Lecture 6: Cell Division

Reasons for Cell Division

Cell division is required for:

o a) ____________
o b) __________ & __________ of damaged parts
o c) ______________ of the species

In Cell Division Copies of the DNA Must Be Sent to Both New Cells

Since the instructions for making cell parts are encoded in the DNA, each new
cell must get a complete set of the DNA molecules
This requires that the DNA be copied (replicated, duplicated) before cell division

Genetic Blueprints for Cells Are Organized Into Chromosomes

The plans for making cells are coded in DNA

DNA is organized into giant molecules called chromosomes
o Each chromosome is a single DNA molecule containing many genes
o Each gene gives the directions for making 1 protein
o In humans each chromosome has approximately 2000 genes
Chromosomes have distinct parts
o Centromeres:
Hold duplicated chromosomes together before they are separated
in mitosis
Kinetochore proteins bind to centromere and attach chromosome to
spindle in mitosis
o Telomeres: ends of chromosomes: important in cell aging
DNA in chromosomes is associated with proteins
o Proteins strengthen DNA fiber
o Package chromosomes when they condense
o Control activity of genes
Humans body cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 total)
o Diploid = pair of each chromosome = 46 total
o The members of a chromosome pair are called homologues
o One of each pair came from mother, the other from father
Human reproductive cells (sperms & eggs) have 23 single chromosomes
o Haploid = single copy of each chromosome = 23 total

Genetic Instructions are Organized Into Genes

A section of DNA which codes for a protein is called a gene

o "One gene, one enzyme"
We have approximately 50,000 genes (approx. 2000 per chromosome)
Most of DNA in chromosome (~95%) is "junk" DNA- function not known

Before a Cell Can Divide it Must Duplicate its Chromosomes

To make a new cell the old cell must duplicate all its parts
Duplication takes place in interphase
o DNA (chromosomes) duplicated in the S subphase
Entire chromosome is duplicated at the same time
The duplicated chromosome remains attached to the original
chromosome by its centromere
The original chromosome and its duplicated partner are called
sister chromatids

In duplication the DNA strands separate ("unzip")

o DNA is a double helix (spiral) with the 2 strands held together by
hydrogen bonds
o In replication the 2 strands come apart and each acts as a template
(pattern) to form a new strand
o The coming apart ("unzipping") is made possible because the strands are
held together by hydrogen bonds

Chromosomes Must Be Tightly Packaged for Division

DNA must be tightly packaged for division- otherwise it would tangle

o DNA is wound up on histones and other proteins
o Strands become 10,000 times shorter and much thicker (called
condensation)
o They become visible in microscope
Condensation occurs in prophase

Mitosis is Used for Growth and Repair

Object of mitosis is to produce 2 identical cells (same number of chromosomes)

DNA duplicates and there is a single division, giving each cell 23 pairs of
chromosomes
Some tissues must be repaired often: lining of gut, white blood cells, skin- cell
lifespan is only a few days
Other cells do not divide at all after birth: nerve and muscle
Red blood cells intermediate- lifespan is ~ 120 days
General scheme of mitosis:

o
o
o
o

DNA duplicates -> 2 sister chromatids

Chromosomes attach to spindle and separate
Used for _________, _________ &__________(in single-cell organisms)
Makes 2 identical cells (each has the original number of chromosomes)

2D = DNA content of diploid cell; 4D = amount after duplication

Meiosis is Used for Sexual Reproduction

Object of meiosis is to reduce the number of chromosomes to single copy of each

(23 total)
Used for making gametes: sperm and eggs (haploid)
o When a sperm fertilizes an egg to form a zygote the diploid number of
chromosomes is restored (23 + 23 = 46)
In meiosis cells divide twice after a single DNA duplication
General scheme of meiosis:
o DNA duplicates -> 2 sister chromatids
o Chromosomes attach to spindle & separate
o Two divisions
First separates homologues
Second separates sister chromatids
o Used for sexual reproduction (makes sperm & eggs)
o Makes 4 haploid cells (each has half the number of chromosomes)

2D = amount of DNA in diploid cell; 4D = amount after duplication; 1D =

amount of DNA in haploid cells (sperm & eggs)

In Mitosis (and Meiosis) Chromosomes are Separated by the Spindle Apparatus

Spindle is formed of microtubule fibers between the 2 centrosomes (see below)

Chromosomes attach to spindle at centromeres
Separation of chromosomes requires energy (ATP)

The Cell Division Cycle Has Five Stages:

Interphase:
o Longest phase: essentially the cell must duplicate all its parts
o DNA replicates
o Proteins synthesized
o Centrioles duplicated
o Replicated chromosomes (sister chromatids) remain attached by
centromeres until anaphase
o Longest phase
Prophase:
o Chromosomes condense, become visible
o Centrosomes move to opposite ends of cell
o Spindle forms
o Nuclear membrane dissolves
Metaphase:
o Chromosomes attach to spindle fibers at their centromeres
o Line up in center of spindle apparatus
Anaphase:
o Centromeres split, freeing the sister chromatids
o Chromosomes move toward centrosomes to opposite ends of cell
Telophase:
o Cell cleaves to form 2 cells (cytokinesis)
o Nuclear membrane reforms
The last 4 phases are called mitosis
o Mitosis = Prophase + Metaphase + Anaphase + Telophase
o (PMAT)

Cancer is Uncontrolled Mitosis

Mitosis must be controlled, otherwise growth will occur without limit (cancer)
Control is by special proteins produced by oncogenes
Mutations in control proteins can cause cancer

Summary of Mitosis:

Interphase: Duplication Early Prophase:

of DNA, organelles,
Chromosomes condense,

proteins. Nucleolus
present in nucleus.
Chromosomes not
visible.

become visible. Centrosome

divides. Spindle starts to form
between the centrosomes.

Late Prophase: Spindle

formed, with centrosomes at opposite poles. Metaphase: Chromosomes
Nuclear membrane
line up on spindle in center of
dissolves. Chromosomes cell.
start to attach to spindle
at their centromeres.

Anaphase: Centromeres
split apart. Then
chromosomes move to
towards centrosomes at
opposite poles of cell.

Telophase/Cytokinesis:
Nuclear membrane reforms.
Cell pinches into 2 cells in
animals. In plants a cell plate
separates the 2 new cells.