Wind Turbines

Erich Hau

Wind Turbines
Fundamentals, Technologies,
Application, Economics
Third, translated edition

With 585 Figures and 41 Tables

ABC

Erich Hau
Dipl.Ing.
Munich, Germany
Translation:
Horst von Renouard
London, UK

ISBN 978-3-642-27150-2
e-ISBN 978-3-642-27151-9
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-27151-9
Springer Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London
Library of Congress Control Number: 2011943801
c Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2000, 2006, 2013

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the
material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly
analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system,
for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only
under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publishers location, in its current version, and permission
for use must always be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the
Copyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does
not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective
laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication,
neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions
that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein.
Printed on acid-free paper
Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

Foreword to the Third English Edition

This revised and greatly enlarged third edition is an attempt at keeping abreast of
developments in wind energy technology and especially of the meteoric expansion in
wind energy utilisation for generating power. Since the first edition appeared in 1988,
the book has kept pace with this development with five editions in German and now
three editions in the English language.
In 1988, the idea of utilizing the energy of the wind for generating electricity was
still the dream of s few enthusiasts and was not taken very seriously by the established
electricity industry. Today, generating power from wind energy has gained its rightful
place in the electricity supply spectrum. In almost all the countries, more and more wind
turbines are being used to supplement conventional power stations and their number is
increasing throughout the world. The rate of increase being counted in double figures.
In some countries, notably in Germany, the utilisation of wind energy has already
become an indispensable part of the effort of switching power generation increasingly to
renewable energies and bringing the age of atomic energy to an end.
However, it is not only ecological concerns and in many cases also apprehensions
about the hazards of atomic energy which provide the driving force for current
development and future hopes. By now, the profitability achieved by generating
electricity from wind energy is also playing an increasing role. In a fair comparison
that is to say a comparison of the costs of generating electricity from power stations
newly to be built with the costs of generating electricity from wind energy, the latter are
found to be scarcely higher and, in the long term and under favourable conditions, even
prove to be the cheaper alternative. The large producers of electricity are increasingly
aware of this fact and, after initially hesitating for a long time, are now also investing in
wind energy. The visible result of this assessment is the construction of large offshore
wind farms.
The enormous expansion of wind energy utilisation would not have been possible
without an improved technology of the wind turbines. Even though the basic concept of
the wind turbines used commercially has remained unchanged for several decades,
significant advances have been achieved in their detailed development and contribute
decisively to improved efficiency, increased reliability and more advantageous production
costs. Examples of this are the evolved aerodynamics of the rotors or the development of
gearless designs with electrical generators driven directly by the rotor, or control
technology with ever-increasing intelligence which, coupled with modern frequency
inverters, improves the quality of the electricity delivered and reduces the system loading.
The increasing size of the turbines also requires novel technical solutions, for example for
assembling turbines having a rotor diameter of more than 150 meters and towers of
corresponding height. The development of offshore technology has only just begun. In the
coming years, large offshore wind farms will be erected which will require new designs

VI

FOREWORD TO THE THIRD ENGLISH EDITION

and considerable investments for the transmission and distribution of power on land to
consumers located far in the interior. The present third edition also attempts to analyse the
current state of the art in these areas and to clarify it by quoting examples.
These general remarks about the present state of wind energy utilisation apart, I will
refrain from commenting further on the self-evident importance of wind energy for the
global energy crisis and for the environmental crisis. However, I do feel that some
helpful hints on what this book is about will not be misplaced.
The title wind turbines refers to industrially developed and manufactured machines
for generating electrical power. Those looking for a do-it- yourself manual for putting
together a windwheel, as interesting a hobby as this may be, will, therefore, be
disappointed. Instead, this book is intended to give a general overview of modern wind
turbine technology and to provide a means of orientation in the associated technical and
economical fields and its contents and form of representation are structured with this
objective in mind.
I have tried to analyse and to describe the problems involved and their technical
solutions phenomenologically and to avoid mathematical equations as much as possible.
Equations have been included only where a presentation of fundamental principles was
deemed to serve a better understanding but for those interested, I have indicated relevant
literature at the end of each chapter, which would provide the first steps to the
mathematical treatment of the problems described. Those who are responsible for
decisions about investments or steer the technical and scientific work do not commonly
sit at the computer themselves. However, they must have a clear picture of the state of
the art, what technical options are available and what lessons are to be learnt.
A book of this scope which touches on a variety of special disciplines cannot be
written without assistance. I must, therefore, thank the many people who have helped
me along the way and without whose contributions the book could not have been
completed. Primarily, I am very much obliged to my friend and colleague of many
years, Gerald Hu, who supported me very much in the first phase of the work, as early
as 1980. For this third edition he recalculated and refreshed numerous diagrams and
supported me in the final editing of the entire book.
Finally, I wish to thank all those who have assisted me in my work on these recent
editions. In particular, I am indebted to Horst von Renouard in London who translated
the second and this third edition and who has also contributed to the clarity of the text
and its representation with numerous suggestions. As for all previous editions Tanja
Rth again edited the diagrams for this present edition. Lea Baumstark prepared the
tables and, together with Roland Schmalzl, supported me in typing the additional texts.
Last, but not least, I owe thanks to my publisher Springer Verlag for publishing this
voluminous book in its third edition.

Munich, October 2012

Erich Hau

Contents

Windmills and Windwheels ....................................................................................1

1.1 The Origins of Windmills ..................................................................................1
1.2 European Windmills ..........................................................................................4
1.3 Economic Importance of Historical Windmills ............................................... 11
1.4 Scientific and Technical Development of Windmills ...................................... 13
1.5 The American Wind Turbine ........................................................................... 17
References ............................................................................................................... 21

Electrical Power from the Wind - The First Attempts ....................................... 23

2.1 Poul La Cour - A Pioneer in Denmark ....................................................... ..... 23
2.2 Large Wind Power Plants - Ambitious Projects in Germany..................... ..... 28
2.3 1250 kW from the Wind - The First Large Wind Turbine in the US ......... ..... 33
2.4 Wind Turbines in the Fifties - Before the "Energy Crisis" ........................ ..... 36
2.5 After the Energy Crisis - A New Start toward Modern Wind Power......... ..... 43
2.6 The Large Experimental Turbines of the Eighties ..................................... ..... 46
2.7 First Successes with the Small Wind Turbines in Denmark ...................... ..... 57
2.8 The Wind Farms in the United States ........................................................ ..... 58
References ......................................................................................................... ..... 63

Basic Concepts of Wind Energy Converters ...................................................... 65

3.1 Rotors with a Vertical Axis of Rotation........................................................... 66
3.2 Horizontal Axis Rotors .................................................................................... 69
3.3 Wind Energy Concentrators ............................................................................. 72
3.4 Terms and Expressions .................................................................................... 77
References ............................................................................................................... 78

Physical Principles of Wind Energy Conversion................................................. 79

4.1 Betzs Elementary Momentum Theory ............................................................ 79
4.2 Wind Energy Converters Using Aerodynamic Drag or Lift ............................ 84
References ............................................................................................................... 87

Rotor Aerodynamics ............................................................................................. 89

5.1 Mathematical Models and Calculations ........................................................... 90
5.1.1 Blade Element Theory .......................................................................... 91
5.1.2 Vortex Model of Rotor Flow ................................................................ 96

VIII

CONTENTS
5.1.3 Numeric Flow Simulation ..................................................................... 97
5.1.4 The Rotor Wake .................................................................................... 99
5.2 Rotor Power Characteristics .......................................................................... 102
5.2.1 Power and Torque Characteristics ...................................................... 102
5.2.2 Power Characteristics of Various Rotor Configurations ..................... 104
5.3 Aerodynamic Power Control ......................................................................... 106
5.3.1 Power Control by Rotor Blade Pitching.............................................. 107
5.3.2 Passive Stall Control with Fixed Blade Pitch...................................... 111
5.3.3 Active Stall Control ............................................................................ 115
5.3.4 Transient Aerodynamic Effects and Boundary-Layer Control ........... 117
5.3.5 Turning the Rotor Out of the Wind ..................................................... 119
5.4 The Aerodynamic Airfoil............................................................................... 120
5.4.1 Characteristic Properties ..................................................................... 120
5.4.2 Airfoil Geometry and Classification ................................................... 123
5.4.3 Laminar Airfoils ................................................................................. 128
5.4.4 Influence on the Power Coefficient of the Rotor ................................ 132
5.5 Rotor-Design Features and Power Characteristics ......................................... 134
5.5.1 Number of Rotor Blades ..................................................................... 135
5.5.2 Optimum Shape of the Rotor Blades .................................................. 136
5.5.3 Rotor Blade Twist ............................................................................... 143
5.5.4 Blade Thickness .................................................................................. 145
5.5.5 Design Tip-Speed Ratio of the Rotor .................................................. 146
5.6 Existing Rotor Blade Designs ........................................................................ 148
5.7 Yaw Control of the Rotor .............................................................................. 152
5.8 Aerodynamics of Vertical-Axis Rotors.......................................................... 156
5.9 Experimental Rotor Aerodynamics ................................................................ 160
5.9.1 Measurements on Models in the Wind Tunnel ................................... 160
5.9.2 Measurements on Site ......................................................................... 163
References ............................................................................................................. 164

Loads and Structural Stresses ........................................................................... 167

6.1 Loads on the Wind Turbine ........................................................................... 168
6.2 Coordinate Systems and Terminology ........................................................... 170
6.3 Sources of Loading ........................................................................................ 171
6.3.1 Gravity and Inertial Loads .................................................................. 172
6.3.2 Uniform and Steady-State Air Flow ................................................... 173
6.3.3 Vertical Wind Shear and Cross Winds................................................ 177
6.3.4 Cross Wind on the Rotor..................................................................... 178
6.3.5 Tower Interference .............................................................................. 179
6.3.6 Wind Turbulence and Gusts ................................................................ 183
6.4 Design Load Assumptions ............................................................................. 187
6.4.1 International and National Design Standards ...................................... 188
6.4.2 IEC Classes of Wind Turbines and German Wind Zones ................... 191
6.4.3 Normal Wind Conditions .................................................................... 193

CONTENTS

IX

6.4.4 Extreme Wind Conditions ................................................................... 194

6.4.5 Other Climatic and Environmental lnfluences .................................... 195
6.4.6 Other External Conditions .................................................................. 197
6.4.7 Safety Factors ..................................................................................... 198
6.5 Operational Status and Load Cases ................................................................ 199
6.5.1 Normal Operation ............................................................................... 199
6.5.2 Technical Faults .................................................................................. 201
6.6 Structural Stresses in the Wind Turbine ........................................................ 203
6.6.1 Kind of Stressing ................................................................................ 203
6.6.2 Load Spectra ....................................................................................... 205
6.7 Mathematical Models of Structural Dynamics .............................................. 208
6.7.1 Functional and Structural Modelling of the Wind Turbine ................. 208
6.7.2 Representation of the Wind Turbulence ............................................. 209
6.7.3 Analytical Approaches and Numerical Computer Codes.................... 213
6.8 Conceptual Design Features and Structural Stresses ..................................... 215
6.8.1 Number of Rotor Blades ..................................................................... 215
6.8.2 Rotor Hub Hinges in Two-Blade Rotors ............................................. 217
6.8.3 Stiffness of the Rotor Blades .............................................................. 220
6.8.4 Power Control System ........................................................................ 221
6.8.5 Rotor Speed Flexibility and Variable-Speed Operation ...................... 223
6.9 Measuring the Structural Stresses .................................................................. 226
6.9.1 Rotor Blade Testing ............................................................................ 227
6.9.2 Data Acquisition Systems and Field Measurements ........................... 228
References ............................................................................................................. 230
7

Vibration Characteristics ................................................................................... 233

7.1 Exciting Forces and Vibrational Degrees of Freedom ................................... 234
7.2 Aeroelastic Stability of Rotor Blades............................................................. 236
7.2.1 Static Divergence ................................................................................ 236
7.2.2 Natural Frequencies and Vibration Modes ......................................... 237
7.2.3 Typical Rotor Blade Vibrations .......................................................... 239
7.3 Torsional Vibration of the Drive Train .......................................................... 242
7.3.1 Mathematical Model ........................................................................... 242
7.3.2 Equivalent Mechanical Models for the Electrical Grid Coupling ....... 246
7.3.3 Natural Frequencies and Vibration Modes ......................................... 247
7.3.4 Excitations and Resonances ................................................................ 249
7.4 Dynamics of the Yaw System ........................................................................ 252
7.4.1 Modelling and Moments Around the Yaw Axis ................................. 252
7.4.2 Excitation and Resonances.................................................................. 254
7.5 Vibration of the Whole Wind Turbine ........................................................... 256
7.5.1 Tower Stiffness ................................................................................... 256
7.5.2 Vibrational Characteristics of Existing Wind Turbines ...................... 258
7.6 Mathematical Simulation ............................................................................... 264
References ............................................................................................................. 267

CONTENTS

Rotor Blades........................................................................................................ 269

8.1 Materials ........................................................................................................ 270
8.2 Aircraft Wings as Model................................................................................ 272
8.3 Experimental Designs of Rotor Blades in the Past ........................................ 274
8.3.1 Revited Aluminium Construction ....................................................... 275
8.3.2 Steel Designs....................................................................................... 277
8.3.3 Traditional Wood Construction .......................................................... 280
8.3.4 Previous Designs with Fibre-Reinforced Composites ........................ 281
8.3.5 Wood/Epoxy Composites ................................................................... 286
8.4 Modern Fibre-Reinforced Composite Blades ................................................ 287
8.4.1 Fibre Composites Technology ............................................................ 287
8.4.2 Structural Design of the Rotor Blades ................................................ 289
8.4.3 Manufacturing Methods ...................................................................... 290
8.5 Blade Connection to the Rotor Hub ............................................................... 293
8.6 Comparison of Rotor Blade Designs ............................................................. 296
8.7 Aerodynamic Brakes on Stall-Controlled Rotors .......................................... 300
8.8 Lightning Protection ...................................................................................... 302
8.9 Ice Warning and De-icing .............................................................................. 303
References ............................................................................................................. 304

Mechanical Drive Train and Nacelle ............................................................... 305

9.1 Fundamental Considerations of Power Transmission .................................... 306
9.2 Previous Experimental Designs ..................................................................... 309
9.2.1 Generator in the Tower Base .............................................................. 310
9.2.2 Vertically Positioned Generator in the Tower Head ........................... 310
9.3 Current Standard Designs .............................................................................. 312
9.3.1 Gearbox between Rotor and Generator ............................................... 312
9.3.2 Direct Rotor-Driven Generator ........................................................... 314
9.4 Rotor Hub ...................................................................................................... 318
9.4.1 Cast Steel Rotor Hubs for Three-Blade Rotors ................................... 320
9.4.2 Rotor Hub Concepts for Two-Bladed Rotors...................................... 321
9.5 Blade Pitch Mechanism ................................................................................. 325
9.5.1 Rotor Blade Bearings .......................................................................... 327
9.5.2 Blade Pitch Systems with Hydraulic Drive ......................................... 329
9.5.3 Electrically Driven Blade Pitch Systems ............................................ 333
9.5.4 Passive Blade Pitching ........................................................................ 335
9.5.5 Redundancy and Safety Issues ............................................................ 336
9.6 Rotor Shaft and Bearing Assembly ................................................................ 338
9.6.1 Bearing Technology ............................................................................ 338
9.6.2 Rotor Shaft with Separate Bearings .................................................... 341
9.6.3 Three-Point Suspension of Rotor Shaft and Gearbox ......................... 343
9.64 Rotor Shaft Integrated into the Gearbox ............................................. 344
9.6.5 The Single-Bearing Concept ........................................................... 345
9.6.6 Rotor Support on a Fixed Axle ........................................................... 346

CONTENTS

XI

9.7 Rotor Brake.................................................................................................... 347

9.8 Gearbox.......................................................................................................... 350
9.8.1 Gearbox Configurations ...................................................................... 350
9.8.2 External Load Specifications for the Gearbox .................................... 354
9.8.3 Internal Gearbox Dimensioning and Design ....................................... 357
9.8.4 Efficiency and Noise Emission ........................................................... 358
9.9 Variable-Speed Power-Splitting Gearboxes .................................................. 361
9.10 Torsional Flexibility in the Mechanical Drive Train ................................... 363
9.11 Installation of the Electric Generator ........................................................... 366
9.12 Nacelle ......................................................................................................... 368
9.12.1 Auxiliary Systems ........................................................................... 368
9.12.2 Load Carrying Concept ................................................................... 371
9.12.3 External Shape - Aesthetic Aspects ................................................ 374
9.13 Yaw System ................................................................................................. 377
9.14 Assembly and Functional Testing ................................................................ 380
References ............................................................................................................. 382
10

Electrical System .............................................................................................. 385

10.1 Synchronous and Asynchronous Generator ............................................... 386
10.1.1 Synchronous Generator ................................................................. 386
10.1.2 Induction Generator ...................................................................... 390
10.1.3 Generator with Permanent Excitation ........................................... 394
10.2 Assessment Criteria for Using Generators in Wind Turbines .................... 398
10.3 Fixed-Speed Generator Systems ................................................................ 401
10.3.1 Synchronous Generator Directly Coupled to the Grid .................. 401
10.3.2 Induction Generator Directly Coupled to the Grid........................ 403
10.3.3 Variable-Slip Induction Generator ................................................ 405
10.3.4 Multi-Speed Generator Systems ................................................... 406
10.4 Variable Speed Generator Systems with Inverter ...................................... 408
10.4.1 Frequency Inverters ...................................................................... 409
10.4.2 Synchronous Generator with Inverter ........................................... 411
10.4.3 Induction Generator with Oversynchronous Cascade ................... 413
10.4.4 Double-Fed Induction Generator .................................................. 414
10.5 Directly Rotor-Driven Variable-Speed Generators .................................... 417
10.5.1 Synchronous Generator with Electric Excitation .......................... 417
10.5.2 Direct-Drive Generators with Permanent-Magnet Excitation ....... 419
10.6 Complete Electrical System of a Wind Turbine ........................................ 421
10.6.1 Large Turbines .............................................................................. 421
10.6.2 Small Wind Turbines .................................................................... 424
10.7 Comparison of Electrical Concepts............................................................ 426
References ........................................................................................................... 428

11

Control Systems and Operational Sequence ................................................. 429

11.1 Input Data Measurement ............................................................................ 430
11.1.1 Wind Measuring System ............................................................... 431
11.1.2 Measuring Electric Power ............................................................. 434
11.1.3 Other Input Data ........................................................................... 435

XII

CONTENTS
11.2 Basic Technology of Controllers ............................................................... 435
11.3 Yaw Control............................................................................................... 437
11.4 Power Control with Rotor Blade Pitching ................................................. 438
11.4.1 System Characteristics and Analytical Design Methods ............... 440
11.4.2 Fixed-Speed Generators Directly Coupled to the Grid ................. 443
11.4.3 Variable-Speed Operation with Frequency Converter .................. 448
11.4.4 Isolated Operation without Grid.................................................... 450
11.5 Power Limiting by Aerodynamic Stall ...................................................... 452
11.5.1 Parallel-Grid Operation ................................................................. 452
11.5.2 Isolated Operation ......................................................................... 453
11.5.3 Active Stall Control ...................................................................... 454
11.6 Operational Sequence and Safety System .................................................. 457
11.6.1 Operational States ......................................................................... 457
11.6.2 Safety System ............................................................................... 459
11.7 Control System Implementation ................................................................ 460
11.8 Interaction with the Grid ............................................................................ 462
References ........................................................................................................... 465

12

The Tower ......................................................................................................... 467

12.1 Tower Configurations ................................................................................ 468
12.2 Strength and Stiffness Design .................................................................... 471
12.3 Tower Demensioning Conforming to German Building Regulations ........ 473
12.4 Free-Standing Tubular-Steel Towers ......................................................... 474
12.4.1 Stiffness and Structural Mass ........................................................ 474
12.4.2 Manufacturing Techniques and Construction ............................... 477
12.4.3 Climbing Aids and Internal Installations ...................................... 480
12.5 Lattice Towers ........................................................................................... 483
12.6 Concrete Towers ........................................................................................ 487
12.7 Concrete-Steel Hybrid Towers .................................................................. 492
12.8 Comparison of Different Tower Concepts ................................................. 494
12.9 Increasing the Height with Different Tower Concepts .............................. 496
12.10 The Foundation ........................................................................................ 499
References ........................................................................................................... 503

13

The Wind Resource .......................................................................................... 505

13.1 Causes of the Wind and of the Power in the Wind .................................... 505
13.2 Global Distribution of Wind Resources ..................................................... 508
13.3 Wind Resources in Europe......................................................................... 516
13.4 Characteristic Parameters of the Wind ....................................................... 517
13.4.1 Mean Annual Wind Speed and Wind Speed Frequency
Distribution ................................................................................... 517
13.4.2 Increase in Wind Speed with Altitude .......................................... 520
13.4.3 Steadiness of the Wind .................................................................. 524
13.4.4 Wind Turbulence and Gusts .......................................................... 529

CONTENTS

XIII

13.5 Topography and Local Wind Flow ............................................................ 532

13.6 Measuring and Determining the Wind Speed ............................................ 534
13.6.1 Measuring Techniques .................................................................. 534
13.6.2 Ascertaining the Wind Data and the Energy Yield
from the European Wind Atlas ..................................................... 539
13.6.3 Numeric Models of Three-Dimensional Wind Fields ................... 542
13.7 About the Wind Energy Potential .............................................................. 543
References ........................................................................................................... 547
14

Power Output and Energy Yield .................................................................... 549

14.1 From Rotor Power Characteristics to Turbine Power Curve ..................... 550
14.1.1 Installed Generator Power and Rotor Speed ................................. 550
14.1.2 Losses due to Power Control and Operational Sequence .............. 554
14.1.3 Efficiencies in the Mechanical-Electrical Energy Conversion ...... 557
14.1.4 Power Coefficients of Todays Turbines ...................................... 559
14.2 Determination of the Power Curve ............................................................ 560
14.2.1 Definitions, Characteristics and Warranty .................................... 561
14.2.2 Measuring the Power Curve .......................................................... 563
14.3 Site-Related Influences on the Power Curve ............................................. 569
14.3.1 Complex Terrain ........................................................................... 569
14.3.2 Air Density .................................................................................... 570
14.3.3 Turbulence .................................................................................... 573
14.3.4 Other Weather-Related Influences ................................................ 575
14.3.5 Soiling of the Rotor Blades ........................................................... 575
14.4 Uniformity of Power Output ...................................................................... 576
14.5 Annual Energy Yield ................................................................................. 579
14.5.1 Method of Calculation .................................................................. 579
14.5.2 Approximate Calculation of the Energy Yield .............................. 581
14.5.3 Technical Availability ................................................................... 584
14.5.4 Safety Deductions for Economic Calculations.............................. 588
14.6 Wind Regime and Energy Yield ................................................................ 589
14.7 Major Design Features and Energy Yield .................................................. 591
14.7.1 Rotor Power Coefficient ............................................................... 592
14.7.2 Rotor Diameter.............................................................................. 593
14.7.3 Optimal Rotor Speed and Variable Rotor Speed
Operation ...................................................................................... 594
14.7.4 Power Control: Blade Pitch Contra Stall ...................................... 597
14.7.5 Installed Generator Power ............................................................. 598
14.7.6 Rotor Hub Height .......................................................................... 600
14.7.7 Operational Wind Speed Range .................................................... 601
14.7.8 Efficiency of a Wind Turbine as Energy Converter ...................... 602
References ........................................................................................................... 603

XIV

CONTENTS

15

Environmental lmpact ..................................................................................... 605

15.1 Hazards for the Environment ..................................................................... 606
15.1.1 How Far Can a Rotor Blade Fly? .................................................. 606
15.1.2 Safety Risks .................................................................................. 609
15.2 Wind Turbine Noise................................................................................... 610
15.2.1 Acoustic Parameters and Permissible Noise Levels...................... 610
15.2.2 Noise Sources in Wind Turbines................................................... 613
15.2.3 Noise Emission of Current Wind Turbines ................................... 617
15.3 Shadow Effects .......................................................................................... 622
15.4 Interference with Radio and Television Signals ........................................ 625
15.5 Impact on Bird Life.................................................................................... 628
15.6 Land Use .................................................................................................... 629
15.7 Visual Impact on the Landscape ................................................................ 631
15.8 Utilisation of Wind Energy and Climate Protection .................................. 633
15.8.1 Effect on the Local Climate .......................................................... 633
15.8.2 Utilisation of Wind Power and CO2 Emissions ............................ 634
References ........................................................................................................... 636

16

Commercial Applications of Wind Turbines ................................................ 637

16.1 Stand-Alone Wind Turbine Applications................................................... 638
16.1.1 Autonomous Power Supply - Storage Problems ........................... 639
16.1.2 Residential Heating with Wind Energy......................................... 645
16.1.3 Pumping Water ............................................................................. 648
16.1.4 Desalination of Sea Water............................................................. 650
16.2 Small Grids with Diesel Generators and Wind Turbines ........................... 653
16.3 Wind Turbines Connected with Large Grids ............................................. 657
16.3.1 Distributed Wind Turbines Operated by Private
Consumers .................................................................................... 657
16.3.2 Wind Park Installations ................................................................. 658
16.4 Integration into the Utility Generation System .......................................... 662
16.4.1 Operational Strategies and Control Issues .................................... 663
16.4.2 Adaption of the Utility Grids to Renewable Energy Utilisation ... 665
16.4.3 Contribution to Firm Power .......................................................... 666
16.5 Wind Turbine Industry and Market ........................................................... 668
16.5.1 Historical Development of the Markets ........................................ 668
16.5.2 The Wind Turbine Manufacturers ................................................. 670
16.5.3 Components Industry, Service Providers and Basic Research ...... 672
References ........................................................................................................... 675

17

Offshore Wind Energy Utilisation ................................................................... 677

17.1 Important Technical Issues of Offshore Siting .......................................... 678
17.1.1 Technical Requirements for the Wind Turbines ........................... 678
17.1.2 Foundation on the Sea Floor ......................................................... 681
17.1.3 Electrical Infrastructure................................................................. 688
17.1.4 Transportation and Installation ..................................................... 694

CONTENTS

XV

17.2 Operational Issues of Offshore Wind Turbines ......................................... 697

17.2.1 Accessibility at Poor Weather Conditions .................................... 697
17.2.2 Servicing and Maintenance ........................................................... 699
17.3 Offshore Wind Energy in the North Sea and in the Baltic Sea .................. 701
17.3.1 Oceanographic Conditions and Wind Resources .......................... 701
17.3.2 Legal Situation .............................................................................. 704
17.3.3 Criteria for the Permission ............................................................ 706
17.3.4 The First Offshore Wind Parks ..................................................... 708
17.3.5 Commercial Offshore Wind Parks ................................................ 709
References ........................................................................................................... 718
18

Wind Turbine Installation and Operation .................................................... 719

18.1 Project Development.................................................................................. 720
18.1.1 Search for a Site and Acquisition of Land Lease Agreements ...... 720
18.1.2 Preplanning and Building Permission ........................................... 721
18.2 Technical Layout of Wind Park Installations............................................. 724
18.2.1 Wind Turbine Spacing .................................................................. 725
18.2.2 Internal Electrical Cabling ............................................................ 729
18.2.3 Grid Connection ............................................................................ 732
18.2.4 Site Preparation and Building Activities ....................................... 738
18.3 Transportation to the Site ........................................................................... 741
18.4 Erection on the Site .................................................................................... 745
18.4.1 Standard Method ........................................................................... 745
18.4.2 Erection without Heavy Lifting Equipment .................................. 749
18.4.3 Extremely Large Installations ....................................................... 752
18.4.4 Large Experimental Turbines with Two-Bladed Rotor................. 755
18.5 Commisioning............................................................................................ 760
18.5.1 Commercial Wind Turbines .......................................................... 760
18.5.2 Experimental Turbines and Prototypes ......................................... 761
18.6 Operation and Monitoring.......................................................................... 763
18.6.1 Acquisition of Operational Data ................................................... 763
18.6.2 Monitoring of Large Wind Parks .................................................. 767
18.6.3 Technical Condition Monitoring ................................................... 768
18.7 Safety Aspects............................................................................................ 770
18.7.1 Technical Safety Systems ............................................................. 770
18.7.2 Risks from Extreme Weather Conditions...................................... 775
18.8 Maintenance and Repair ............................................................................ 779
18.8.1 Routine Maintenance .................................................................... 780
18.8.2 Causes of Damage and Repair Risks ............................................ 781
18.8.3 Statistical Evaluations ................................................................... 785
References ........................................................................................................... 786

19

Wind Turbine Costs ......................................................................................... 789

19.1 Manufacturing Costs and Selling Prices of Wind Turbines ....................... 790
19.2 Specific Costs and Reference Parameters .................................................. 791

XVI

CONTENTS
19.2.1 Structural Masses as a Basis for Determining
the Manufacturing Costs ............................................................... 792
19.2.2 Structural Masses of Present Wind Turbines ................................ 798
19.2.3 Manufacturing Cost Calculation on the Basis
of Mass-Related Cost Figures ....................................................... 801
19.2.4 Manufacturing Costs and Price Calculation .................................. 803
19.2.5 Design Features and Manufacturing Costs.................................... 809
19.2.6 Economy of Scale in Series Production ........................................ 811
19.2.7 Lowering Costs through Further Technical
Development ................................................................................. 813
19.2.8 Alternative Technical Concepts and Achievable Costs ................ 814
19.2.9 On the Development Costs of Wind Turbines .............................. 816
19.2.10 Development of Sales Prices for Wind Turbines ........................ 817
19.3 Investment Costs for Turnkey Installations ............................................... 820
19.3.1 Acquisition of the Project Rights .................................................. 820
19.3.2 Technical Planning and Application for the Building
Permission ..................................................................................... 820
19.3.3 Procurement of Wind Turbines ..................................................... 821
19.3.4 Technical Infrastructure ................................................................ 822
19.3.5 Organisational Costs ..................................................................... 825
19.3.6 Selected Examples for Turn-Key Costs ........................................ 826
19.4 Operating and Maintenance Costs ............................................................. 829
19.4.1 Maintenance and Repairs .............................................................. 830
19.4.2 Insurances ..................................................................................... 832
19.4.3 Other Operating Costs................................................................... 833
19.4.4 Total Annual Operating Costs ....................................................... 834
19.5 Offshore Projects ....................................................................................... 834
19.5.1 Investment Costs ........................................................................... 834
19.5.2 Operating Costs ............................................................................. 841
References ........................................................................................................... 842

20

Wind Turbine Economics ................................................................................ 845

20.1 Corporate Organisation of the Project and Financing ................................ 846
20.2 Power Production Costs and Repayment Periods ...................................... 848
20.2.1 Basics for Calculating the Costs of Electricity.............................. 849
20.2.2 Static Annuity Approach ............................................................... 850
20.2.3 Offshore Installations .................................................................... 854
20.2.4 Dynamic Calculation of Economic Viability ................................ 857
20.2.5 Cash-Flow Projection.................................................................... 859
20.3 Competition with Conventional Energy Sources ....................................... 863
20.4 Energy Recovery in Wind Turbines........................................................... 866
20.5 The Effect of Wind Energy Utilisation on Employment ............................ 867
20.6 Macroeconomic Framework and Renewable Energies .............................. 868
References ........................................................................................................... 870

Subject Index............................................................................................................... 871

Frequently Used Symbols

A
A
a
c
cA
cD
cP
cPR
cQ
cT
D
D
E
f
H
I
k
L
M
MT
n
nmech
nsyn
p
P
r
R
R
s
T
t
U

rotor-swept area (m)

scale parameter (wind speed distribution) (m/s)
year
rotor blade chord length (m)
aerodynamic lift coefficient ()
aerodynamic drag coefficient ()
turbine power coefficient ()
rotor power coefficient ()
rotor torque coefficient ()
rotor thrust coefficient ()
aerodynamic drag (N)
rotor diameter (m)
annual energy yield (kWh/a)
frequency (Hz)
height (hub height) (m)
intensity of current (A)
form (shape) parameter (wind speed distribution) ()
aerodynamic lift (N)
(rotor) torque (Nm)
aerodynamic torsional moment (Nm)
rotor speed (rpm)
mech. speed (rpm)
synchronous speed (rpm)
air pressure (mbar)
power (W)
local rotor radius (m)
ohmic resistance ()
rotor radius (m)
slip (generator) ()
(rotor) thrust (force) (N)
temperature (C)
voltage (V)
cut-in wind speed (m/s)
cut-out wind speed (m/s)
extreme wind speed (m/s)
relative flow velocity (m/s)
wind speed (m/s)

FREQUENTLY USED SYMBOLS

XVIII

zo

mean (annual) wind speed (m/s)

ground roughness length (m)
angle of attack (deg)
wind shear exponent ()
efficiency ()
blade pitch angle (deg)
tip-speed ratio ()
kinematic air viscosity (m/s)
air density (kg/m)
turbulence intensity (%)
phase angle (deg)
angular velocity (deg/s)
wind speed frequency distribution (%)