a revolt under

left in the Iberian

Carlos V died in 1555. He was succeeded by his son, Philip II, a

After the Fall of Granada

no effort of the Moriscos

for the second

to start the revolt

soldiers started committing excesses against the people of Cadiar in Alpujaras.

making it the temporary capital of al-Andalus.

that left Granada

simply as a pawn in their game of international politics.

As the Christians feared a revolt in the city of Granada in May 1569,

for his intercession

After the Fall of Granada

for the Andalusians

of the city of Granada

Christians so that they lose their Islamic identify."

carrying away hundreds of families to Muslim

for this might

After the Fall of Granada

destroyed or hid their belongings were to be punished by death. The properties

the age of six were handed over to Christian families to be raised

that they were

King Philip III walked at the head of a long procession of Leaders,

Of the expelled Andalusian Muslims, about 60,000 settled in Morocco,

that the percentage

not left the

but the King

felt that there

As for the Inquisitions, they continued to persecute Muslims in the 17th

front of a crowd of Christians, and in 1625 the tribunal condemned an enslaved

After the Fall of Granada

Christianity to Islam. In 1689, the Inquisition tribunal of Cordoba expelled from

Thir al-Horr died in battle near

prince, Thir al-Horr,

Cordoba and Seville.18

made an official visit to Andalusia

ISLAM IN SPAIN IN THE I8TH CENTURY

Cartagena in the province of Murcia, indicating that Muslims were secretly

another British traveller, Joseph Towsend,

for the first time

the fall of Granada.

After the Fall of Granada

a new constitution in Cadiz,

called the Cadiz

Andalusian nation being one of them. This Constitution visualized a federal

formed in Andujar in the province of Jaen a "Higher Council of the Revolution"

long kept it under subjugation and oppression.

anti-Catholic and struggled to rehabilitate the Islamic past of Andalusia.

that the Andalusian

Seville and in 1910 he was nominated a judge in Cantillana in the province of

the Ateneo of Seville over the 'Andalusian