Data link simulations highlight benefits

ICAO
VOL UME 56
J O U R N A L
N U MB ER 3 , 2 0 01

SAFETY FIRST:
Proficiency in a common ATC language
THE ICAO COUNCIL
P re s i d e n t

ICAO Journal
D r. ASSAD KOTAITE
1st Vi c e - P re s i d e n t
S.W. GITHAIGA
2nd Vi c e - P re s i d e n t
–
3 rd Vi c e - P re s i d e n t The magazine of the International Civil Aviation Organization
S.N. AHMAD
S e c re t a ry
R. C. COSTA PEREIRA
S e c re t a ry General
VOL. 56, NO. 3 APRIL 2001
ALGERIA
T. Chérif FEATURES
ARGENTINA
J.L. Bacarezza 5 ATM projects now under way in Europe may have far-reaching implications
AUSTRALIA for concepts such as free flight.
J. Aleck
BOTSWANA 10 Simulations indicate that implementation of data link services has a beneficial
K.J. Mosupukwa effect on controller workload as well as potential safety gains.
B RAZIL
A.M. Cunha 15 A fleet of light aircraft is being equipped for a real-world evaluation of the
CAMEROON
T. Te k o u
safety benefits arising from the use of advanced technologies.
CANADA 20 The opening of a new air route structure over the North Pole promises
G. Richard
CHINA significant reductions in flight times and cost.
Y. Zhang
COLOMBIA 24 A study group is examining ways to strengthen provisions for English language
J.M. Pulido Uribe proficiency among ATC personnel and flight crews.
CUBA
M. Molina Martínez 27 Technological innovations are having a positive impact on search and rescue
E GYPT services, but also redefine the scope for human error.
M.A.A.A. Elbagori
F RANCE 30 Safety issues highlighted by report on TWA Flight 800 include fuel tank
J.-F. Dobelle
GERMANY
flammability, fuel tank ignition sources, and design and certification standards.
Dr. H. Mürl
INDIA ICAO UPDATE
A.P. Singh
INDONESIA 34 Environmental colloquium facilitates exchange of views; ICAO releases
J. Sjioen preliminary safety statistics for the year 2000.
ITALY
G.L. Cornado
J APAN
COVER
A. Aoki Most of our feature articles this month focus on air traffic management, including an
KENYA
S.W. Githaiga
article on the need to strengthen provisions for proficiency in a common aviation
LEBANON language (see page 24). The potential consequences of an aviation mishap as a result
R. Abdallah of ambiguous communication or lack of language proficiency are serious enough that
ME X I C O
R. Kobeh González
experts are reviewing ways to address the issue as a matter of priority.
N ETHERLANDS Cover photo courtesy of The Boeing Co.
M.A. Kraan
NI G E R I A
D.O. Eniojukan Editor: Eric MacBurnie Production Clerk: Sue-Ann Rapattoni
NORWAY Editorial Assistant: Regina Zorman Design Consultant: Rodolfo Borello
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ATM projects in Europe may have far-reaching
implications for concepts such as free flight
A number of research projects that use emerging satellite, air- and ground-based technologies
to support a future ATM concept are in progress worldwide, including several in Europe that
are based on ADS-B supported by VDL Mode 4.
LARRY JOHNSSON
LUFTFARTSVERKET
(SWEDEN)
A
N aircraft is being sequenced
behind another on its approach
to Stockholm’s Arlanda Airport,
with an unusual exchange between the
air traffic controller and pilot.
ATC: “Scandinavian 123, Point out,
Delta Lima Hotel 456 at one o’clock,
keep 3 NM target trail.”
Pilot: “3 NM target trail Delta Lima
Hotel 456, Scandinavian 123.”
Pilot: “Delta Lima Hotel 456 in sight at
one o’clock distance 6, Scandinavian
123”
Pilot: “Locked on 3 NM target trail
Delta Lima Hotel 456, Scandinavian
123.”
ATC: “SAS123, keep separation.”
The above communication between
pilot and controller is taken from a sim-
ulation of delegated airborne separation
(DAS) which took place at the Swedish
ATS Academy (SATSA) in Malmö,
Sweden on 19-20 May 2000. The simula-
tion, focusing on the approach and
climb-out phases of flight, was based on
the new three-runway configuration at
the Stockholm Arlanda Airpor t and was
performed by using an air traffic control
(ATC) simulator manned by operational
controllers. In the above communication
example, separation between two aircraft
on approach is established and main-
tained by ATC. After initiation of a pro-
cedure known as station keeping, the
aircrew of the trailing aircraft accepts
responsibility for maintaining the de-
NUMBER 3, 2001
fined separation of three nautical miles
(NM) from the lead aircraft, a process
that is similar to today’s visual approach
procedures during visual meteorological
conditions (VMC). The difference in this
case is that sur veillance information
is made available electronically to the
pilots, thus allowing VMC-like proce-
dures to be applied during instrument
meteorological conditions (IMC).
The DAS simulation clearly demon-
strated that station-keeping in the arrival
phase contributes to a significantly
increased capacity in air traf fic and
reduced ATC workload. This is a typical
Cockpit displays featuring moving airport map and ground track representation,
left, and flight plan, moving map and CPDLC information, right.
example of how new procedures based
on new techniques can be applied to air
traffic management (ATM) in order to
fulfil the goals defined by the ICAO
CNS/ATM concept. The new technique
in this example is automatic dependent
surveillance-broadcast (ADS-B).
What is ADS-B?
Automatic dependent sur veillance is
one of the new features introduced by
the ICAO CNS/ATM concept. It was
developed as a new means for surveil-
lance, filling the gaps in the traditional
AI R T RA FFI C MANA GE M E NT
ground-based surveillance systems which
are limited by line of sight. A data link is
used to provide ATC with aircraft-derived
data such as position and intent.
Long range data communications using
the aeronautical mobile-satellite ser vice
(AMSS) and high frequency (HF) data link
are available today to support operations
over areas lacking adequate ground infra-
structure. These systems provide aeronau-
tical telecommunication network (ATN)
compatible air-ground data link. In princi-
ple, any ATN compatible air-ground data
link can be used to support ADS, includ-
ing very high frequency (VHF) digital link
(VDL). The initial version of ADS, called
ADS contract (ADS-C), is based on point-
to-point communications between applica-
tions on-board the aircraft and on the
ground, and can only support traditional
ground-based sur veillance functions. At
present, ADS-C is used as a replacement
for voice position reports over the Atlantic
and the Pacific.
ADS-broadcast evolved as a new func-
tion providing surveillance data to flight
crews as well as ATC. With ADS-B, sur-
veillance data broadcast from aircraft as
well as by airport ground vehicles can be
5
 AI R T RAF FI C M ANAG E M EN T

received and used by any properly with other traf fic. This arrangement independently. They emerged as unique
equipped user. In ATC centres it is pos- makes it possible to utilize the airspace solutions for aviation, strictly within one
sible to present ADS-B data in a format more efficiently. of the three domains: communications,
resembling today’s displays of radar ICAO has developed two sets of com- navigation or sur veillance (CNS).
data. ADS-B data is useful as a comple- plementary standards supporting ADS-B. The main on-board navigation system,
ment to radar information, and in areas The Secondar y Sur veillance Radar Im- the flight management system (FMS),
without radar infrastructure it can pro- provements and Collision Avoidance exists in many different versions and lev-
vide radar-like functionality, hence elimi- Systems Panel (SICASP) developed els of sophistication. Emerging versions
nating the need to procure radar systems Mode S extended squitter as an enhance- provide the aircrew with advanced tools
when traffic grows. ment of the airborne collision avoidance for optimum operation of the aircraft in
A surveillance picture based on ADS-B system (ACAS), while the Aeronautical accordance with parameters set by the
can be presented to the pilots on a cock- Mobile Communications Panel (AMCP) pilot. These tools will make it possible to
pit display of traffic information (CDTI). developed VHF digital link Mode 4 in achieve the perfect balance between
As ADS-B is transmitted by means of a support of sur veillance applications. economy and per formance for the spe-
data link, other data link functions can A collision avoidance system is the cific flight. The FMS gives the pilot total
also be supported. These may include a last safety net, and is supposed to control over the aircraft and its flight tra-
prevent collision when jector y, allowing arrival over waypoints
other measures for pro- with an accuracy of within a few seconds.
viding aircraft separa- Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS)
tion have failed. It is and the Swedish company, AVTECH, in
typically based on the cooperation with FMS manufacturer
rapid exchange of posi- Smiths Industries, are currently con-
tion data within shor t ducting a study to investigate the accu-
ranges. ASAS applica- racy of touchdown time predictions
tions are based on made prior to take-of f. The companies
exchange of data over anticipate it will be possible to predict
longer ranges in sup- arrival time to within 10 seconds. FMS
port of the orderly flow capabilities make it possible for the air-
of air traf fic that is char- crew to agree on very precise contracts
acteristic for air traffic with ATC, provided that appropriate
The Swedish ATS Academy at Malmö, Sweden is equipped management. For safety operational procedures are put in place.
with an advanced multirole ATM research and training
simulator known as SMART, which is capable of assessing reasons, it is important The present ground-based ATC sys-
scenarios involving up to 500 simultaneous flights. to maintain a clear divi- tems, based on radar technology and air-
sion between these two craft positions having an accuracy of
two-way exchange of intent information, functions. Therefore, the collision avoid- hundreds of metres and flight plan sys-
downlink of aircraft parameters (DAP), ance system should not be based on same tems that define timing in minutes, not
uplink of surveillance information technology as other ATM functions. seconds, are limiting the possibilities of
derived from other sur veillance systems The availability of sur veillance data in supporting accurate planning and conflict
(TIS-B), uplink of weather and flight the cockpit will allow the aircrew to take detection. Early and accurate planning is
information (D-FIS), and controller–pilot a more active role in the ATM process. one of the key elements in the ATM sys-
data link communications (CPDLC). With this information on hand, it will be tem envisaged in the CNS/ATM concept.
Such varied information can be transmit- possible for pilots and controllers to With today’s ATC system, it is not possi-
ted on the same or more data links. share separation tasks in a new way. ble to take advantage of the capabilities of
The two types of automatic dependent ADS-B is expected to become one of a modern aircraft with an advanced flight
sur veillance, ADS-B and ADS-C, com- the cornerstones of ASAS. The availabili- management system. Moreover, for sys-
plement one another. In areas without ty of sur veillance data in the cockpit is tem consistency, all phases of flight have
ground infrastructure, ADS-C can pro- one of the most significant improvements to be included in an accurate planning
vide ATC with the information needed made in aviation in the past 50 years. process, from gate-to-gate or en-route-to-
for the sur veillance functions, while air- en-route, as some prefer to describe the
borne separation assurance system System development process to better reflect that aircraft turn-
(ASAS) applications based on ADS-B Traditionally, systems on board air- around time is included.
will allow the flight crew to assume craft and systems on the ground have Today, the only “technical” connection
responsibility for maintaining separation their own lives and have been developed between airborne and ground-based sys-

6 ICAO JOURNAL

tems is the secondar y sur veillance radar
(SSR) transponder that provides for limited
exchange of data. Data links are still
very rare in ATC and provide only basic
services such as pre-departure clear-
ances, weather and position reports over
remote areas through ADS-C. To achieve
the real benefits expected from the new
technologies, applications on-board air-
craft and applications in the ground-based
ATM systems have to be developed in
close cooperation. Accurate aircraft per-
formance, contracts reached by
controllers and pilots, and trans-
parent data exchange between
ground-based and airborne sys-
tems, are some of the key features
in the emerging systems.
Operational implementation
Implementation of the ICAO
CNS/ATM systems is ongoing.
The technical components are
already in place or are in the
process of being standardized.
They will form the technical foun-
dation for aviation in the time
frame 2010-15. Systems not yet
standardized will not be available
in this time frame.
ADS-B is often considered to be one
of the key enablers for the CNS/ATM
systems. There are several reasons why
this is the case: as stated previously,
ADS-B consists of elements from all
three CNS domains. It provides the
flight crew with better situational aware-
ness, and provides ATC with accurate
aircraft-derived data. What’s more, the
CNS elements are available for other
ATM applications.
To benefit from the new technological
systems, both the operational working
methods and the legal framework will
have to be adjusted. Various groups of
experts are working on defining details
of the future concept, developing opera-
tional procedures and defining new
applications. When ground and airborne
systems are linked together technically
in a transparent way, the operational pro-
cedures and applications will have to be
developed jointly.
NUMBER 3, 2001
Eurocontrol, in line with its “ATM
2000+” strategy for Europe, is develop-
ing a cooperative ATS (COOPATS) con-
cept. This is a concept of air traffic
management that enhances the produc-
tivity and safety of air traf fic ser vices
(ATS) through the optimum involvement
of controllers, aircrew and airlines by
using integrated data communications
and improved forms of sur veillance and
automation. The aim is to suppor t con-
trollers, pilots and all potential ATM
users in all phases of
flight and eventually
achieve autonomous
flight operations in
“free flight” airspace.
This can be accom-
plished by progres-
sively implementing
fully seamless com-
munications, data ex-
change, situational awareness and
automation capabilities, together with
associated procedures and rules.
This initiative is closely coordinated
with the work of the Eurocontrol ADS
programme, which is developing an oper-
ational concept and requirements for
ADS (including both ADS-C and ADS-B)
as well as developing a transition plan for
introducing ADS in Europe supported by
safety and cost-benefit analyses.
New facilities will probably first be
introduced in areas lacking sur veillance
AI R T R AFF IC MAN AGE M E NT
functions today. In other areas, new func-
tions will complement the traditional func-
tions. The ATM system will continue to
evolve when confidence is gained in the
new technologies, techniques and proce-
dures. In other words, the introduction of
new technology will be incremental.
R&D projects
A number of projects using emerging
satellite, air and ground technologies to
support a future ATM concept are ongoing
Displays based on ADS-B
improve situational aware-
ness for op erators of
ground vehicles as well as
the tower controller and
pilot. The situation dis-
plays featured here are
installed in a ground vehi-
cle based at the Stockholm
Arlanda Airport, the Arlanda
Airport control tower and
a SAS Fokker F28.
worldwide. Several large-scale European
projects focus on the use of data links to
support a range of user applications and
scenarios across the CNS domains. Some
of the achievements of these projects may
have far-reaching implications for the
development of future ATM systems and
concepts such as cooperative air traffic
ser vices and free flight. All of the
European programmes, described briefly
below, are based on ADS-B supported by
VDL Mode 4.
NEAN update programme. The NEAN
7
 AI R T RAF FI C M ANAG E M EN T

update programme (NUP) is a follow up ground and airborne equipment will be The core element of NUP is the oper-
of the North European ADS-B network replaced by certifiable equipment compli- ational development team. These expert
(NEAN) project, which was sponsored ant with ICAO standards. The upgraded teams, consisting of pilot, ATC, airport,
by the European Commission (EC) and infrastructure will enable continued and general aviation and industry represen-
completed in 1999. In NEAN, ADS-B improved support for activities performed tatives, are called “Tiger Teams”. In
capability was created through a net- in other projects, and will allow the VDL order to cover different phases of flight
work of ground stations and mobile pro- Mode 4 ground network to be expanded. and ATM environments, seven such
totype VDL Mode 4 equipment installed NUP objectives include the develop- teams have been established throughout
in commercial aircraft and airpor t vehi- ment of an operational concept for ADS-B Europe. Each has its own specific task.
cles. The network is still in place and based ATM, and the identification, inves- The aggregated development work per-
extends over Denmark, Sweden, Ger- tigation and development of related formed by the teams, whose activities
many and beyond, providing VHF cover- applications. With the addition of the are described briefly below, forms the
age for data link communications across Directorate General of Civil Aviation of basis for analysis of operational and cost
a large part of northern Europe. Position France and Airbus Industrie/Aerospa- benefits.
reports received by a ground Tiger Team Stockholm. The
station are distributed through- team leader SAS is, together with
out the network to ATC and to ATC and Stockholm Arlanda Air-
other users. port Authority, investigating the
The air and ground infrastruc- possibilities of using ADS-B for
ture created by NEAN compris- improved approach and depar-
es some 15 ground stations, 25 ture procedures. The basic con-
equipped commercial aircraft, cept is called “station keeping”.
and some 30 airport vehicles. The anticipated benefits include
NEAN was a collaborative ven- a 20 to 30 percent increase in
ture between the Swedish, Ger- departure and arrival capacity.
man and Danish civil aviation Tiger Team Copenhagen. The
administrations with the active Danish CAA is leading a team
participation of Lufthansa, SAS investigating the use of ADS-B
and regional airlines. After a for helicopter traf fic in the
In recent years ADS-B has been used to improve the effi-
t i me, t he N EAN i n i t i a t i v e ciency of the snow removal process, especially during North Sea. This environment is
formed the baseline concept in low visibility conditions. Improved control of the snow- probably one of the most
the North Atlantic ADS-B net- clearing vehicles leads to increased airport capacity. demanding in commercial avia-
work (NAAN). tion. The main objective is to
NEAN provided the infrastructure for tiale, NUP includes the same core part- improve safety and regularity for the hel-
the extensive testing of specific CNS/ ATM ners as NEAN and NEAP. icopter traffic between the mainland and
applications conducted in other projects The programme is proceeding in coor- offshore oil rigs in non-radar airspace.
such as the North European CNS/ATM dination with the Eurocontrol ADS pro- Tiger Team Frankfurt. Led by Luf-
applications project (NEAP), also com- gramme. The first phase of NUP will be thansa, this team is investigating the
pleted in 1999. In NEAN, the following completed by mid-2001 and will be fol- potential of using improved situation
applications were evaluated: lowed by a second phase, with the objec- awareness based on ADS-B during the
• enhanced surveillance through the tive of establishing a European ADS-B arrival and approach phase, called
downlink of aircraft parameters; network “based on global standards sup- enhanced visual acquisition (EVA).
• pilot situational awareness in flight and porting certified applications and equip- Electronic means (i.e. CDTI) are used to
on the ground; ment in synergy with the European ATM acquire preceding traffic. It is anticipat-
• global navigation satellite system concepts providing benefits to ATM ed that airborne visual separation could
(GNSS) precision navigation capability stakeholders.” continued on page 37
for en-route and approach; The schedule calls for stand-alone,
• extended helicopter sur veillance in local implementations to be in place in Larry Johnsson is the Senior Systems Engineer/ Pro-
grammer in the Air Navigation Services Division of the
North Sea operations; and 2003 and fully integrated Europe-wide Swedish Civil Aviation Administration (Luftfartsverket),
and works from the ATC Systems Logistic Office in
• runway incursion monitoring. implementation to be achieved in 2006. Malmö-Sturup, Sweden. He has been a member of the
The NEAN update programme, NUP, is In phase II, more par tners and a new ICAO Aeronautical Mobile Communication Panel
(AMCP) since his nomination by Sweden in 1994. Mr.
upgrading the ADS-B infrastructure cre- area of special interest, integration with Johnsson may be contacted by fax at 46 40 6131378 or
ated by NEAN. Prototype VDL Mode 4 ATC systems, will be added. 46 708 151382 or email (larry.johnsson@lfv.se).

8 ICAO JOURNAL
 D ATA LI NK S IM U LAT I O N S
Simulations study the impact of various
data link services on controller workload
Simulated exercises involving data link services which are intended to automate routine tasks have
revealed that implementation of data link has a beneficial effect on controller workload. The results
also point to potential safety benefits.
MARK GREEN • GARY COLLEDGE
NATIONAL AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES LTD .
(UNITED KINGDOM)
A
NALYSIS of a series of simula-
tions of the data link human-
machine i nter face (HMI)
indicates that the implementation of
selected data link ser vices can reduce
the workload of the controller as well as
radiotelephony (RTF) usage.
The simulations and their analysis,
performed by the U.K. National Air Traf-
fic Services (NATS) Research and Devel-
opment Group as par t of the European
EOLIA project*, involved a team of
human factors specialists, software engi-
neers, cost-benefit specialists, safety spe-
cialists and simulation scientists.
The first of the NATS simulations took
place in December 1998 with the purpose
of obtaining initial controller feedback on
the prototype data link HMI for three
ser vices, specifically data link initiation
capability (DLIC), air traffic control com-
munications management (ACM), and
air traf fic control clearances (ACL).
The second simulation, which took
place in April 1999, focused on obtaining
further controller comment on the
enhanced HMI and the associated data
link procedures. In addition, the down-
stream clearance ser vice (DSC) was
exposed to controllers for the first time.
The third simulation in this series,
described in detail below, took place in
January 2000.
Focus on workload
The prime objective of the third simu-
lation was to measure and assess the
10
impact of data link ser vices on controller
workload. Other secondar y objectives
were developed to assist in achieving the
main goal. These sub-objectives includ-
ed assessments of:
the subjective workload associated with
RTF and data link usage;
•the ef fect of data link on speech work-
load;
•the relative effects of each ser vice, sin-
gularly and in combination with the
other data link ser vices; and
•the relative safety of the data link services.
The gathering of controller feedback
on the data link HMI, roles and respon-
sibilities, and data link concepts and pro-
cedures, were also included.
The prototype aeronautical telecom-
munication network (ATN) user demon-
strator and evaluation system, known as
PRELUDE, was used to collect both sub-
jective and objective data for all three
NATS EOLIA simulations. PRELUDE
forms par t of the NATS fast and real-
time simulation capabilities located at
the Air Traffic Management Develop-
ment Centre in Bournemouth. These
facilities are used by NATS and its cus-
tomers to develop and assess new ATM
• DSC
▲
(STAR Delivery)
CDA Link Voice
• ACM
RTF
• ACL
DDA Link
Maastricht London
Figure 1. Types of data links used in the
NATS simulations.
tools and to evaluate, and train on, new
airspace design and procedures.
The simulation focused on the use of
data link ser vices that offered potential
workload benefits through automation of
routi ne “housekeeping” tasks. The
ser vices selected included DLIC, the
enabling ser vice; ACM, the transfer of
communication ser vice; DSC, for the
provision of standard arrival information;
and the flight plan consistency (FLIPCY)
ser vice for the automated checking of
route information.
The data link equipage ratio was set at
70 percent for all data link exercises
(70 percent was also used by project
partners in other EOLIA evaluations).
Six operationally experienced and cur-
rently validated controllers took part in
the simulation. Since the PRELUDE sys-
tem is a small scale representation of the
planned Swanwick system, it was a
requirement that all of the controllers
had completed courses on HMI familiar-
ization at the New En-Route Centre at
Swanwick, and therefore had an under-
standing of the underlying platform. A
period of training was conducted at the
beginning of the simulation to ensure
that controllers were familiar with the
data link extensions to the HMI and the
concept of data link ser vices before
commencing the measured exercises.
A total of 27 measured exercises were
achieved during the nine-day simulation.
The design of the timetable enabled the
data link services to be simulated indi-
vidually, in pairs and in triplet. This
approach enabled the relative ef fects of
each ser vice and of the different combi-
nations of ser vices to be quantified. The
simulation included measured exercises
ICAO JOURNAL

using radiotelephony only so as to estab-
lish a baseline against which the data
link exercises could be compared.
It was ensured during development
that the PRELUDE system data link
HMI retained the philosophy and con-
cepts of the Swanwick platform. For
example, the colours presented are the
same, with orange used in the data link
extensions to highlight the need for con-
troller action.
Following is a brief description of data
link services involved in the simulation.
Data link initiation capability. DLIC is
the prerequisite ser vice for exchanging
address information between the air and
ground systems. After an aircraft has
logged onto the ground system, the con-
troller was notified of this event by pro-
vision of a data link specific symbol in
the track data block (TDB). The symbol,
which appears at the left of the aircraft
call sign, is referred to as the “data link
status indicator” (or “data flash” as it is
more commonly known). The appear-
ance of a grey data flash informs the con-
troller that an aircraft has logged onto
the ground system.
The other information depicted in the
track data block includes the aircraft’s
call sign, the secondar y surveillance
radar (SSR) Mode level, the planned sec-
tor level, the exit fix and the ground
speed of the flight.
Downstream clearance service. The
DSC service enables aircrew to obtain
clearances and information from an air
traffic services (ATS) unit that is farther
along the route of the flight; in other
words, it facilitates contact with a unit
that is not yet in control of the flight.
The establishment of a downstream
link is indicated to the controller by
means of a white data flash symbol. In
addition, notification is provided in a sta-
tus list window, which shows the data link
status of all flights logged onto the sector.
For the purpose of the simulation,
NATS selected one specific subser vice
of DSC, known as DSC STAR, which
entails the automatic uplink of the stan-
d a rd ar rival route and active ru n w a y
in r esponse to an airc re w - g e n e r a t e d
NUMBER 3, 2001
D ATA L INK SI MU LAT I O N S
Real-time simulation facilities at the ATM Development Centre in Bournemouth,
U.K. can be used for ATM demonstration, assessment, validation and training. The
facilities incorporate an advanced recording system to capture any objective data
required. The scale of simulation can range from a single sector to all 36 work-
stations plus three unmanned support positions.
request. Prior to the simulation partici- nications. Two versions of ACM, termed
pating controllers stated that they would “partial” and “full,” were used during the
accept having such a message automati- simulations.
cally generated and uplinked, thereby Partial ACM is a combination of cur-
eliminating the need for response from a rent practice together with future data link
controller. Compared to the current situ- p ro c e d u res. The airc re w, having been
ation in the United Kingdom, where the transferred by the previous sector, make
entry sector controller provides the stan- an initial RTF call to the controller. The
dard arrival route to the aircraft, the use controller acknowledges the RTF call and
of DSC STAR offered the potential for the flight then pro g resses norm a l l y
less radio communication and reduced through the sector. When the controller
controller workload. no longer requires that the flight remain
Figure 1 illustrates the types of ATN on the frequency, he selects the aircraft
link used in the NATS simulations. In and presses the “OutComm” button on
this example, the aircraft in Maastricht’s the keyboard. The flight data processing
airspace is in RTF contact with the system identifies the next sector name
appropriate Maastricht sector controller and RTF frequency and automatically pre-
and also has established a current data pares a message, known as a voice chan-
authority (CDA) link with Maastricht. nel instruction (VCI), which is uplinked.
ACL and ACM messages can be exchan- Once the aircrew has received this
ged over this link. In addition, the instruction, a “will comply” (WILCO) mes-
aircraft has established a downstream sage is sent to the transferring controller
link with the London control centre
*The European pre-operational data link applications
through which it can obtain standard (EOLIA) project comprises a wide series of ATN-
arrival information prior to entering U.K. based data link development studies and trials. The
project, with funding from the European Commission
airspace. and Eurocontrol, had five main partners: NATS Ltd.;
Air traffic control communications NLR, the Dutch aviation research agency; Sofréavia;
and the aerospace companies of Airsys-ATM and
management. The ACM ser vice provides Aerospatiale-Matra Airbus. Airbus, British Airways
and Air France acted as consultants over the duration
automated assistance to aircrew and con-
of the programme, which concluded in June 2000
trollers for the transfer of ATC commu- after a period of four and a half years.
11
 D ATA LI NK S IM UL AT I O N S

and radio contact is established with Analysis also focused on the

the next sector controller. impact on the point of transfer of
The full ACM ser vice extends communications. A comparison
this functionality further, removing was made between those transfer
the need for the initial RTF contact. areas w h e re aircraft were hand-
As such, the pilot no longer makes ed over from one sector to
an initial RTF call to the receiving another using dat a l ink, and
controller, but instead downlinks a t ho se wher e t he transfer was
data link message known as the accomplished through radiotele-
monitoring RTF message (MRT). phony. Another focal point was the
This message informs the con- number or severity of conflicts fol-
troller that the crew is listening for lowing introduction of data link
instructions on the local sector services.
RTF frequency. The data link messages them-
The receipt of an MRT message selves were examined to deter-
is highlighted to the controller by Figure 2. Example of a discrepancy display. In this case, the mine the average response time
the data flash, which begins pulsat- orange "R" informs the controller that there is a discrep- and evaluate how many of the mes-
ancy between the planned routing held by the local ATC
ing in an orange colour. This HMI system and the aircraft’s intentions. Both planner and sages went unanswered. The
highlight is removed once the tactical controllers are alerted to such discrepancies at length of time that the airc r a f t
appropriate stages of the flight.
flight is accepted by the controller, was not in communication with
and the colour of the data flash the controller (i.e. the time lapse
changes to green, indicating that the of the SAMON waypoint. The orange “R” between pressing Outcomm and Incomm
controller has become the current data in the target label indicates that a route on the keyboard) was calculated a n d
authority for the flight. discrepancy exists. In addition, both the c o m p a red to data from the RTF-only
Flight plan consistency. The FLIPCY route over the ground and the FMS exercises.
ser vice is designed to draw the con- route are depicted on the controller’s In addition, information was com-
troller’s attention to discrepancies be- display. The air route is shown in white piled through questionnaires completed
tween the route over the ground and the while the ground-held route is indicated by par ticipating controllers. One of
route as stored in the aircraft’s flight in blue. these took the form of a workbook
management system (FMS). designed to gather opinions about the
Once a discrepancy is detected, it is Measurements and analyses benefits of the EOLIA ser vices and the
presented to the planner and then the Various measurements were taken data link HMI and associated pro c e-
tactical controllers. Figure 2 is represen- during the simulation and subsequently dures, as well as the safety issues. The
tative of the display seen by the tactical analysed. They included radiotelephony second questionnaire, the software
controller should a discrepancy in the usage — thus allowing the duration and usability measurement inventory, was
routes still exist when the aircraft enters percentage of time each controller used to quantify controller satisfaction
the sector. The aircraft with the route spent transmitting and listening to radio with various aspects of the human-
discrepancy in this example, Delta 77, messages to be calculated. machine interface.
has entered Sector 11 and is in the vicinity The subjective workload of the con- The controllers were debriefed both
troller was determined by individually and in groups. The debrief-
means of a tool known as ings considered human factors, safety
30
instantaneous self assessment issues and benefits. Participants also had
(ISA), which re c o rds a con- the oppor tunity to raise any problems
t roller’ s percepti on of t he encountered during the simulation exer-
20
level of workload at regular cises and to comment on the data link
inter vals during an exercise. procedures used.
10 W i t h I SA , t he c on t r o l l e r Safety issues were identified by study-
responds ever y two minutes ing the workbooks and compiling notes
to a prompt on the display by from the controller debriefings, with sup-
0 selecting one of five buttons porting data from the conflict analysis.
Baseline A D F AD AF DF ADF ADF
that represent the level of per- The debriefings made it possible to
Figure 3. Bars show impact of different data link
services and combinations of services on RTF ceived workl oad, r anging explore the questionnaire responses in
usage in Sector 11 (left) and Sector 10. from too little to excessive. greater detail.

12 ICAO JOURNAL

General findings
The first of the findings concerned
RTF workload. As one would expect, the
number of RTF messages and the time
spent communicating via radiotelephony
declined with the introduction of data
link services.
Although the introduction of data link
ser vices generally saw a reduction in
R TF workload, ther e was a single
instance when the use of radiotelephony
increased. However, the increase associ-
ated with the use of the DSC ser vice
appeared to be spurious and probably
resulted from a different style of control-
ling by one of the par ticipants. The
increase in RTF workload for this exer-
cise is not believed to be related to the
introduction of the DSC service.
As a general indication of R TF usage,
statistics were gathered from all 27
measured exercises. The mean time
spent using radiotelephony during all of
the exercises, averaged across both sec-
tors, was calculated as 21 percent. The
average duration of an RTF message
was between three to four seconds.
The reduction in R TF usage was
greater as more ser vices were added
(Figure 3). The DSC and FLIPCY servi-
ces were only applicable for Sector 11,
the FIR entry sector. Changes in RTF
loading for Sector 10 during DSC and
FLIPCY exercises were due to the vari-
ability of results and dif ferent styles of
controlling.
The reduction in RTF usage experi-
enced in the exercises in which all of the
data link services were used can also be
seen in Figure 3.
Controller workload
The scores collected during the series
of exercises indicates that controller
workload would benefit from the intro-
duction of data link ser vices. A greater
reduction in controller workload was
achieved by using a combination of data
link ser vices rather than any one ser v-
ice. Further studies will be required to
determine which combinations of data
link services are likely to provide the
optimum controller workload benefit.
NUMBER 3, 2001
D ATA L INK S IMU LAT I O N S
When the data link services were sim- Safety benefits and issues
ulated individually, FLIPCY produced a The controllers stated that the simula-
workload reduction, while the individual tion of data link services showed there is
impact of the ACM and DSC ser vices on the potential to enhance safety, especially
controller workload was negligible. by reducing the risk of an aircrew taking
In addition to analysis of workload rat- the wrong call or misunderstanding a
ings provided by the controllers during message. No conflicts or losses of separa-
the exercises, workload-re l a t e d
questions in the workbooks showed 4.20
4
that the par ticipating controllers 3.67
3.33 3.25
believed the use of data link in the 2.80
3
simulation was largely beneficial in
terms of workload. However, addi-
2
tional workload did accrue from the
visual scanning needed to locate
data link equipped aircraft on the sit- 1
uation display. Work was also gener-
ated by some additional interface 0
FLIPCY DSC STAR DSC STAR ACM ACM
tasks required for data link use. The (Semi-automatic) (Fully-automatic) (Partial) (Full)
controllers believed that the effi- Figure 4. Controller perception of the opera-
ciency of the human-machine inter- tional benefit associated with individual data
face would be impor tant in future link services.
systems incorporating data link.
The majority of the participating con- tion were attributed to the use of data link.
trollers did not believe that the data link A majority of par ticipants believed
services that had been simulated had an that the data link ser vices in general
impact on the pace at which they carried would reduce errors by of fering the abil-
out their tasks. ity to uniquely address a specific flight.
All of the participants indicated that The ACM ser vice was singled out as
use of the fully automated DSC STAR offering a significant safety benefit as it
service resulted in fewer repetitive tasks o ff e red the potential to eliminate the
when compared to the RTF environ- sending and receiving of incorrect RTF
ment. This was because the controllers frequencies, a possibility that has in-
did not have to provide aircrew with the creased with the introduction of six-digit
standard arrival routes, as this informa- frequencies. As aircraft would be unique-
tion was relayed to the crew by the DSC ly addressed, the problem of the wrong
ser vice before the aircraft entered U.K. crew taking the call and leaving the fre-
airspace. The controllers stated that quency prematurely would be resolved.
they would want the provision of stan- The controllers stated that they liked the
dard arrival route information to be fully confidence gained by initial voice contact,
automated. and recommended that the “voice in”
Figure 4 shows how the controllers continued on page 42
rated the individual ser vices in terms of
their operational benefit. The dotted hor- At the time the work described in this article was in
progress, Mark Green was an ATC Systems Specialist
izontal red line shows the point above and Gary Colledge was a Technical Group Leader in the
Research and Development Group of National Air
which services are considered to have Tr affic Services Ltd. Mr. Green is now an ATC Planner in
an operational benefit. As can be seen, Terminal Control Projects, and Mr. Colledge is an ATM
the controllers rated the automated DSC PExpert-Datalinks
erformance.
in the Department of ATM Policy and
STAR ser vice as having the greatest This article is an adaptation of a presentation made
by the authors at the ATN 2000 Conference in
operational benefit. The only service to September 2000 at the Institute of Electrical Engineers
fall below the red line was partial ACM, (IEE), London. Further information about this and other
NATS simulations can be obtained from the simulation
although controllers rated this service as project manager, Cheryl Kilner, at the Air Traffic
having specific safety benefits. Management Development Centre in Bournemouth.
13

Innovative safety initiative in Alaska
puts spotlight on advanced technologies
A fleet of small aircraft is being equipped for a “real world” evaluation of the safety benefits arising
from the use of advanced technologies in Alaska’s high-risk operating environment.
JOHN H ALLINAN • JAMES CALL
FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION
(UNITED STATES)
T
HE harsh operating enviro n-
ment of Alaska contributes to an
average of one aircraft accident
every other day. To combat this unusual-
ly severe accident rate, a safety initiative
that makes use of advanced technologies
to enhance situational awareness is now
under way. A “real world” evaluation of
the ef fectiveness of these new techno-
logies in improving safety, as well as
producing other benefits, was initiated in
January 2001.
An avionics package comprised of
many of the same systems envisaged for
global communications, navigation, sur-
veillance and air traf fic management
(CNS/ATM) is at the hear t of the Alas-
kan initiative, known as the Capstone
programme. The bundle of avionics is
currently being installed on some 150
aircraft used for commuter, char ter and
mail flights in an area of south-west
Alaska with the primary goal of prevent-
ing controlled flight into terrain (CFIT)
accidents.
Need for action
A geologic “capstone” is a large rock
or other object of mass pressing down
on, and thereby stabilizing, a foundation
of otherwise loose material. This name
was chosen for the Alaskan initiative
because of the requirement to hold
together and stabilize loosely related
technologies and programmes in much
the same way a capstone holds together
loose material. The name, at first seem-
ing to have more to do with geology than
NUMBER 3, 2001
SAF ETY PRO GR AMM E
with the aviation world, is not the only and the rest of the state is air transport,
unusual aspect of this safety initiative. meaning that the villages depend on avi-
Capstone is unique in both how it start- ation for all of their essentials.
ed and what it set out to achieve. Despite the impor tance of aviation to
Understanding Capstone re q u i re s Alaskan communities, runways are often
some background on Alaska. Among the short, narrow, made of gravel, unlighted
50 states comprising the United States, and without weather reporting systems
Alaska is the largest in area, but with or instrument approach capability. Many
only 600,000 people it is one of the small- Alaskan communities are ser ved only by
est in population. One out of every 58 small single-engine aircraft which are
people in the state is a pilot, and there usually limited to daytime visual flight
are six aeroplanes for every 10 pilots. rules (VFR) operations.
While aviation has emerged as Alaska’s This environment has made Alaska
most impor tant transportation system, stand out in terms of the number of air-
however, the vital infrastructure sup- craft accidents and fatalities. On average
porting this essential system falls shor t there is an accident-related fatality every
of the standards commonly expected or nine days. More than one third of the
found elsewhere. annual air commuter accidents of the
The Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta area of United States occur in Alaska, and more
south-western Alaska, the focal point for than 10 percent of the professional pilots
Capstone’s initial activities, typifies most working there do not survive a 30-year
of the state in terms of transportation c a reer (F i g u re 1). More o v e r, they sel-
infrastructure. There are no roads con- dom die alone.
necting the more than 50 villages in the It is the lack of useable instrument
100,000-square-mile area, and even with- flight rules (IFR) infrastructure or radar
in the villages themselves there are few coverage, combined with the harsh
roads. The community of Bethel, the avi- weather conditions, that causes Alaska to
ation operating hub and largest settle- have such a high rate of CFIT accidents.
ment in the area, has only 15 miles of Pilots, departing for VFR-only destina-
mostly unpaved roads — all ending at tions with the intention of maintaining
the edge of town. visual separation from the terrain, con-
Many of the villages of the region are tinue towards their destination after
without cars. During winter, when the encountering marginal weather that
tundra is frozen, personal transportation would normally call for IFR operations.
for short distances is
by snowmobile or dog All accidents All fatal accidents
sled. During summer
21%
the tundra conditions 63% 37% 79% Alaska
U.S. States Alaska U.S. States
limit travel to all-terrain
(except Alaska) (except Alaska)
vehicles within the vil-
lage itself. The major
mode of transportation Figure 1. Commuter and air taxi accidents in the United States
between the villages and in Alaska, 1990-98.
15
 S AFE T Y P ROG RAM M E

Enhanced situational awareness assessments fall short of measuring

can improve the safety of such the “bottom line” impact in real-
operations. The Capstone avionics world operations. Safety managers
package, which includes an intu- have long known that the actual
itive, high-resolution colour display bottom line for safety includes the
that represents terrain in four variable and intangible elements
colours (black, green, yellow and e n c o u n t e red daily in the re a l
red) indicating the proximity to the environment.
aircraft, is intended to provide this Phase I of the Capstone initiative
awareness. The avionics continu- involves up to 150 commercial air-
ously monitors the aircraft’s alti- craft based in the Yukon-Kuskok-
tude, its global positioning system wim Delta that are being equipped,
(GPS) derived position, ground on a voluntar y basis, with govern-
speed and flight route, and com- ment-furnished avionics. Ser vices
pares this to a built-in database of provided via the advanced avionics
terrain elevation. The display auto- will improve pilots’ flight capabili-
matically provides a ter rain advi- ties and situational awareness. Par-
s o r y if the aircraft is within two Figure 2. Radar controller’s display at Anchorage ACC ticipating aircraft receive an IFR-
minutes of a close encounter with features radar and ADS-B targets. certified GPS navigation receiver,
the ground. ADS-B transmitter and receiver, and
Second in number to CFIT accidents Tackling the problem a multi-function colour display (MFD).
is mid-air collisions. Capstone seeks to Numerous studies have long addres- The MFD has a moving map display
change this by employing automatic de- sed Alaska’s aviation needs, but actual function with terrain advisory capability
pendent sur veillance-broadcast (ADS-B) change has occurred at a painfully slow and displays broadcasted weather infor-
technology. ADS-B equipped aircraft pace. Capstone is changing that; in 1998 mation.
broadcast their position whether they it sparked the beginning of a partnership A network of data link ground stations
are flying or taxiing on the airpor t sur- between the U.S. Federal Aviation Ad- are being installed at up to 12 existing
face. Using the multifunction display, ministration (FAA) and the state’s avia- FAA and joint-use facilities in the region,
ADS-B gives pilots in the cockpit a clear tion community in tackling the safety connected via existing communications
view of traffic around them. Addition- issue. Aviation leaders agreed that get- systems to FAA air traffic control (ATC)
ally, ADS-B receivers on the ground can ting something accomplished re q u i re d facilities. The existing automated radar
relay aircraft position information in taking action rather than simply study- tracking system (Micro-EAR TS) at the
real time to airpor t ground controllers, ing the problem. Anchorage area control centre (ACC)
approach controllers and en-route con- Highlighted in these aviation studies has been programmed to depict ADS-B
t rollers. This l ow- cost solution can was the role that new and emerging targets, fused with radar targets, on the
p rovide radar-like sur veillance where technologies might play in ef fecting a air traf fic controller displays (Figure 2).
radar is not feasible. safety improvement. But most tech- ADS-B aircraft position reports will also
nology demons t r a t i o n s be made available to operators for flight
f o c u s o n a “ p roof of following purposes.
concept,” and are there- As part of the Capstone initiative, FAA
fore carefully orchestrated has undertaken to purchase, install and
laborator y or academic maintain the avionics on participating
exercises involving a lim- aircraft for the evaluation period. In
ited number of aircraft return, aircraft operators assist the pro-
and specifically trained gramme by providing evaluation data so
flight crews. In the effor t that safety and operational benefits can
to prove or disprove a be identified and documented.
concept, strict adherence Installation of the equipment began in
to carefully scripted flight December 1999 following a proof-of-con-
p rofiles e n s u res data cept demonstration earlier in the year.
a c c u r a c y, free of unac- The evaluation began in January 2000,
counted for variables or and concentrated initially on providing
Figure 3. Capstone programme data link architecture. intangible elements. Such an affordable means to reduce CFIT,

16 ICAO JOURNAL

enhance capability to see and avoid near-
by traffic, and relay weather information
to the cockpit. Additional enhancements
will be evaluated as par t of the Capstone
initiative through 2002. The programme
also provides special training for the
pilots, operators, safety inspectors, ATC
specialists, and technicians involved to
ensure that the evaluation will generate
the maximum benefits. At the end of the
evaluation, avionics equipment will be
reclaimed or left with participants in
accordance with agreements and gov-
ernment regulations.
In order to suppor t the most effective
use of this technology, 19 stand-alone
GPS non-precision instrument approach
procedures are being prepared and pub-
lished for one or more runways at 10
remote village airports within the evalu-
ation area. Also, automated weather
o b s e r vation systems (AWOS) will be
installed at these airports to support air
carrier use of the new non-precision GPS
instrument approach procedures.
The AWOS is a suite of sensors which
measures, collects and disseminates
weather data to help meteorologists,
pilots and flight dispatchers prepare and
monitor weather forecasts, plan flight
routes, and provide necessar y informa-
tion for take-offs and landings. AWOS
provides minute-to-minute updates to
pilots by a ver y high frequency (VHF)
radio on a frequency between 118 and
136 megahertz (MHz) or via telephone.
AWOS III measures wind direction and
speed (including gusts), temperature,
dew point, altimeter setting, density alti-
tude, visibility, and cloud amount, height
and type.
Real-world validation
A real-world validation involves field-
ing multiple safety-enhancing tech-
n ologies in such a manner that their
effectiveness can be assessed. This
requires stepping immediately from a
proof-of-concept stage through certifica-
tion to suf ficient system-wide equipage.
Capstone, therefore, brings together the
most promising new and emerging tech-
nologies into a programme to leverage
NUMBER 3, 2001
SA F ETY PR OGR A MM E
near-term safety benefits and produce the area, with Bethel as the hub, and
data for validation of the overall benefits also limit radar coverage below 6,000 feet
expected from modernization. In some mean sea level (MSL). Capstone will pro-
cases, the targeted technologies (e.g. vide an IFR infrastructure for Bethel and
AWOS) were already well established, beyond to nine additional airports in the
but under-utilized. In other cases, such as Yukon/Kuskokwim Delta, making radar-
with ADS-B and affordable CFIT avoid- like ADS-B coverage possible through-
ance capability, Capstone has engaged in out this area.
significant developmental activities. To document the results, Capstone
Fielding a bundle of avionics in a real- has enlisted the help of the University of
istic validation effort offers multiple ben- Alaska at Anchorage (UAA). The univer-
efits. First, the improvements can yield sity will document a baseline of current
immediate safety benefits. Second, the operations and will track, evaluate and
resulting infrastructure permits initial document the improvements as they
procedures development while familiar- occur. UAA will also provide flight crew
izing flight crews and
controllers with modern
equipment and concepts.
Third, this infrastructure
development also accel-
erates the identification
and resolution of certifi-
cation issues and permits
validation of numero u s
previously identified con-
cepts, such as the use of
ADS-B in lieu of radar
in non- radar airspace.
Finally, real-world valida-
tion permits the disco-
Figure 4. An aircraft fitted with avionics used in the
ver y and assessment of Capstone programme. Some 150 aircraft are expected to
many other wise intan- be equipped by mid-2001.
gible elements, i n c l u d-
in g issues of flight crew acceptance training in Capstone’s technologies.
and operator reliance, display sym- A key element in the Capstone pro-
b o l o g y, air traf fic controller accepta n c e , gramme that may eventually change
interaction of “bundled” technologies, the face of aviation worldwide is ADS-B.
and so forth. Although some concepts envisage a
Since real-world validation can only broad ADS-B deployment in support of
take place in a normal day-to-day envi- future ATM systems, no long-term deci-
ronment, reliable results are possible sion on ADS-B data link technology has
only if there is par ticipation by enough yet been made by the United States.
aircraft and flight crews over a long Currently, three data-link systems —
enough period. The validation must Mode S, VDL Mode 4 and universal
involve a variety of aircraft types, pilots access transceiver (UAT) — are under
having a wide range of knowledge, skill consideration for the U.S. national air-
and ability, and combinations of weather space system (NAS).
and other environmental extremes. A data link decision expected later
this year may provide for one or more of
Key element is ADS-B the three systems. Instead of waiting on
The natural boundaries of the Yukon- this decision, however, the aviation com-
Kuskokwim Delta confine the operation munity in Alaska decided that the safety
of most of the locally based aircraft to benefits from early deployment of an
17
 S AFE T Y P ROGR AM M E

ADS-B system far outweighed the risk
associated with delay. Thus, Capstone
published its requirements in March
1999 and, following the proof- of-concept
demonstration, accepted a proposal by
UPS Aviation Technologies. This pro-
radar airspace, including use in IFR operating on 981 MHz are able to
conditions. Early last year the FAA res- receive the radar-like ATC service.
ponded favourably to this request pro- All of these effor ts culminated, on
vided that ADS-B could be shown to be 1 Januar y 2001, in the use of ADS-B to
at least as accurate and reliable as sequence and separate aircraft, the first
radar. This triggered sev- time in over half a century

A
posal, based on the MITRE Corp. UAT eral activities, including key element of that a new air traf fic tool
design, was chosen in light of the system development of a draft min- was introduced for sur-
capability and overall cost. Capstone’s imum operational perform-
Capstone that veillance in the United
overall ADS-B architecture is shown in ance standards (MOPS) may change the face States. After a year of data
Figure 3. document for the UAT of aviation worldwide gathering and testing, the
UPS Aviation Technologies designed system and certification to FAA and its industry part-
the ground broadcast transceiver (GBT) that new standard. Initial is ADS-B ners initiated the first use
used to transmit aircraft position infor- system testing was con- of ADS-B technology to
mation to the Anchorage ACC automated ducted at the FAA William track and service traffic in
radar tracking system. For an ADS-B J. Hughes Technical Center in New Jersey areas that have no radar coverage. On
equipped aircraft, each ground broad- in May 2000, followed a few months 31 December 2000, while most Alaskans
cast transceiver enables the functional later by flight testing of the entire sys- were preparing to ring in the New Year,
equivalent of radar-like sur veillance for tem in Bethel (F i g u re 5). Additional Alaskan region air way facilities special-
about one-fiftieth of the cost. data were collected and analysed over a ists enabled the Anchorage ACC dis-
Following completion of certification 30-day period to further ensure accuracy plays to receive ADS-B sur v e i l l a n c e
activities in Januar y 2000, airc r a f t and end-to-end system reliability. information from the airspace around
equipage commenced. At the time of P ro c e d u res were developed for the Bethel. At 15:18 local time (00:18 UTC
writing (January 2001), a fleet of over use of ADS-B by both ATC and the flight on 1 Januar y 2001), a Yute Air C-212 and
75 aircraft operate in commercial service crews. Generally, the ADS-B procedures N o rt h e rn Air Cargo DC-6 cargo flight
used in the Capstone programme became the first passenger and cargo
are identical to radar procedures. flights respectively to receive vectors
Instead of being issued a discrete based on ADS-B. This radar-like service
four-digit transponder “beacon continues in use today at Bethel.
code” by ATC, when fitted with
ADS-B each aircraft transmits its Next steps
own permanent airframe address. The equipment installed in Capstone
This permanent address is pro- aircraft, although fully certified, remains
grammed into an aircraft’s UAT government owned and private copies
system during installation. The are not available for sale. Although the
UAT design also includes a privacy benefits of ADS-B for air-to-air and air-
mode which transmits a randomly to-ground applications are intuitively
generated address for each flight obvious, the data link portion of this
rather than the aircraft specific equipment remains out of reach of pri-
Figure 5. Comparison of ADS-B reports and radar a ddress. This provides the f u n c- vate individuals pending the planned data
returns typical of results of tests conducted in tional equivalent of a 1200 trans- link and long-term spectrum decisions.
vicinity of Bethel, Alaska in summer 2000. p o n d e r code with a tr adi tional Radio frequency spectrum is much
radar system. Pilots desiring ATC like real estate in that someone or other
ever y day in the Yukon/Kuskokwim ser vice must ensure their equipment is has staked a claim to every bit of it
Delta using ADS-B as an enhancement transmitting the aircraft-specific address and none is left for homesteading. For
to VFR situational awareness. It was prior to contacting ATC. m o d e rnization to actually take place,
anticipated that the entire fleet of 150 air- The last item to be accomplished was continued on page 42
craft will have been equipped for this to move the Capstone system from its
John Hallinan, the Capstone Programme Manager, is
capability by mid-2001 (Figure 4). originally assigned spectrum at 966 MHz based in Anchorage, Alaska at the Capstone Programme
Recognizing the potential benefits, to a “protected” spectr um at 981 MHz. Office. James Call is the Flight Standards Operations
Specialist coordinating data collection and analysis and
the aviation community requested that This involves replacing cards in each of future Capstone plans for the next demonstration in
ADS-B be approved for use by ATC in the equipped aircraft, a process that south-east Alaska.
For further information about the Capstone programme,
providing sur veillance ser vices in non- began in Januar y 2001. Only airc r a f t visit the FAA website (www.alaska.faa.gov/capstone).

18 ICAO JOURNAL
 P OLAR AIR ROU T ES

New air route structure over North Pole offers

major reduction in flight times, costs
The opening of four polar routes in February 2001, after a successful demonstration period
in which more than 450 airline flights were made, promises some significant economic benefits.

and operational challenges, but also polar region;

DON M ACKEIGAN national and political matters of a deli- •the demand and capacity of the pro-
NAV CANADA cate and often complex nature.” posed routes;
The opening of the four polar air •operational and technical requirements;

D
IRECT polar air routes that routes to commercial air traffic on 1 •costs, revenues, economic ef ficiency
shorten distances between cities F e b ru a r y 2001 was preceded by more and other financial data; and
in North America, Europe and than 450 airline demonstration flights •airline and passenger benefits.
Asia recently became operational follow- dating back to 1998. The new routes The objective of the joint study was to
ing a series of high-level meetings a ff o rd significant economic benefits to determine whether a business case could
between representatives of several coun- airlines and their passengers. be made for opening and operating four
tries, ICAO and the International Air The first initiative aimed at developing ATS routes identified as Polar Routes 1,
Transport Association (IATA). The group the polar air routes was taken in the fall 2, 3 and 4 by assessing the viability of
agreed in late Januar y to open a new air of 1997 with the decision to create a polar routes between Nor th America and
route structure over the North Pole (see high-level steering group to coordinate Asia, as well as the economic and techni-
“New polar air routes to reduce flight the ef fort. The ICAO Informal Trans- cal impact on the Russian Federation and
times,” Issue No. 1/2001, page 32). Asia/Trans-Siberia/Cross-Polar Routes Canada, whose airspace the routes, in
The milestone agreement was made High Level Steering Group (ITASPS), part, traverse. The feasibility study also
possible by a remarkable spirit of coop- chaired by Dr. Kotaite, is made up of weighed the impact of the new routes on
eration. As ICAO Council President officials from Canada, China, Finland, the airline industry.
Dr. Assad Kotaite stated following the Germany, Iceland, Japan, Mongolia, The study came to the conclusion that
meeting in Paris on 24 Januar y, the Norway, the Russian Federation and the implementation of polar routes was both
States involved had made considerable United States. IATA, which is also a feasible and desirable. Following is a
e ff o rt to address “not only the technical member of the group, represents the air- brief description of the key elements of
lines concerned. the study.
The polar routes developed by City-pair analysis. The feasibility study
New technology used to track ITASPS link Nor th America and identified 33 potential city pairs that
flight over the pole Europe with Asia through the air- could benefit from implementation of
Nav Canada has taken another major step toward spaces of Canada, China, Iceland, polar routes. Statistics were compiled to
establishing fully functioning polar air routes by Mongolia, the Russian Federation determine the actual number of passen-
tracking an aircraft from the Canadian-U.S. border and the United States, and form gers that travelled between the selected
to 84 degrees north, and then again in Russian air- one of six air traffic services (ATS) cities with distances greater than 6,600
space. Nav Canada engineers used leading-edge transit route systems thro u g h nautical miles, during a one-year period.
technology to monitor the first direct, non-stop
Russian airspace. Wind analysis. An extensive wind
service between Newark and Hong Kong on
1 March 2001. In a parallel and complementa- analysis was performed for each of the
The flight, operated by Continental Airlines as r y initiative, Nav Canada and the 33 city pairs. The study examined fuel
COA99, followed Polar Route 2, which comes with- Federal Aviation Authority of requirements, airpor ts, wind and tem-
in 64 nautical miles of the North Pole. The tracking Russia (FAAR) jointly conducted perature for each month of the year
in the far north was made possible by advanced
a polar routes feasibility study, based on 10 years of weather observa-
technology currently being tested for introduction
into the transatlantic and northern airspace air published in August 2000, which tions supplied by the U.S. Navy and the
traffic control (ATC) systems. Implementation of looked at many factors including: U.S. Weather Ser vice. Twenty-four mini-
this technology will allow significant improvements • t r a f fic levels between Nor t h mum time tracks were produced from
in safety and service for non-radar environments. America and Asia; these data, one per month from North
Continued on page 41 •wind patter ns af fecting the America to Asia, and one from Asia to

20 ICAO JOURNAL
 POLA R A IR RO UT E S

North America for each city pair, based included gradual implementation of new Canada, the Canadian air navigation
on Boeing 747-400 data. technologies in the Russian area control services (ANS) provider. It also included
Demand assessment. An assessment of centres (ACCs) that provide air traffic an assessment of the potential revenue,
current and potential traf fic was made ser vices to polar route traffic. This taking account of the loss of revenues
for each city pair. Flight movement would ensure that modernization, along that could occur because of the re -
equivalent (FME) units were created to with construction work and the training routing of some traffic away from ATS
equal 275 passengers or 150,000 pounds of personnel, would coincide with the transit routes across the far east region
of cargo. All of the collected data, pas-
senger and cargo movements for a year
between selected city pairs were con-
verted into FME units. Using the mini-
mum time track information, traffic from
each city pair was allocated to one of the
four polar routes, to the Russian trans-
eastern routes (A218-B337 and G583) or
to other routes, such as the North
Pacific (NOPAC) route system. From
this information, scenarios were devel-
oped to predict the traf fic demand on the
polar route system.
Operational assessment. The opera-
tional concept for the four polar routes
was based on the demand analysis and a
forecast of 5 percent traf fic growth per
year. It was expected that traffic would
build gradually and that route capacity
would be increased to meet this demand.
The study introduced a phased approach
to air traffic management (ATM) im-
provements that would be necessar y to
accommodate anticipated traf fic. The
first phase, involving services re q u i re d
for airline demonstration flights, was com-
pleted on 31 January 2001. In the second
phase, under way since 1 February, reg-
ular flights are suppor ted by the existing
ATM system, with technical improve-
ments under development to meet the
forecast traf fic demand. The next phase growth in traffic demand and with the Communications and surveillance cover-
age over northern Canada. Using new
will see certain enhancements to the requirement for additional route capaci-
technology, Nav Canada recently moni-
Russian air traffic control (ATC) system, ty. These technologies include the global tored the progress of a flight as far north
including the introduction of controller- navigation satellite system (GNSS), auto- as 84 degrees.
pilot data link communications (CPDLC), matic dependent sur veillance (ADS),
which may be phased in over several CPDLC, ATS interfacility data communi- of the Russian Federation. By way of
years. Later phases will intro d u c e cation (AIDC), flight data processing example, traffic from Chicago to Hong
advanced communications, navigation, and new radar systems. Kong will likely shift from the trans-
sur veillance (CNS) and air traf fic man- Economics of polar routes. A detailed eastern routes to the polar routes to take
agement in limited parts of the airspace, economic analysis was performed for advantage of more favourable winds.
followed by the full implementation of the Russian and Canadian por tions of Aviation user benefits. The polar routes
C N S / ATM technologies within the the polar routes. This included the cal- allow new non-stop flights between North
Russian airspace concerned. culation of associated costs — including America and Asia that reduce both travel
Technical concept. A comprehensive capital, operating and maintenance costs time and airline costs, in par t through a
technical concept was developed that — for the Russian Federation and Nav decrease in the distance flown and the

NUMBER 3, 2001 21
 PO LAR AIR ROU TE S
China, Mongolia and the Russian Federation are currently looking at ways to more fully
utilize the segments of the polar routes in their respective flight information regions.
elimination of stop-overs at locations
such as Tokyo, Anchorage, London and
Frankfurt. The following examples show
the estimated time savings using polar
routes compared to today’s routes via
the North Atlantic or Pacific, for six of
the 33 city pairs for which a wind analysis
was carried out:
•Atlanta-Seoul, 124 minutes;
•Boston-Hong Kong, 138 minutes;
•Los Angeles-Bangkok, 142 minutes;
•New York-Singapore, 209 minutes;
•Vancouver-Beijing, 108 minutes; and
•Vancouver-Hong Kong, 125 minutes.
On the basis of the various findings,
the State Civil Aviation Authority of
Russia (SCAA) and Nav Canada agreed
22
that polar routes implementation is not
only feasible but desirable. The demand
for the ser vice exists, the operational
and technical concepts for supporting
the safe and efficient management of
polar traffic have been developed, and
the project is economically viable.
Operations on the polar routes is in
many ways similar to en-route oceanic
operations with respect to the availability
of suitable alternate and emergency
landing airpor ts. There are suf f i c i e n t
suitable airpor ts in the northern and
polar areas to meet the requirements for
extended range operations by twin-
engined aeroplanes (ETOPS) alternates
within 180 minutes from any point along
the route of the flight on the polar
routes. These airports are located in nor-
thern Canada, Denmark (Greenland),
the Russian Federation and Norway.
The opening of the four polar routes
for operational use will see an increase in
traffic over that experienced during the
demonstration phase, with the majority of
the flights from North America to Asia
using Polar Routes 3 and 4. While the
demonstration flights were conducted for
the most part by Boeing 747-400s ser ving
Chicago–Hong Kong and Detroit-Beijing,
since 1 March 2001 the Boeing 777 has
been used on extended range operations
by twin-engined aeroplanes (ETOPS)
between Newark and Hong Kong.
Generally, head winds are not a factor
in the polar region, and together with
shorter distances result in reduced flight
times from North America to Asia.
Conversely, there are no tail winds in the
area, so traf fic from Asia to North
America, for the most part, continues to
use the Pacific routes to take advantage
of the prevailing westerly winds.
Polar flights operating through Cana-
dian, Icelandic and U.S. controlled air-
space can specify user-preferred profiles
on their flight plans, and can choose
from one of the four polar routes on the
day of operation as well as route seg-
ments through Russian, Chinese and
Mongolian airspace.
In addition to the emphasis on the
polar areas, the entr y and exit points and
the associated route structure linking
the souther n segments of the polar
routes in Russia to Mongolia and China
also forms a critical part of the system.
As par t of the ongoing effort to meet
forecast demand, China, Mongolia and
the Russian Federation are looking at
ways to more fully utilize the segments
of the polar routes in their respective
flight information regions (FIRs), with
support from ICAO and IATA.
Air-ground communications on the
polar routes, when outside of very high
continued on page 39
Don MacKeigan is the Senior Advisor ATS, Domestic
and Oceanic Operations at Nav Canada headquarters,
Ottawa. Mr. MacKeigan was a member of the Canadian
delegation to the ITASPS High Level Steering Group.
ICAO JOURNAL
 AE RON AUT ICAL C OM M UNIC AT I O N S

Provisions for proficiency in common aviation

language to be strengthened
The potential consequences of an aviation mishap resulting from ambiguous communications
or lack of language proficiency are serious enough that experts are reviewing ways to address
the issue as a matter of priority.

dation that English be used whenever involved in operations where English

ELIZABETH MATHEWS necessar y. is required are proficient in performing
EMBRY RIDDLE AERONAUTICAL UNIVERSITY “Pending the development and adop- radiotel ephony communications i n
(UNITED STATES) tion of a more suitable form of speech English (see “Safety issues related to lan-
for universal use in aeronautical radio- guage use have come under scrutiny,”

T
HOSE involved in setting inter- telephony communications,” the annex Issue 2/2001, page 15).
national standards recognized states, “the English language should be Even before the 32nd ICAO Assembly
from early on that a common lan- used as such and should be available, on resolved that the language issue should
guage for radiotelephony communica- request from any aircraft ... at all stations be given high priority, an eff o r t was
tions was needed in the interests of on the ground ser ving designated air- under way to develop provisions for
safety and efficiency. Within aviation, ports and routes used by international standardized English-language testing
English has become firmly entrenched air ser vices.” In the years since ICAO requirements and procedures, and mini-
as the de-facto common language of established the provisions for language mum skill level requirements in the com-
international communication. It is also use in the early 1950s, however, little mon usage of the English language. Soon
the only practical choice at this time for progress has been made in the develop- after the 1998 Assembly concluded, the
designation as the official first language ment of a more suitable form of speech. ICAO Air Navigation Commission (ANC)
of international radiotelephony commu- Fifty years on — and faced with enor- established a group of experts, known as
nications. mous growth in international air travel — the Proficiency Requirements in Com-
the aviation community mon English (PRICE) Study Group, to
requires more stringent assist the ICAO Secretariat in accom-
provisions for the com- plishing this task.
mon use of the English The original task defined in the 1950s
language in international — to develop and adopt “a more suitable
radiotelephony commu- form of speech for universal use in aero-
nications. Evidence from nautical radiotelephony communication”
several incidents and — has proved elusive. It is a testament to
accidents highlights the unique qualities of language that dur-
t h e c o n t r i b u t o r y role ing the half centur y since adoption of
of communication mis- the original provisions in support of a
takes. With safety in common aviation language no further
mind, the 32n d I C A O progress on development of a more suit-
Assembly held in 1998 able form of speech has been made.
In the case of international aviation, the need to use a urged that the matter To understand why this is the case, it
single, common language is universally acknowledged. be given priority. The is important to understand the nature of
resolution it adopted languages. Even the best and most
Although Annex 10 to the Chicago called for the relevant provisions in ICAO thoughtful linguists do not agree pre-
Convention recommends that air-ground Annex 1, Personnel Licensing, and in cisely on the nature of human language,
radiotelephony communications be con- ICAO Annex 10, Aeronautical Telecom - on how humans first developed the
ducted in the language normally used by munications, to be strengthened. Con- capacity for language, or how children
the station on the ground, it also recog- tracting States would have an obligation acquire a first, and adults a second, lan-
nizes that this is not always practical. to take steps to ensure that air traffic con- guage. Knowing a language means rec-
Annex 10 elaborates with a recommen- trol (ATC) personnel and flight crews ognizing the concrete thing or abstract

24 ICAO JOURNAL

concept represented by its symbols
(i.e. the words); it also means knowing
possible connotations to words and
understanding their surrounding social
context.
Language is a highly complex and still
little understood interplay between the
minds of the speaker and listener. It is a
process in constant flux. Languages con-
vey infinite combinations of words and
phrases because human thought and
expression is infinite and unpredictable.
It is often highly ambiguous and depend-
ent upon context, culture and shared
information among speakers. Artificial
language development groups admit
that natural language, while being the
simplest form of communication for
humans, is the hardest for a computer
to master. This i s indicative of the
extremely complex nature of the com-
munication systems most humans take
entirely for granted.
Understanding the very complex nature
of language assists in understanding
why little or no progress has been made
in the development of a more suitable
form of speech. There simply is no more
suitable form of speech than natural lan-
guages for human communication. None-
theless, the need to achieve improved
radiotelephony communication and
e n h a n c e d aviation safety by establishing
a common radiotelephony language is
ver y clear. Current practice, with Eng-
lish not always being used for air-
g round communications and without
universally applied standards for Eng-
lish language proficiency, is proving
increasingly inadequate as the volume of
international air traffic rises. Indeed, it
is possible to cite numerous incidents
attributable at least in part to inadequate
English language proficiency.
The importance of good communica-
tion can be expressed in two ways. Poor
communication, or lack of a mutual pro-
ficiency in a shared common language,
can be a causal factor in an accident.
Equally important, good communication
can play a role in preventing a safety
breakdown which has a non-language
related cause. In the seconds before the
NUMBER 3, 2001
Experts predict that a further reduction in the airline accident rate largely depends
on adopting procedures that take account of human factors.
collision between KLM and Pan American
747s at Tenerife with heavy loss of life, a
pilot’s choice of words (“we are now at
take-off”) contributed to the uncertainty
surrounding the accident.
C e rt a i n l y, in the Tenerife accident in
1977, as in all aviation accidents, a num-
ber of factors and circumstances con-
tributed to the error chain. When an
Avianca airliner destined for New York’s
JFK International Airpor t r an out of
fuel and descended into a suburb in
January 1990, clearly one of the con-
tributing factors was the insufficient
quantity of fuel; another factor, however,
seems to have been the breakdown of
effective communication between the
crew and ATC about the urgency of the
low-fuel situation. Following the
American Airlines accident near Cali,
Colombia in 1995, the air traf fic con-
troller told investigators that he knew
the information given by the flight crew
was inconsistent with the intent of the
clearance he had issued. If the controller
had shared a common language with the
pilot, he would have been able to seek
clarification from the crew. In fact, clari-
fication and negotiation of meaning is
one of the higher level language skills
most important for clear communication.
Experts predict that a further reduction
in the airline accident rate is dependent, in
AE RON AUT ICAL CO M M UN IC AT I O N S
large measure, on adopting improved pro-
cedures that take account of human fac-
tors. In this context, the convening of the
PRICE Study Group is considered timely.
It provides an opportunity for an appropri-
ate international and multilateral effort to
propose a common language for inter-
national operations, a development that
would promote safety.
Alternatives that circumvent the need
to establish use of a common language
may fail to enhance safety. At times,
interpreters have been employed on the
flight deck to facilitate communications
between aircrew and ATC. Long flights
sometimes make this option impractical,
but more importantly, interpreters add
an additional layer between the two key
agents — controller and pilot — further
complicating communication. In routine
situations, the use of an interpreter
might suffice. In unusual circumstances
or during an emergency, however, any
procedure that slows down communica-
tion becomes unacceptably cumbersome
and even dangerous.
Some experts hope that data link sys-
tems will mitigate the need for a com-
mon language. While data link systems
will no doubt improve aviation commu-
nications on some levels, possibl y
improving efficiency and safety, it is not
at all clear that such systems will obviate
25
 AE R ONAUT ICA L C OM M UNI CAT I O N S
the requirement for good oral commu-
nication skills. There will continue to be
a need for oral communication in non-
routine or emergency situations and as
a backup for system failure. Secondly,
current data link technology makes use
of English. Pilots and controllers must
be able to read the language, for transla-
tion technology remains unproven given
the rigorous demand for reliability.
Attempts to create and promulgate
artificial languages — Esperanto, for
instance — have had little impact.
The case for English as the language
of international civil aviation is highly
pragmatic. Because language is so
closely tied to our sense of national and
cultural identity, people are naturally sen-
sitive to issues of language use and policy.
Although language policies are never
completely neutral, it is equally true that
a language in itself is neither good nor
bad. In the case of international aviation,
the need for a single, common language
is universally acknowledged.
The choice of English for international
aviation communications is more a tool
for enhancing safety than anything else,
and the requirement to use a common
language is simply one more safety tool.
Establishment of a single common
language for universal use in ATC com-
munications will not eliminate all com-
munication problems, however. English,
after all, has long been available “on
request” in international aviation, yet
problems exist with standards of English
proficiency. Communication misunder-
standings occur even between native
speakers because any language gives
rise to aviation’s greatest communicative
challenge: ambiguity.
Many incidents resulting from the
ambiguous use of ATC phraseology have
been documented. Establishing a single
common language for inter n a t i o n a l
radiotelephony communications will cer-
tainly not eliminate the potential for this
problem, but it will in time significantly
i m p rove communication pro c e d u re s
overall. Meanwhile, aviation specialists
— perhaps increasingly seeking input
from the linguistic community — will
26
lish the requirement for profi-
Full Proficiency ciency in ever y-day English.
While ATC communication is, at
Abnormal least superficially, distinct from
Situation
vernacular speech, the need for
Advanced Proficiency
an understanding of common
English can arise quickly in non-
Moderate Proficiency routine or emergency situations.
Such circumstances may require
Limited Proficiency that a controller or pilot reach
beyond the scope of standard-
While ATC communication is distinct from vernacu-
ized phraseologies. In addition,
lar speech, the need for a wider understanding of
English can arise quickly in a non-routine situation a pilot or controller not infre-
which demands use of nonstandard phraseology. quently encounters the need
to clarify communications, to
need to continue their work to improve explore intent or to negotiate for mean-
procedures and phraseologies, identify- ing. All such linguistic demands might
ing and possibly changing standardized lie beyond the abilities of an individual
phraseologies which may lend them- whose language proficiency is limited
selves to ambiguity. to the specific realm of standard i z e d
The field of aviation communications phraseologies.
is ripe for further serious inquir y to The second overarching consideration
build upon the useful work already is the amount of instruction that pro-
accomplished by some linguists and duces the level of proficiency required
human factors specialists, and the avia- for safe operations. There is, alas, no sil-
tion community might well consider ver bullet, no magic pill for language
funding the research of linguistic experts. learning. While research does not seem
The burden for improved communica- to bear out the conventional wisdom that
tion falls as much on native speakers as children learn more readily than adults,
it does on second language users. With it is undeniable that acquisition of strong
the establishment of English as the lan- language skills among adult learners
guage for international aviation com- takes a considerable investment of time
m unications comes a re q u i rement to and concentrated ef fort. An adult begin-
reinforce strict adherence to standard ner might require a year of intensive
phraseology on the part of proficient training to attain the appropriate level of
speakers, and to apply effective radio- proficiency. Experience shows that 200
telephony techniques (e.g. desirable hours of intensive language training is
enunciation and rate of speech). There is required to demonstrate marked improve-
much anecdotal evidence of the difficul- ment in language proficiency.
ties caused by the use of non-standard In order to facilitate compliance with
phraseology, particularly for users of an English language proficiency stan-
English as a second language. Against dard, States will need access to a univer-
the background of a linguistic education sal rating scale of language proficiency.
campaign within the aviation c o m m u n i- The PRICE Study Group is sur veying
t y, the need for closer conformity to the existing rating scales — and there
standard phraseology and for greater are many — to determine their appropri-
c a re in communication on the par t of ateness to aviation. There is also the
native and non-native speakers alike
continued on page 41
becomes readily apparent.
The implementation of an ICAO stan- Elizabeth Mathews is Director of academic and avia-
tion English language programmes at Embry Riddle
dard for English language proficiency Aeronautical University, Daytona Beach, Florida,
highlights a number of needs within the United States. Currently on a leave of absence from
Embry Riddle, she is working as an aviation English
aviation community. The first is to estab- consultant.
ICAO JOURNAL

Satellite technology has transformed search
and rescue services all over the globe
Advances in technology have greatly improved the effectiveness of search and rescue efforts. To
obtain the full benefit of this technology, however, the functioning of the human elements in the
system needs to be carefully assessed.
BRIAN D AY
ICAO SECRETARIAT
T
HE essence of successful search
and rescue (SAR) lies in the time-
liness of the alert, location and
rescue effort, and satellite technology pro-
vides the most ef fective tool yet in locat-
ing a crash site. However, while such
technological innovations are having a
positive impact on SAR effectiveness, they
also redefine the scope for human error.
Satellite detection has vastly improved
the usability of emergency beacons
which, until the COSPAS-SARSAT* sys-
tem was commissioned in 1984, relied on
overflying aircraft for crash detection.
The cooperative initiative driving the
COSPAS-SARSAT system is altogether in
keeping with SAR philosophy. Four State
par ties are funding the SAR space seg-
ment packages: Canada, France, the
Russian Federation and the United States.
In all, 32 countries and organizations are
formally associated with the programme,
and 20 par ticipants provide and operate
ground stations.
The COSPAS-SARSAT ground stations
comprise local user terminals (LUTs) and
mission control centres (MCCs). The
local user terminals resolve the signals
received from emergency beacons via the
satellites into distress positions, while the
mission control centres coordinate and
distribute alert and location data.
The COSPAS-SARSAT system is avail-
able to all States on a non-discriminator y
basis and is free of charge for the end-
*COSPAS: space system for search of vessels in dis-
tress; SARSAT: search and rescue satellite-aided
tracking.
NUMBER 3, 2001
SE A RCH A ND RE SC UE
user in distress. The vast area covered by is encoded with position data, either by
satellites and the rapidity of satellite way of a built-in satellite navigation receiv-
tracking have transformed SAR services er or by external navigation data input.
all over the globe. Since the SAR system’s Together, the two satellite systems provide
breakthrough into the space age, both a comprehensive, complementary arrange-
e m e rgency transmitters and the ment for SAR: extensive coverage on 121.5
COSPAS-SARSAT satellite system have MHz, and more accurate global cover-
been dramatically improved. age on 406 MHz, with virtually instanta-
In the first working application of space neous coverage for 406 MHz beacons
technology for SAR, several satellites when transmitting between the 75-degree
were put in low-altitude earth, near polar, parallels.
orbits (LEO). Their purpose was to receive As the overall COSPAS-SARSAT sys-
transmissions from emergency beacons tem has come to offer increased efficien-
and to relay these to a network of dedi- cies, the elements of older technology are
cated ground stations. This system is now being left behind. Consequently, the
enhanced by a constellation of geosta- 121.5 MHz beacons, despite being avail-
tionary (GEO) satellites which can re- able at ver y low cost, have come to be
ceive signals from 406 megahertz (MHz) considered a poor investment. They are
beacons and are capable of providing the source of a very large number of false
almost immediate distress alerts for the a l e r ts; in fact, over 98 per cent of all
406 MHz beacons in their field of view. 121.5 MHz aler ts prove to be false.
While the geostationary satellites do not F u rt h e rm o re, these beacons have no
provide coverage of the poles (their foot- automatic identification facility and their
print extends only from 75 degrees north engineering specifications cannot be eas-
to 75 degrees south), global coverage ily improved. With recent amendments
continues to be provided by the 406 MHz to annexes to the Chicago Convention,
system utilizing the LEO satellites. A ICAO re q u i res carriage of emerg e n c y
Doppler location pro-
cessing system p ro v i d e s
an ac cur acy ranging
f rom 12 to 20 kilometres
for 121.5 MHz beacons
and thr ee to five kilo-
m e t res for 406 MHz
beacons.
The SAR system based
on geostationar y satel-
lites provides detection
only, but new generation
406 MHz beacons may Satellite detection has vastly improved the usability of
emergency beacons. The 121.5 MHz beacons, however, are
provide a location when the source of a very large number of false alerts, and system
the transmitting beacon processing of these ELTs may be discontinued after 2008.
27
 S EAR CH AN D R ES C UE

locator transmitters (ELTs) operating on simultaneous access to position data during the rescue and recover y phase, and
406 MHz by all new aircraft from 2002, derived from both radar and ADS. When one of the applications currently being
and all aircraft beginning in 2005. These an alerting signal is received, for exam- evaluated in Europe is in alpine rescue.
beacons are also required to be fitted ple, the two presentations of aircraft posi- DEM technology, in other words, could
with a low power transmitter operating on tion and track appear very close together. allow searches with more precision and
121.5 MHz to allow final homing by The normal ADS signal reporting rate is certainty. Variables such as sweep width,
search aircraft once they reach the vicinity once every 45 seconds, although the con- track spacing and search altitude may be
of the crash site. System processing of troller can increase the rate to once every determined with greater exactness. In
121.5 MHz ELTs may be discontinued 15 seconds during an emergency. establishing forward field bases, line-of-
from 2008. While Norway has been able to intro- sight communications facilities may be
The capacity of 406 MHz ELTs to duce these arrangements because of the sited more accurately and rapidly, thus
transmit their identification is, in itself, a location of a suitable satellite, it is not simplifying radio frequency propagation
major advance. Once the rescue coordi- likely that many similar systems will be analysis and reducing clutter. Routing of
nation centre (RCC) has the encoded established specifically for SAR purposes. ground parties can be optimally deter-
information on hand, it usually takes only An ADS facility cannot be considered as a mined before personnel enter the field.
a short time to establish contact with the substitute for the carriage of an ELT. In
aircraft owner or operator, verify the alert the event of a crash, ADS-derived signals System stability
and initiate SAR action. This process, sim- would stop transmitting, while the ELT With implementation of advanced tech-
ple and direct though it is, requires that continues to transmit a position after nologies, the task of finding a crash site is
all ELTs be properly coded and regis- impact and, at sea, identifies the actual not only simpler and quicker, but per-
tered by users in formal databases, as position of sur vivors regardless of the formed with fewer resources than in the
required by ICAO provisions. effect of drift. past, thus reducing the cost. More impor-
tant still, the essential goal of SAR — saving
Norwegian innovation Digital elevation mapping lives — is more likely to be successfully
The Norwegian Civil Aviation Adminis- Another application of satellite tech- met. This does not mean, however, that
tration has made an innovative application nology likely to have increasing applica- SAR planners can now rest on the benefits
of automatic dependent sur v e i l l a n c e tion to all kinds of tactical operations, of technology and let the system benignly
(ADS) that greatly facilitates any search including SAR, is satellite-derived digital evolve to greater efficiencies.
for helicopters shuttling to oil rigs in the elevation mapping. A digital elevation While recent technological innovations
North Sea. (ADS is a sur veillance applica- model (DEM) is an ordered array of point are increasing SAR effectiveness, the
tion in which position information from an m e a s u rements of elevation ab ove a potential remains for human error to
aircraft’s flight management system is par ticular reference. This grid may also compromise system reliability. Aviation,
transmitted via data link to the ground sys- be re f e renced to some geographic coor- and SAR in par ticular, is a domain in
tem and presented to air dinate system that defines which failures are hard to predict and dif-
traffic controllers as aircraft
symbols on a traffic situa-
tion display.)
W hile recent
technological
the horizontal position of
the points, thus providing
a three-dimensional dis-
ficult to prevent. The civil aviation indus-
tr y is extraordinarily safe, but the
consequences of errors and violations
The weather conditions innovations are play. Digital elevation mod- may be extreme. For this reason, high
over the cold North Sea increasing SAR elling now available is reliability is very important in all aspects
are frequently extreme, highly precise and increas- of aviation. To achieve reliability, a system
effectiveness, the
and sur vival time in the ingly af f o rdable, being must also have stability — that is, the sys-
event of an aircraft ditch- potential for error available “off the shelf.” tem’s procedures, functions and respon-
ing is limited. The purpose remains DEM technology is sibilities need to be clearly established,
of Norway’s ADS-based rapidly changing the meth- fully understood, expertly performed and
system is to provide a real- ods by which tactical opera- smoothly coordinated.
time flight information and SAR alerting tions are planned, trained for, and The effectiveness of communication is
ser vice for helicopter operations in this ultimately exercised. They provide rapid a vital aspect of team coordination and is,
inhospitable area. The typical time acquisition, dissemination and analysis of perhaps, the most vital activity in the res-
required for satellite processing of ADS data. These are important factors in pro- cue coordination centre. Managers must
reports is four seconds, providing a ver y viding tactical teams with up-to-date intel- take responsibility for developing strong
accurate, virtually continuous update of ligence, and are a decided operational team communication skills. The key ele-
the aircraft’s position. This accuracy is advantage. Their application to aeronauti- ment in effective team coordination is
evident when the air traffic controller has cal SAR is easy to envisage, particularly verbal communication.

28 ICAO JOURNAL
 S E AR CH AN D R E SC UE

One newly introduced communications fic controllers and SAR mission coordina- monitoring is not one of them.
innovation is the practice of “silent” hand- tors alike. This ability, however, is sus- One concern with human performance
overs, a relay of information by means ceptible to disturbance by other visual is that short-term memory may not be
other than the human voice. One of the information. adequate. A person’s working memory is
outcomes of silent hand-overs is that In the automated environment, SAR easily compromised by the constant dis-
some parties previously involved in the coordinators are subject to an increasing traction of repetitive information from
process can now be excluded. This can number of displays of information. But external sources. Operations personnel
be both beneficial and problematic. On there is a point beyond which the display who are bombarded with graphic infor-
the positive side, it may obviate one link of data becomes more of a burden than mation are susceptible to mental over-
in a communication chain and remove a benefit, and RCC performance will deteri- load, diminishing their ability to fill a
source of e rro r. On the other
hand, i t downgrades w hat
might be called aggregate sit-
u a t i o n a l awareness.
The matter of situational
awareness is of critical impor-
tance to RCC operations in two
significant ways. The SAR mis-
sion coordinator’s decision-
making ability is dependent on
it, and the RCC staff as a whole
can only properly integrate
their activities if they are accu-
rately aware of the facts of the
emergency and how the situa-
tion is evolving.
Situational awareness is a
prerequisite for the safe opera-
tion of any complex dynamic Using advanced technologies, the task of finding a crash site is not only simpler and quicker,
system. The safe separation of but performed with fewer resources than in the past.
search aircraft, a critical aspect
of SAR mission coordination, re q u i re s orate after that point is reached. RCC monitoring role. On the other hand, their
close concentration and highly developed planners need to bear this in mind. sensor y domain may remain highly
mental skills. Teamwork in a re s c u e receptive to speech and audio alarm,
coordination centre promotes situational Workload and performance meaning that a capacity to communicate
awareness, which is essential to effective The problem with workload for the through phone lines or via radio may well
information processing and decision front-line operator is one of matching sup- be under-utilized. The work place, then,
making. Communication, as the connec- ply (cognitive resources) with demand should be rearranged to take account of
tor between ever y link in the process, (the tasks of understanding, remember- these human limitations and capabilities
may be the most vital RCC function ing, decision making and taking action). and ensure that human resources are
requiring reassessment in an automated With the introduction of new technology, deployed effectively.
environment. some senses are stimulated more than In summary, the introduction of more
There are other, similarly critical con- before and the distribution of workload automated systems — whether satellite-
nections. As much as anything, situational on the senses changes, with the prospect or information-based — will have an
awareness depends on the capacity of of one or more senses becoming over- inevitable impact on the job functions per-
s h o rt - t e rm memor y. Researchers tell us loaded. An easy coping strategy has been formed in the rescue coordinating centre
that the part of memory concerned with to give complicated functions to the and on the skills required of operational
maintaining pictorial or image represen- “machine” and force menial functions
continued on page 41
tations (“getting the picture”) can only onto the operator. Among these menial
retain information in this form for short functions is the monitoring role. There is Brian Day is a Technical Officer in the Air Traffic
Management (ATM) Section of the Air Navigation
periods without active rehearsal. The an irony in this, for while there are many Bureau at ICAO headquarters, Montreal. Mr. Day is
responsible for search and rescue matters, and is also
compilation and retention of a mental pic- activities in which human performance is the Secretary of the ICAO Proficiency Requirements in
ture is fundamental to the work of air traf- innately superior to that of a machine, Common English (PRICE) Study Group.

NUMBER 3, 2001 29
 A CCI DEN T R EP O RT
NTSB issues report on TWA Flight 800
inflight breakup over Atlantic Ocean
The probable cause of the inflight breakup of the Boeing 747-100 was an explosion of the centre wing
fuel tank resulting from ignition of the flammable fuel/air mixture in the tank, although the source
of the ignition energy could not be determined with certainty.
N ATIONAL TRANSPORTATION
SAFETY BOARD
(UNITED STATES)
O
N 17 July 1996, about 2031 east-
ern daylight time, Trans World
Airlines, Inc. (TWA) Flight 800,
a Boeing 747-131 crashed in the Atlantic
Ocean near East Moriches, New York.
T WA Flight 800 was operating as a
scheduled international passenger flight
from John F. Kennedy International Air-
port (JFK), New York, New York, to
Charles de Gaulle International Airpor t
(CDG), Paris, France. The flight depar t-
ed JFK about 2019, with two pilots, two
flight engineers, 14 flight attendants and
212 passengers on board. All 230 people
on board were killed, and the aircraft
was destroyed. Visual meteorological
conditions prevailed for the flight, which
operated on an instrument flight rules
(IFR) flight plan.
On the day of the accident, the aircraft
departed from Athens, Greece, as TWA
Flight 881 about 0537, landed at JFK
about 1631, and arrived at Terminal 5,
Gate 27 about 1638. The flight crew that
had flown the aircraft from Athens,
Greece, to JFK told National Trans-
por tation Safety Board (NTSB) investi-
gators that they had not obser ved any
operational abnormalities during that
flight. A scheduled flight crew change
occurred at JFK. The accident aircraft
was refuelled at JFK and remained at
Gate 27 with the auxiliar y power unit
(APU) and two of its three air condition-
ing packs operating (for about 2.5 hours)
until it departed as TWA Flight 800.
According to company records, Flight
30
800 was to be the first leg of a scheduled
three-day trip sequence for the four flight
crew members. A captain occupied the
left front seat, a captain/check airman
occupied the right front seat, a flight
engineer occupied the right aft seat
(flight engineer position), and a flight
engineer/check airman occupied the left
aft seat (cockpit jump seat). TWA Flight
800 was scheduled to depart JFK for
CDG about 1900; however, the flight was
delayed because of a disabled piece of
ground equipment and concerns about a
suspected passenger/baggage mis-
match. According to the cockpit voice
recorder (CVR), at 1959:44, gate agent
personnel advised the flight crew that,
although a passenger’s bag had been
pulled because they suspected that it was
unattended, they subsequently con-
firmed that “the passenger was on board
the whole time.” The CVR recorded the
sound of the cockpit door closing at
1959:59, and the flight crew continued to
prepare for departure.
TWA Flight 800 was pushed back from
the gate about 2002. According to the
TWA FLIGHT 800 REPORT
This article comprises extracts from the U.S.
NTSB re p o rt on the accident involving TWA
Flight 800, which experienced an inflight
breakup and then crashed into the Atlantic Ocean
near East Moriches, New York on 17 July 1996
(Aircraft Accident Report NTSB/AAR-00/03).
The re p o rt was adopted by the NTSB on
23 August 2000.
The full accident report can be viewed at the
NTSB website (http://www.ntsb.gov) and may be
purchased in paper form from the National
Technical Information Service (Report No. PB2000-
910403); tel. (800) 553-6847 or (703) 605-6000.
CVR, between 2005 and 2007:46, the flight
crew started the Nos. 1, 2, and 4 engines
and completed the after-start checklist. At
2007:52, the captain/check airman
advised the JFK gate hold controller that
TWA Flight 800 was “ready to taxi.” About
2008, the flight crew received taxi instruc-
tions from air traffic control (ATC) and
began to taxi to Runway 22R, the depar-
ture runway. While the aircraft was taxi-
ing (about 2014), the CVR recorded the
flight crew starting the No. 3 engine and
conducting the delayed engine-start and
taxi checklists.
At 2017:18, the CVR recorded ATC
stating, “TWA 800 heavy caution wake
turbulence from a 757, Runway 22R, taxi
into position and hold.” The CVR tran-
script indicated that the captain/check
airman acknowledged the ATC clearance
and that the aircraft was taxied into posi-
tion on the departure runway. At 2018:21,
ATC advised the pilots of TWA Flight 800
that the wind was out of 240 degrees at
eight knots and cleared Flight 800 for
takeoff on Runway 22R. The CVR record-
ed the flight crew conducting the before
take-off checklist and the sound of
increasing engine noise; flight data
recorder (FDR) and CVR information
indicated that the aircraft became air-
borne about 2019.
During the aircraft’s departure from
JFK, the pilots of TWA Flight 800
received a series of (generally increas-
ing) altitude assignments and heading
changes from New York Terminal Radar
Approach Control and Boston air route
traffic control centre (ARTCC) con-
trollers. At 2025:41, Boston ARTCC
advised the pilots to “climb and maintain
[19,000] feet and expedite through
ICAO JOURNAL

[15,000 feet]”; the pilots acknowledged
the instructions at 2025:47. According to
the CVR, at 2026:24, Boston ARTCC
amended TWA Flight 800’s altitude clear-
ance, advising the pilots to maintain
13,000 feet mean sea level (msl). At
2027:47, the CVR recorded the sound of
the altitude alert tone, and the FDR data
indicated that the aircraft reached its
assigned altitude.
At 2029:15, the CVR recorded the cap-
tain stating, “Look at that crazy fuel flow
indicator there on number four ... see
that?” At 2030:15, Boston ART C C
advised, “TWA 800 climb and maintain
[15,000 feet msl].” The CVR recorded the
captain stating “climb thrust” and the
captain/check airman acknowledging
the ATC clearance at 2030:18. At 2030:25,
the captain repeated “climb thrust” and
at 2030:35, the flight engineer responded
“power’s set.” The CVR recording of the
next 30 seconds from the cockpit area
microphone (CAM) includes the follow-
ing sounds:
•a sound similar to a mechanical move-
ment in the cockpit (at 2030:42),
•an unintelligible word (at 2031:03), and
•sounds similar to recording tape dam-
age noise (at 2031:05). 1
At 2031:12, the CVR recording ended.
A sound spectrum study of the informa-
tion recorded by the CVR revealed that
twice within the last second of the CVR
recording (about 0.73 and 0.68 seconds
before the recording stopped), the cap-
tain’s channel recorded harmonic tones
at the 400 Hertz (Hz) frequency, but it
did not record other electrical system
background noise that it had recorded
previously throughout the recording.
These other electrical system back-
ground noises were recorded on the
other CVR channels without interrup-
tion. The CVR then recorded a “ver y
1. Subsequent examination of the CVR tape indicat-
ed that these sounds were likely the result of water
damage to the tape head. Because of the position of
the tape on the reels, the portion of the tape that con-
tained sounds from the last seconds before the CVR
stopped recording was exposed to water after the
accident.
2. Radar data and ATC records indicated that Stinger
Bee Flight 507 was about 20 to 25 miles northeast of
TWA Flight 800, on a southwesterly heading.
NUMBER 3, 2001
AC CI DE NT R EP ORT
loud sound” for a fraction of a second training and off-duty time prescribed by
(0.117 second) on all channels immedi- federal regulations. No evidence indicated
ately before the recording ended. The any pre-existing medical or behavioural
accident aircraft’s last recorded radar conditions that might have adversely
transponder return occurred at 2031:12, affected the flight crew’s performance.
and a review of the FDR data indicated 2. The aircraft was certificated, equipped
that the FDR lost power at 2031:12. and dispatched in accordance with
According to the Boston ARTCC tran- federal regulations and approved TWA
script, at 2031:50, the captain of an procedures.
Eastwind Airlines Boeing 737 (Stinger 3. At the time of the accident, there were
Bee Flight 507) reported that he “just saw light winds and scattered clouds in the
an explosion out here.” About 10 seconds area, but there were no significant mete-
later, the captain of Stinger Bee Flight 507 orological conditions that might have
further advised “we just
saw an explosion up ahead
of us here ... about 16,000
feet or something like that,
it just went down into
the water.”2 Subsequently,
many ATC facilities in the
New York/Long Island
area received reports of an
explosion from other pilots
operating in the area.
Many witnesses in the
vicinity of the accident
st at ed t hat t hey saw TWA Flight 800 wreckage location relative to the aircraft’s
and/or heard explosions, flight path, JFK International Airport, and Long Island.
accompanied by a larg e
f i reball over the ocean, and obser v e d disrupted the flight.
debris, some of which was burn i n g , 4. The inflightbreakup of TWA Flight 800
falling to the water. According to witness was not initiated by a pre-existing condi-
documents, about one-third of these wit- tion resulting in a structural failure and
nesses reported that they observed a decompression.
streak of light, resembling a flare, mov- 5. The inflight breakup of TWA Flight 800
ing upward in the sky to the point where was not initiated by a bomb or a missile strike.
a large fireball appeared. Several wit- 6. The fuel/air vapour in the ullage of
nesses reported seeing this fireball split TWA Flight 800’s centre wing fuel tank
into two fireballs as it descended toward (CWT) was flammable at the time of the
the water. accident.
Pieces of the aircraft wreckage were 7. A fuel/air explosion in the centre wing
discovered floating on and beneath the fuel tank of TWA Flight 800 would have
surface of the Atlantic Ocean about eight been capable of generating suf ficient
miles south of East Moriches, New York. internal pressure to break apart the tank.
The main wreckage was found on the 8. The witness obser vations of a streak
ocean floor, between 40°37’42” and of light were not related to a missile, and
40°40’12” nor th latitude and 72°40’48” the streak of light reported by most of
and 72°35’38” west longitude. The acci- these witnesses was burning fuel from
dent occurred in dusk lighting conditions. the accident aircraft in crippled flight
during some portion of the post-explo-
Investigation findings sion pre-impact breakup sequence. The
1. The flight crew was properly certifica- witnesses’ obser vations of one or more
ted and qualified and had received the fireballs were of the aircraft’s burning
31
 AC CI DEN T R EP ORT
wreckage falling toward the ocean.
9. The TWA Flight 800 inflight breakup
was initiated by a fuel/air explosion in
the centre wing fuel tank.
10. Boeing’s design practice that per-
mits parts less than three inches long in
any direction to be electrically unbonded
may not provide adequate protection
against potential ignition hazards created
by static electricity generated by light-
ning or other high-energy discharges.
11. It is very unlikely that the flammable
fuel/air vapour in the centre wing fuel
A photograph of the right side of the large three-dimensional reconstruction, with
the support scaffolding visible.
tank on TWA Flight 800 was ignited by a
lightning or meteor strike; a missile frag-
ment; a small explosive charge placed on
the CWT; auto ignition or hot surface
ignition, resulting from elevated temper-
atures produced by sources external to
the CWT; a fire migrating to the CWT
from another fuel tank via the vent
(stringer) system; an uncontained en-
gine failure or a turbine burst in the air
conditioning packs beneath the CWT; a
malfunctioning CWT jettison/override
pump; a malfunctioning CWT scavenge
pump; or static electricity.
12. Electromagnetic interference from
radio frequency sources external to TWA
Flight 800 did not produce enough ener-
gy to ignite the fuel/air vapour in the cen-
tre wing fuel tank.
32
13. Electromagnetic interference from
personal electronic devices played no
role in igniting the fuel/air vapour in
TWA Flight 800’s centre wing fuel tank.
14. It is unlikely that electromagnetic
interference from aircraft system wiring
played a role in igniting the fuel/air
vapour in TWA Flight 800’s centre wing
fuel tank.
15. Existing standards for wire separa-
tion may not provide adequate protection
against damage from short circuits.
16. A short circuit producing excess
voltage that was transferred to the centre
wing tank fuel quantity indication system
wiring is the most likely source of igni-
tion energy for the TWA Flight 800 cen-
tre wing tank explosion.
17. Silver-sulfide deposits on fuel quanti-
ty indication system components inside
fuel tanks pose a risk for ignition of flam-
mable fuel/air vapour.
18. The ignition energy for the centre
wing fuel tank explosion most likely
entered the centre wing tank through the
fuel quantity indication system (FQIS)
wiring, and, although it is possible that
the release of ignition energy inside the
CWT was facilitated by the existence of
silver-sulfide deposits on an FQIS com-
ponent, neither the energy release mech-
anism nor the location of the ignition
inside the CWT could be determined
from the available evidence.
19. Failure modes and effects analyses
and fault tree analyses should not be
relied upon as the sole means of demon-
strating that an aircraft’s fuel tank system
is not likely to experience a catastrophic
failure.
20. A fuel tank design and cer tification
philosophy that relies solely on the elimina-
tion of all ignition sources, while accepting
the existence of fuel tank flammability, is
fundamentally flawed because experi-
ence has demonstrated that all possible
ignition sources cannot be predicted and
reliably eliminated.
21. Operating transport-categor y air-
craft with flammable fuel/air mixtures in
fuel tanks presents an avoidable risk of
an explosion.
22. The placement of heat-generating
equipment under a fuel tank containing
Jet A fuel can unnecessarily increase the
amount of time that the aircraft is operat-
ing with a flammable fuel/air mixture
unless measures are in place to either (1)
prevent the heat from entering the centre
wing fuel tank or (2) eliminate the flam-
mable vapour inside the centre wing tank.
23. The condition of the wiring system
in the aircraft was not atypical for an air-
craft of its age, and the aircraft was main-
tained in accordance with prevailing
accepted industry practices.
24. Until recently, insufficient attention
has been paid to the condition of aircraft
electrical wiring, resulting in potential
safety hazards.
25. The issues defined in the Federal
Aviation Administration’s Aging Trans-
por t Non-Structural Systems Plan are
important safety issues that must be
fully addressed through appropriate
changes, including rulemaking.
Probable cause
The NTSB determines that the proba-
ble cause of the TWA Flight 800 acci-
dent was an explosion of the centre
wing fuel tank, resulting from ignition of
the flammable fuel/air mixture in the
tank. The source of ignition energy for
the explosion could not be determined
ICAO JOURNAL

with certainty, but, of the sources evalu-
ated by the investigation, the most likely
was a short circuit outside of the centre
wing fuel tank that allowed excessive
voltage to enter it through electrical
wiring associated with the fuel quantity
indication system.
Contributing factors to the accident
were the design and certification concept
that fuel tank explosions could be pre-
vented solely by precluding all ignition
sources, and the design and certification
of the Boeing 747, with heat sources
located beneath the centre wing fuel tank
with no means to reduce the heat trans-
ferred into the tank or to render the fuel
vapour in the tank nonflammable.
The safety issues raised by the investi-
gation include fuel tank flammability, fuel
tank ignition sources, design and certifi-
cation standards, and the maintenance
and aging of aircraft systems. Safety rec-
ommendations concerning these issues
are addressed to the Federal Aviation
Administration.
NTSB recommendations
New recommendations issued to the
FAA. As a result of the investigation of
the TWA Flight 800 accident, the NTSB
makes the following recommendations
to the Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA):
•Examine manufacturers’ design prac-
tices with regard to bonding of compo-
nents inside fuel tanks and require
changes in those practices, as necessar y,
to eliminate potential ignition hazards.
•Review the design specifications for air-
craft wiring systems of all U.S.-certified
aircraft and (1) identify which systems
are critical to safety and (2) require revi-
sions, as necessary, to ensure that ade-
quate separation is provided for the
wiring related to those critical systems.
•Require the development and imple-
mentation of corrective actions to elimi-
nate the ignition risk posed by silver-sul-
fide deposits on fuel quantity indication
system components inside fuel tanks.
•Regardless of the scope of the Aging
Transport Systems Rulemaking Advisor y
Committee’s eventual recommendations,
NUMBER 3, 2001
AC CI DE NT R EP OR T
address (through rulemaking or other ture cannot be determined by flight
means) all of the issues identified in the crews be immediately revised to reflect
Aging Transport Non-Structural Systems the increases in centre wing fuel tank
Plan, including: the need for improved fuel temperatures found by flight tests,
training of maintenance personnel to including operational procedures to
ensure adequate recognition and repair of reduce the potential for exceeding CWT
potentially unsafe wiring conditions; the temperature limits.
need for improved documentation and •Require modification of the centre wing
reporting of potentially unsafe electrical fuel tank of 747 aircraft and the fuel tanks
wiring conditions; and the need to incor- of other aircraft that are located near
porate the use o f n ew heat sources to incorpo-
T
t e c h n o l o g y, such as he most likely rate temperature probes
arc-fault c i rcuit bre a k- and cockpit fuel tank tem-
ers and automated wire
source of ignition perature displays to per-
test equipment. energy for the mit determination of fuel
Previously issued rec - explosion was a short tank temperatures.
o m m e n d a t i o n s. As a As a result of this acci-
circuit outside of the
result of the TWA Flight dent investigation, the
800 accident investiga- centre wing fuel tank Safety Board also issued
tion, the Safety Board the following recommen-
issued the following safe - dation to the FAA on 18
ty recommendations to the FAA on 13 February 1997:
December 1996: •Develop and implement procedures,
•Require the development and imple- including a checklist of safety-related
mentation of design or operational items, for the handling and placement of
changes that will preclude the operation explosive training aids by K-9 explosives
of transport-category aircraft with explo- detection teams to prevent contamina-
sive fuel/air mixtures in the fuel tanks: tion of aircraft and airport facilities and to
(a) Significant consideration should be ensure an effective K-9 explosives detec-
given to the development of aircraft tion programme.
design modifications, such as nitrogen- As a result of this accident investiga-
i n e rting systems and the addition tion, the Safety Board also issued the fol-
of insulation between heat-generating lowing recommendations to the FAA on
equipment and fuel tanks. Appropriate 7 April 1998:
modifications should apply to newly cer- •Issue, as soon as possible, an airworthi-
tificated aircraft and, where feasible, to ness directive to require a detailed ins-
existing aircraft. pection of fuel quantity indication system
(b) Pending implementation of design wiring in Boeing 747-100, -200, and -300
modifications, require modifications in series aircraft fuel tanks for damage, and
operational procedures to reduce the the replacement or the repair of any wires
potential for explosive fuel/air mixtures found to be damaged. Wires on Honeywell
in the fuel tanks of transport-categor y Series 1-3 probes and compensators
aircraft. In the 747, consideration should should be removed for examination.
be given to refuelling the centre wing •Issue an air worthiness directive to
fuel tank before flight whenever possible require the earliest possible replacement
from cooler ground fuel tanks, proper of the Honeywell Corporation Series 1-3
monitoring and management of the terminal blocks used on Boeing 747 fuel
CWT fuel temperature, and maintaining probes with terminal blocks that do not
an appropriate minimum fuel quantity in have knurled surfaces or sharp edges
the CWT. that may damage fuel quantity indication
•Require that the 747 Flight Handbooks system wiring.
of TWA and other operators of 747s and •Conduct a sur vey of fuel quant it y
other aircraft in which fuel tank tempera- continued on page 39
33
 ICAO U P D ATE
Environmental colloquium facilitates exchange of views
Over 200 participants from more than 50 States and some 20
international organizations took part in an ICAO colloquium
on the environmental aspects of aviation which concluded on
11 April. The event served to exchange views on environ-
mental issues, and to familiarize States with the work of the
ICAO Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection
(CAEP), particularly the results of the Committee’s last meet-
ing, in January 2001 (see “CAEP recommends further meas-
ures for reducing aircraft noise, engine exhaust emissions,”
Issue 1/2001, page 30).
The first two days of the three-day conference focused pri-
marily on aircraft noise, with a general recognition of the need
to address noise issues on a global basis, and widespread
support for a balanced approach to noise management com-
prised of four equally important elements: a reduction of air-
craft noise at source; effective land-use planning and control;
wider use of noise abatement operating procedures; and
operating restrictions for the noisier aircraft types.
The colloquium reaffirmed that ICAO, and particularly
CAEP, remains the most appropriate forum in which to
address noise issues on an international basis.
In summarizing the views expressed at the closing of the
colloquium, ICAO Council President Dr. Assad Kotaite indi-
cated that the balanced approach to the noise issue would
likely be reflected in a new resolution to be considered by the
33rd ICAO Assembly this fall. In drafting a resolution on ICAO
policies and practices for environmental protection, the
Council, he stated, would bear in mind several principles that
had been enunciated at the colloquium, including the con-
clusions that:
•noise management should be considered only in the con-
text of a balanced programme;
•the process for implementing the programme and balanc-
ing its elements would be decided by States; and
•the goal should be to achieve the maximum environmental
benefit in the most cost effective manner.
The colloquium heard a wide range of views on the deli-
cate question of possible operating restrictions on Chapter 3
aircraft. While some States expressed the need to restrict
certain Chapter 3 aircraft at their airports, others remained
strongly opposed to any restrictions on aircraft that comply
with the current Chapter 3 standards, which were adopted in
1977. There is hope that a consensus on this complex issue
will be reached before the Assembly session in September.
Numerous factors would need to be considered by the
Council in proposing any resolution that includes operating
restrictions, Dr. Kotaite concluded, urging States to work
within ICAO and on a bilateral and inter-regional basis in the
months ahead to find compromises that will enable the ICAO
Assembly to resolve the problem.
The colloquium also devoted substantial time to the
impact of aircraft engine emissions on the environment, with
focus on global concerns.
34
ICAO Council President Dr. Assad Kotaite (centre) with ICAO
Secretary General R.C. Costa Pereira (right) and Jonathan
Aleck, Colloquium Moderator and Chairman of the Air
Transport Committee and Representative of Australia on the
Council of ICAO. The colloquium of 9-11 April at ICAO head-
quarters in Montreal attracted over 200 participants from more
than 50 States and some 20 international organizations.
Different policy options for pursuing ways to limit or
reduce emissions of greenhouse gases are currently under
study. One possibility under consideration is to expand ICAO
Annex 16 to specifically address emissions of global con-
cern. Participants also were informed about the development
of guidance material on the operational opportunities for
reducing fuel consumption and emissions, and work on
developing a methodology for calculating the emissions ben-
efits associated with the introduction of advanced CNS/ATM
systems. The substantial work that has been done on the
possible use of market-based measures — such as levies,
emissions trading and voluntary measures — was also
reviewed.
The various presentations that were made at the colloquium,
as well as the summary presented by the ICAO Council
President, can be viewed at ICAO’s website (www.icao.int) by
following the link to the meetings and conferences page. ■
Regional planning group
to meet in Cape Verde
The next meeting of the Africa-Indian Ocean regional plan-
ning and implementation group (APIRG/13) will take place
from 25 to 29 June 2001 on Sal Island, Cape Verde. The
group, formed by ICAO in 1980 to ensure the continuous and
coherent development of the African regional plan, is meeting
for the 13th time. Agenda items that will have a high priority
include a review of the Africa-Indian Ocean region air navi-
gation plan and survey of each State’s shortcomings and
deficiencies in the area of air navigation services, the devel-
opment of human factors strategies and the need for further
improvement in inter-regional coordination. ■
ICAO JOURNAL
Name of panel changed to
reflect new work programme
The Review of the General Concept of Separation Panel
(RGCSP), which last met in Montreal in May 2000, has been
given a new name that better reflects its activities. Now
known as the Separation and Airspace Safety Panel (SASP),
the ICAO Air Navigation Commission (ANC) agreed to the
name change because the panel’s new work programme is
mainly in the area of determining separation minima and
examining related airspace safety issues.
SASP is tentatively scheduled to hold its first meeting in late
2003. The panel, whose members are nominated by
Contracting States, will advise the ANC on technically practical
and operationally feasible ICAO provisions that may be need-
ed to meet the objectives specified in its work programme. ■
More safety oversight audit summary
reports disseminated
Several summary reports resulting from safety oversight
audits conducted by ICAO in the past year were disseminat-
ed to the organization’s Contracting States in recent months.
The latest reports cover audits carried out for Chile, Côte
d’Ivoire, Kyrgyzstan, Senegal (a revised report) and Tajikistan.
Another 99 summary reports have been issued previously.
Since ICAO audit activities commenced in March 1999, a
total of 161 States have been audited. As of 30 April 2001,
131 correction action plans had been submitted by the
States audited. The goal of the ICAO universal safety over-
sight audit programme is to complete audits of all
Contracting States by September 2001, when the 33rd ICAO
Assembly will convene. ■
Council adopts amendments to
annexes of the Chicago Convention
The ICAO Council has adopted amendments to the standards
and recommended practices contained in several technical
annexes to the Convention on International Civil Aviation
(Chicago, 1944). Most of the revisions, which were recently
disseminated to States, will become applicable in November
2001 with the exception of the amendment to Annex 8, which
does not become applicable until March 2004.
States that disapprove of any part of an amendment are
expected to register their disapproval with ICAO by 16 July
2001. States are also expected to indicate by a certain date
whether any differences exist between their national regula-
tions or practices and the amended annexes, as well as the
date by which they expect to achieve compliance with the
provisions of the revised annexes.
The amendments adopted recently concern the following
annexes: Annex 1, Personnel Licensing; Annex 2, Rules of
the Air; Annex 3, Meteorological Service for International Air
Navigation; Annex 4, Aeronautical Charts; Annex 6, Operation
of Aircraft; Annex 8, Airworthiness of Aircraft; Annex 10,
Aeronautical Telecommunications; Annex 11, Air Traffic
Services; Annex 12, Search and Rescue; Annex 13, Aircraft
Accident and Incident Investigation; Annex 14, Aerodromes
(Volume 1, Aerodrome Design and Operations); Annex 15,
Aeronautical Information Services; and Annex 18, The Safe
Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air. ■
NUMBER 3, 2001
IFATCA has safety role to play,
Council President tells gathering
Aviation’s enviable safety record is the product of a deep-root-
ed commitment to optimum aviation safety on the part of oper-
ators, manufacturers, regulators and service providers, ICAO
Council President Dr. Assad Kotaite emphasized in his address
to the International Federation of Air Traffic Controllers’
Associations (IFATCA) at a meeting in Geneva on 23 March
2001 that commemorated the federation’s 40th anniversary.
Among those active in aviation, “air traffic controllers carry
out a particularly demanding task,” the Council President
observed. Although controllers may be supported by sophis-
ticated systems and procedures, “they are ultimately alone in
making critical control decisions. ... Without their dedication
and professionalism, civil aviation as we know it might not
exist.”
ICAO Council has recently granted IFATCA, the profession-
al organization that represents some 40,000 air traffic con-
trollers in more than 100 countries, status as an observer at
appropriate ICAO meetings. IFATCA plays a key role in pro-
moting safety, the Council President stated, and its regular
participation in ICAO regional and international meetings, pan-
els and working groups will be a valuable contribution to the
ongoing effort to refine and modernize the standards and rec-
ommended practices contained in the technical annexes to
the Convention on International Civil Aviation (Chicago, 1944).
Given a forecast of 5 percent growth in passengers and
aircraft movements per year over the next decade, the col-
lective challenge of managing air traffic safely and efficiently
in the years ahead will not be easy to address, Dr. Kotaite
acknowledged. “Bold, concerted and imaginative action” will
AIR LAW INSTRUMENTS
The Montreal Convention of 1999 was ratified by
Paraguay on 29 March 2001, bringing the number of rat-
ifications to 11. Paraguay also ratified Article 83 bis
(Lease, charter or interchange) and Article 3 bis (Non-use
of weapons against aircraft), air law instruments which
are already in force. The Montreal Convention was adopt-
ed in May 1999 as the new regime to govern air carrier
liability and will enter into force after it has received 30
ratifications. To mark the occasion, Helena Felip Salazar,
the Chargé d’Affaires of the Embassy of Paraguay in
Ottawa, is pictured with ICAO Acting Secretary General
Vivek Pattanayak (centre) and Silvério Espínola of the
ICAO Legal Bureau.
35
be required to deal effectively with the present and expect-
ed airport and airspace congestion, he stated.
Dr. Kotaite’s address focused on the key initiatives under
way to promote safety and achieve a reduction in the num-
ber and rate of aviation accidents worldwide. The global avi-
ation safety plan that ICAO oversees is currently comprised of
three pillars: the universal safety oversight audit programme,
which consists of regular, mandatory, systematic and harmo-
nized safety audits carried out by ICAO in all of its
Contracting States; the flight safety and human factors pro-
gramme, which seeks to further the understanding of the root
causes of both human and organizational errors; and the
controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) prevention programme,
which addresses systemic flaws and is directed at decision
makers in the aviation system.
By assuming a global coordinating role, ICAO strives to
harness the synergies of safety initiatives of groups and
organizations worldwide that pursue similar objectives, Dr.
Kotaite explained. In addition to coordinating the global
effort, the global aviation safety plan determines priorities for
ICAO’s own safety-related activities, with emphasis on those
activities that offer the best safety dividends.
■ carried out by the ICAO Secretariat has revealed that the cur-
Comments sought on proposed review
of licensing and training standards
ICAO Contracting States have been asked to comment by 20
July 2001 on ICAO’s plan to review personnel licensing and
training standards. If the response from States is positive,
ICAO will proceed with establishment of a panel of experts
that will review the flight crew training and licensing standards
contained in two of the annexes to the Chicago Convention
— Annex 1, Personnel Licensing and Annex 6, Operation of
Aircraft. Although the original review would be limited to flight
crew licensing and training, it may be followed by similar
reviews for other categories of aviation personnel.
ICAO perceives a need to review the standards because
of the major developments in aircraft operations and training
that have taken place since the last revision to Annex 1 flight
crew specifications was initiated 20 years ago. Operators are
now using highly sophisticated aircraft operated by two crew
TECHNICAL COOPERATION
Sixty-five participants from 24 States of the Americas,
Africa and Europe participated in a seminar on technical
cooperation matters at ICAO headquarters, Montreal, from
2 to 6 April 2001. The seminar included presentations on
work flow, activities in the field and project coordination.
36
members in an environment of increasing complexity. At the
same time, general aviation continues to use aircraft of a
technology that largely derives from the 1950s. Licensing
standards need to be able to cater for the widening spread
between the different sectors of aircraft operation and the dif-
ferent aircraft and equipment being used.
In a number of States, ab initio training has taken on a
new importance as the supply of pilots from general avia-
tion and the military fails to keep up with demand. The
emergence of training tools with the potential for better and
faster training calls for a careful re-examination of the
licensing credits based on these technologies. Finally, the
need for more effective training has compelled several
States to develop competency training and licensing
re q u i rements that incorporate more explicit criteria for
measuring competence.
While Annex 1 requirements have stood the test of time
since the basic framework of the annex was first developed in
the 1940s, the absence of common criteria against which to
measure the competence of flight crews has led to significant
variations in the different performance standards which have
been developed by States. In addition, an informal review
rent standards have not been fully kept in line with the devel-
opment of aviation both in terms of the content of training
and in the use of modern training devices. ■
ICAO safety statistics for 2000
The number of fatal aircraft accidents experienced in sched-
uled air services worldwide last year declined slightly to 18,
compared to 20 accidents in 1999, according to the latest
ICAO analysis of safety statistics. However, the preliminary
figures also show that the number of passenger fatalities
increased last year to 755 from 499 fatalities in 1999. Because
of the higher number of fatalities in 2000, the passenger fatal-
ity rate also rose, from approximately 0.020 fatalities per 100
million passenger-kilometres in 1999 to 0.025 in 2000.
In non-scheduled services there were 22 fatal accidents in
2000, unchanged from 1999. These accidents accounted for
291 passenger deaths in 2000, compared to 129 fatalities in
1999. (The figures cited here cover only those accidents
which resulted in passenger fatalities and involved aircraft
having a maximum take-off mass of more than 2,250 kilo-
grams.)
There were 27 acts of unlawful interference officially report-
ed in 2000 in which 53 people were killed and 46 injured. In
some cases, the acts of unlawful interference resulted in air-
craft accidents. ■
Boeing 747 did not crash in Qatar
An article in ICAO Journal Issue 1/2001 (“New system allows
for detection of unsafe aircraft loadings shortly before take-off,”
page 14), contained incorrect information about a Boeing 747
accident that was reported to have occurred in Qatar in 1993. In
fact, the aircraft involved, a Boeing 747-100 freighter registered
in Germany, did not crash as reported but experienced sub-
stantial damage following a take-off incident at Doha, Qatar on
4 July 1993. According to a report filed with ICAO by Germany,
cargo pallets that shifted during the aircraft’s take-off run at
Doha caused substantial damage to the rear pressure bulkhead
and failure of the pressurization system. ■
ICAO JOURNAL

European ATM projects
continued from page 8
be maintained when weather conditions are close to minimum
for VMC approach and, after further developments, below
VMC values.
Tiger Team Paris. This team is looking into the use of ADS-B
to improve safety and efficiency of operations on the airport
surface, especially during reduced visibility conditions, in sup-
port of an advanced surface movements guidance and control
system (A-SMGCS). The work, whose application is known as
surface enhanced visual acquisition (SEVA), also involves air-
port ground vehicles. The DGAC and Sofreavia lead the team.
Tiger Team Reykjavik. This team’s task is to look into ADS-B
based ASAS applications in the non-radar environment of North
Atlantic airspace. The Icelandic CAA leads the team together
with airlines from both Europe and Canada, bringing the expe-
riences from two continents together. The intention is to
decrease the separation between aircraft by up to 50 percent by
using station-keeping procedures.
Tiger Team Maastricht. In cooperation with the Eurocontrol
ADS programme and Maastricht upper area control centre, this
team will explore the potential benefits of ADS-B in high-densi-
ty airspace with a well-developed SSR Mode-S infrastructure
and relatively advanced level of ATC automation. The main goal
is to investigate possibilities to share the workload between
ATC and the cockpit.
Tiger Team Nice. The Nice team is developing “see and
NUMBER 3, 2001
avoid” applications and procedures based on the use of ADS-B,
traffic information ser vice-broadcast and CDTI, to improve the
mixed operation of IFR and VFR traffic (helicopters and gener-
al aviation aircraft). The main objective is improved safety but
also possible increase of capacity. DGAC/Sofreavia leads the
team.
In addition to the seven tiger teams, numerous activities are
under way in dif ferent areas of Europe. A review of the signifi-
cant developments follows.
Modified ADS. The development of the satellite- and ATN-
based modified ADS (M-ADS) application in Norwegian air-
space had been launched initially to enhance the provision of a
flight information ser vice and alerting ser vice for helicopter
operations in the North Sea. The term “modified” was used
because of the utilization of the SSR transponder code in the
ADS messages in lieu of the aircraft identification. Position
information is transmitted to the Stavanger, Trondhiem and
Bodø ATC centres. The Kongsberg Co. is now extending the
project to include M-ADS as well as ADS-B based on VDL
Mode 4 (i.e. combining the traditional ADS over ATN with
ADS-B in the same system). Testing of this implementation is
included in the EC-sponsored downlinking of aircraft derived
information Phase II (DADI2) programme. Nor way is one of
the new countries to participate in NUP Phase II.
Mediterranean free flight project (MFF). Another project
sponsored by the European Commission and building on VDL
Mode 4 ground and aircraft infrastructure, MFF will investi-
gate, simulate and ultimately implement airborne traffic situa-
37
tional awareness (ATSAW) and ASAS applications and free
flight in a live traffic environment in the Mediterranean area.
The project is led by Ente Nazionale de Assistenza al Volo
(ENAV), the Italian government agency for air traffic and aero-
nautical services. Partners include civil aviation administrations
and research organizations from France, Spain, Greece, Malta
and Sweden.
MFF is based on updated infrastructure established through
the FARAWAY projects. The objective of these EC-sponsored proj-
ects was to investigate the enhanced operational performance of
ground surveillance and aircraft navigation made possible through
the fusion of radar and ADS-B data. The project involved ATM
service providers and airlines in Italy, Germany and Sweden. A
follow-on project focused on extending the ground infrastructure
to give complete ADS-B coverage in Italian airspace.
Southern ring air routes phase II project. This project is a part
of the European Commission support given to republics of the
former Soviet Union and Mongolia since 1991. It promotes the
safe and ef ficient operation of aircraft in the countries of
Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgystan, Moldovia,
Mongolia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. An
advanced demonstration of ADS-B was held in Tblisi, Georgia
and Baku, Azerbaijan. The European Commission is currently
considering a third phase.
Autonomous aircraft in future ATM system (MA-AFAS and
AFAS). These two EC-sponsored projects are selecting and val-
idating key airborne elements of CNS and defining their eco-
INTERNATIONAL OCEANIC
CONFERENCE (IOC) 2001
October 2-5, 2 0 0 1
NAV CANADA, in partnership with ICAO, will host the prestigious
International Oceanic Conference 2001 in Banff, Alberta, Canada.
The IOC conference is an annual event aimed at providing a forum
for ANS service providers, aviation and airline org a n i z a t i o n s ,
re g u l ators and industry to address oceanic airspace issues.
This year’s theme, “Improving Customer Service Through Advanced
Technology,” will showcase leading edge keynote speakers, exhibits,
technology presentations and panel discussions. Over 300 delegates
from around the world are expected to attend the three-day c o n f-
e rence, making it an excellent forum for cooperative eff o rt and
consultation on all aspects of oceanic air operations.
The Banff Springs Hotel, in the picturesque mountain resort of
Banff, Alberta, will be the site of IOC 2001. This World Heritage
Site combines wild alpine beauty with first-class amenities for its
visitors. Banff is accessible from the Calgary International Airport
via rental car or shuttle bus/limousine.
Plan now to attend this important conference in one of the most sce-
nic areas of Canada and the world. The conference programme, with
its knowledgeable speakers and international delegates, will ensure
that IOC 2001 is the most rewarding and productive event that you
attend this year.
For more information on the conference and how to register,
contact the ICAO European and North Atlantic Office
at ICAOEURNAT@Paris.ICAO.int or visit the NAV CANADA
conference website at www.navcanada.ca/ioc2001.
38
nomic benefits and cer tification requirements in order to
enable more autonomous aircraft operation in the European
ATM system. To gain early benefits, there must be a capability
to install improved equipment in existing aircraft. The MA-
AFAS project therefore is focusing on aircraft retrofit, while
AFAS focuses on architectures in new aircraft. The FMS study
cited above is a part of the AFAS project.
Simulations. Simulations are one of the key tools used in
developing new operational environments. Following the suc-
cessful simulation of station-keeping at Malmö in May 2000, full
ADS and data link capability is being implemented through
SMART, an advanced multirole ATM research and training sim-
ulator located at the Swedish ATC Academy. This facility pro-
vides a fully simulated ATC environment featuring up to 500
simultaneous flights. With SMART, ATC operators are able to
work in a modern ATM environment that provides possibilities
to develop, test and verify new ATM applications and opera-
tional procedures. At a later stage it will be possible to connect
SMART to flight simulators so controllers and pilots will be
linked in the same simulated ATM environment. This will pro-
vide researchers with unique opportunities when developing
new ATM functions and operational procedures.
Russian Federation. Russia’s Federal Service for Air
Transport (FSAT) signed an order in 1999 approving the imple-
mentation of an ADS-B system for civil aviation based on VDL
Mode 4. The order demands that the Russian ADS-B system
become fully operational by the beginning of October 2005 in
the Tyumen region, between the Ural Mountains and Siberia,
an area which is equal in size to France, Germany, Italy and the
United Kingdom combined. The regional ATC authority,
Tyumencontrol, oversees the air routes across this territory.
The system installation will cover both en-route and terminal
airspace as well as five of the major airports in the region, and
an A-SMGCS system based on ADS-B will be installed at
Samara International Airpor t. It is expected that the Russian
certification authority, MAK, will approve these installations
before 2002. Plans are available for an expanded infrastructure
across the whole country.
The Russian State Research Institute for Aviation Systems
(GosNIIAS) is conducting extensive activities in suppor t of
ADS-B implementation in the Russian Federation.
Activities in Sweden. Luftfar tsverket, the Swedish civil avia-
tion administration, has embarked on a three-year implementa-
tion programme of VDL Mode 4 based ADS-B starting at Kiruna
Airport, the northern-most airport in Sweden. Currently ATC is
applied through procedural control in this sparsely populated
and mountainous area, which is ser ved by a limited number of
aircraft, often operating VFR. Scheduled ser vices are conduct-
ed with a limited number of individual aircraft.
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) tested in this remote area will
be equipped with ADS-B. Because of the climate, aircraft manu-
facturers often use the airport for cold-weather testing of new air-
craft. It is expected that these “visiting” aircraft can easily be
equipped with VDL Mode 4 equipment. New surveillance capa-
bilities through ADS-B will provide a considerable safety enhance-
ment and excellent support for search and rescue operations.
At Stockholm Arlanda Airport a new sur veillance system is
ICAO JOURNAL
being installed for surface surveillance. ADS-B will be one of
the surveillance data sources processed by the system and pre-
sented to the operators.
In recent years, ADS-B has been used to improve the effi-
ciency of the snow removal process, especially during low visi-
bility situations when the control tower would otherwise have
limited information about the position of the snow-clearing
vehicles and the progress of the operation. Full control of vehi-
cle positions allows significantly improved timing of the
resumption of take-off and landing operations, and hence
increased airport capacity.
The technical ATC systems in Sweden are in the process of
being replaced. Input of ADS-B data is part of the early modifi-
cations planned for the new systems.
The way ahead. Among the factors that could slow down
e ff o rts by the aviation community to take advantage of the
capabilities offered by new technological systems are frag-
mented solutions, incompatibility between airborne and
ground-based systems, lack of operational procedures and
incompatibility with the legal framework.
Several impor tant elements are still missing before a fully
developed ATM system based on advanced CNS technologies is
operationally available and generating all of the anticipated ben-
efits. What is needed is a flexible and adaptable operational con-
cept supported by appropriate operating procedures and legal
framework as well as acceptance by all those involved — the
pilots, controllers, ser vice providers, operators and authorities.
A safe system can be developed and implemented only if there
is confidence and trust.
The realization of ICAO’s CNS/ATM concept into an opera-
tional environment is an iterative process. New elements will be
introduced gradually. Components, elements and procedures will
continue to evolve as the requirements change. Established stan-
dards will be modified. The iteration will continue until it is time
to replace the “new” system with an even newer system.
advantage of satellite technology, where available, as well as
other possible alternatives.
The new polar routes create an opportunity to change the
nature of air travel between the continents through shorter
travel times resulting from direct flights between city pairs, and
also make it possible to develop new city pairs that can be
served by the next generation of aircraft. The potential of the
new routes will be realized provided that the appropriate
resources are put in place to ensure that the route capacity with-
in the Russian airspace will meet the forecast demand.
Nav Canada will accommodate the forecast traffic demand
through equipment enhancements at the Edmonton ACC,
which has been fitted with a northern airspace display system
(NADS) that has ADS and CPDLC capability. ■
Accident report
continued from page 33
indication systems probes and wires in Boeing 747s equipped
with systems other than Honeywell Series 1-3 probes and com-
pensators and in other model aircraft that are used in Title 14
Code of Federal Regulations Part 121 service to determine
whether potential fuel tank ignition sources exist that are simi-
lar to those found in the 747. The survey should include remov-
ing wires from fuel probes and examining the wires for damage.
Repair or replacement procedures for any damaged wires that
are found should be developed.
■

Polar routes
continued from page 22
frequency (VHF) coverage, are through HF voice in the north-
ern part of Canadian airspace, the Reykjavik FIR and in the
oceanic and northern continental areas of the Russian airspace.
The effect of ionospheric disturbances in the polar area can
decrease the availability of useable HF frequencies, a factor
which is taken into account in determining route capacity.
The polar route capacity within Russian airspace is currently
limited to one aircraft every 30 minutes on each route at each
available altitude at specified times predicated by communica-
tions capability and the availability of English-speaking con-
trollers. Before capacity can grow, more English-speaking con-
trollers are needed as well as improvements in both communi-
cations and flight data processing and display systems in the
Russian ACCs.
Aside from looking at options for improving HF voice com-
munications, emphasis will be placed on the use of HF data link
in support of ADS and CPDLC. There is also a need to improve
g ro u n d - g round communications between ACCs by taking

NUMBER 3, 2001 39
 N E W P U B L I C AT I O N S
FROM ICAO

ICAO’s Policies on Charges for Airports Location Indicators (Document 7910)

and Air Navigation Services (Document 9082) 99th edition, January 2001; 192 pages
6th edition, 2001; 32 pages Published in English, French, Russian and Spanish
Available in Arabic, English, French and Spanish Order No. 7910/99...$49
Order No. 9082...$10
Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of
Designators for Aircraft Operating Agencies, Dangerous Goods by Air, 2001-2002 Edition
Aeronautical Authorities and Services (Document 9284)
(Document 8585) 2001; 688 pages
116th edition, March 2001; 244 pages Available in English, French, Russian and Spanish
Published in English, French, Russian and Spanish Order No. 9284...$88
Order No. 8585/116...$65
The World of Civil Aviation, 1999-2002
Manual of Aircraft Ground De-icing/Anti-icing (Circular 279)
Operations (Document 9640) 2000; 142 pages
2nd edition, 2000; 37 pages
Available in Arabic, English, French, Russian, and Spanish
Available in English, French, Russian and Spanish
Order No. CIR279...$50
Order No. 9640...$11
Digest of Statistics No. 483
Digest of Statistics No. 478
Financial data-commercial air carriers, 1999.
Traffic-Commercial air carriers, 1995-1999
Series F-No. 53; 491 pages
Series T-No. 59; 371 pages
Published in English, French, Russian and Spanish Published in English, French, Russian and Spanish
Order No. DIG478...$122 Order No. DIG483...$161

Aeronautical Information Services Provided Regional Differences in International Airline

by States (Document 7383) Operating Economics, 1997 (Circular 280)
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•Require research into copper-sulfide deposits on fuel quantity
Language proficiency
indication system parts in fuel tanks to determine the levels of
continued from page 26
deposits that may be hazardous, how to inspect and clean the
need for reliable testing methods. Although there are many
deposits, and when to replace the components.
commercially available general English tests, few aviation-spe-
•Require in Boeing 747 aircraft, and in other aircraft with fuel
cific English tests are widely available. The study group is eval-
quantity indication system wire installations that are co-routed
uating various English proficiency tests to determine their
with wires that may be powered, the physical separation and elec-
appropriateness for aviation and eventually will propose amend-
trical shielding of FQIS wires to the maximum extent possible.
ments to the ICAO provisions.
•Require, in all applicable transport aircraft fuel tanks, surge pro-
The potential consequences of communication errors are
tection systems to prevent electrical power surges from entering
serious enough that the matter of language proficiency must be
fuel tanks through fuel quantity indication system wires. ■
addressed. Half-measures would be inappropriate; rather, the
benefits in improved operational safety and ef ficiency arising
New technology from a common language for ATC communications is a moti-
continued from page 20
vation for the aviation community to explore ways to achieve
universal English language proficiency.
The new technology utilized by Nav Canada is comprised of
International civil aviation has a long history of cooperation.
two key components: controller-pilot data link communications
It is precisely this spirit which must be tapped into once again in
(CPDLC) and automatic dependent sur veillance (ADS), both
the search for solutions to the worldwide need for communica-
using satellite communications. CPDLC provides direct com-
tion proficiency. ■
munication in areas where line-of-sight communication is not
possible, while ADS permits sur veillance of aircraft that are
beyond line-of-sight range of radar systems without the need
for pilot interaction.
Search and rescue
continued from page 29
The combination of these capabilities is expected to provide
air traffic controllers with significant improvements in effi- staff. This needs to be understood in the context of the capaci-
ciency and effectiveness over the current system, which uses ties and limitations of human per formance. In complex and
integrated systems, human performance is limited by two main
high f requency (HF) radio. The technology will also help
factors: the functionality of the machiner y and the functional
Nav Canada to control large amounts of airspace more safely
capacity of the human. Managers need to be aware of these lim-
and effectively, par ticularly in trans-oceanic areas and in
itations and compensate for them.
Canada’s far north. (In addition to implementing advanced
With the essential principles of organizational change in
technology, Nav Canada is in the process of installing new
place and, in particular, an active regard for the human-at-the-
radar sites across the far north. Four sites are under con-
centre, States can expect to realize the maximum benefits of
struction and it is likely additional sites will be announced in technology. In an environment of manageable risk, operational
the coming year.) incidents arising from both technical malfunctioning and
During the flight of COA99 on 1 March, CPDLC communica- human error can be minimized. States can anticipate both great
tions took place between the aircraft and Nav Canada’s technical gains in operational regularity and economy and, with the input
systems centre located in Ottawa. The ADS connection with the of a highly functional SAR system, the safety and ef ficiency
aircraft was interrupted while it was flying over the pole because essential to the world community. ■
of the lack of satellite coverage in the far north. Future imple-
mentation of airborne and ground-based data communications
technology will help provide the necessary coverage for this area. I N T E R N AT I O N A L M E E T I N G S
ADS has already had an impact on transatlantic operations.
North Atlantic Systems Planning Group
Its introduction over the North Atlantic is reducing reliance on
(NAT SPG/37) 12-14 June 2001, Paris
HF communications, and it is anticipated that CPDLC will
reduce the remaining portion of routine HF communication. At Working Group of the Whole of the Operations Panel
present 18 per cent of the 1,000 aircraft flying the North (OPSP) 26-29 June 2001, Montreal*
Atlantic each day are equipped for ADS and CPDLC. Africa-Indian Ocean Planning and Implementation
North Atlantic trials of ADS capabilities began in mid-1999, with Regional Group (APIRG/13)
participation from eight airlines. ADS waypoint position reporting 25-29 June 2001, Sal Island, Cape Verde
went into full operation in the Gander and Shanwick FIRs on 29
Asia/Pacific Air Navigation Planning and
January 2001, meaning that aircraft which use ADS are no longer
Implementation Regional Group (APANPIRG/12)
required to provide position updates via voice communications.
20-24 August 2001, Bangkok
Nav Canada is working with the United Kingdom’s National
Air Traffic Ser vices (NATS) to investigate the practicality of 33rd Session of the ICAO Assembly (A33)
deploying CPDLC technology in the Shanwick (Eastern 25 September - 5 October 2001, Montreal
Atlantic) FIR. The first U.K. CPDLC contact was established *dates to be confirmed

with Continental COA99 on 6 March. ■

NUMBER 3, 2001 41
 Promoting the Development of Capstone initiative
International Civil Aviation continued from page 18
The International Civil Aviation some of this spectral “real estate” must be freed up by coordi-
Organization, created in 1944 to promote nating a permanent spectrum assignment as part of the
the safe and orderly development of civil standards process. The industry standards process is now
aviation worldwide, is a specialized agency of
the United Nations. Headquartered in Montreal, under way, with the recent creation of an RTCA working group
ICAO develops international air transport stan- tasked with the development of a MOPS document for the UAT.
dards and regulations and serves as the medium for cooperation
in all fields of civil aviation among its 187 Contracting States.
Capstone will begin working in the terrain-constrained area of
south-east Alaska in early 2001 to improve safety and access to
ICA O CO NTRAC T IN G STAT E S
that area using lessons learned from the tests performed at
Afghanistan Democratic Republic Lesotho Saint Vincent and
Albania of the Congo Liberia the Grenadines Bethel, as well as incorporating other technologies to improve
Algeria Denmark Libyan Arab Samoa surveillance and navigation capability. Additionally, the work
Andorra Djibouti Jamahiriya San Marino
Angola Dominican Republic Lithuania Sao Tome and Principe programme will include demonstrating technology aimed at
Antigua and Barbuda Ecuador Luxembourg Saudi Arabia reducing runway incursions. ■
Argentina Egypt Madagascar Senegal
Armenia El Salvador Malawi Seychelles
Australia Equatorial Guinea Malaysia Sierra Leone
Austria Eritrea Maldives Singapore
Azerbaijan Estonia Mali Slovakia Data link simulations
Bahamas Ethiopia Malta Slovenia
Bahrain Fiji Marshall Islands Solomon Islands continued from page 13
Bangladesh Finland Mauritania Somalia
Barbados France Mauritius South Africa
feature of partial ACM be retained rather than the monitoring
Belarus Gabon Mexico Spain RTF indication given when full ACM is used.
Belgium Gambia Micronesia Sri Lanka
Belize Georgia (Federated States of) Sudan The participants also stated that the FLIPCY service offered
Benin Germany Monaco Suriname a safety benefit as it provides early warning of discrepancies in
Bhutan Ghana Mongolia Swaziland
Bolivia Greece Morocco Sweden routings.
Bosnia and Grenada Mozambique Switzerland Summar y. The NATS simulations have shown that the com-
Herzegovina Guatemala Myanmar Syrian Arab Republic
Botswana Guinea Namibia Tajikistan bination of data link services generally resulted in a decrease in
Brazil Guinea-Bissau Nauru Thailand
Brunei Darussalam Guyana Nepal The former Yugoslav
controller workload. When simulated individually, the flight plan
Bulgaria Haiti Netherlands Republic of consistency service resulted in the largest workload reduction.
Burkina Faso Honduras New Zealand Macedonia
Burundi Hungary Nicaragua Togo The introduction of data link services in the simulation exer-
Cambodia Iceland Niger Tonga cises resulted in less time spent communicating via radiotele-
Cameroon India Nigeria Trinidad and Tobago
Canada Indonesia Norway Tunisia phony. This reduction was greatest when the implemented data
Cape Verde Iran (Islamic Oman Turkey link services were used in combination.
Central African Republic of) Pakistan Turkmenistan
Republic Iraq Palau Uganda The par ticipating controllers expressed concern about the
Chad Ireland Panama Ukraine response times involved in some data link communications. For
Chile Israel Papua New Guinea United Arab Emirates
China Italy Paraguay United Kingdom instance, the average time taken by flight crews to respond to
Colombia Jamaica Peru United Republic
Comoros Japan Philippines of Tanzania
an ACM instruction to change frequency ranged from 40 to 105
Congo Jordan Poland United States seconds, while the response via radiotelephony is virtually
Cook Islands Kazakhstan Portugal Uruguay
Costa Rica Kenya Qatar Uzbekistan instantaneous. The controllers indicated that they felt a change
Côte d’Ivoire Kiribati Republic of Korea Vanuatu in culture on the flight deck would be necessary before pilots
Croatia Kuwait Republic of Moldova Venezuela
Cuba Kyrgyzstan Romania Viet Nam would react to data link messages as quickly as they do to voice
Cyprus Lao People’s Russian Federation Yemen instructions.
Czech Republic Democratic Republic Rwanda Yugoslavia
Democratic People’s Latvia Saint Lucia Zambia Despite the concern about potential delays in crew response
Republic of Korea Lebanon Zimbabwe
times, the participating controllers stated that the data link
ICAO Headquarters Eastern and Southern North American, Central ser vices simulated would be suitable for per forming “house-
African Office American and Caribbean Office
999 University Street Nairobi, Kenya Mexico City, Mexico
keeping” tasks. They also concluded that potential safety bene-
Montreal, Quebec Sitatex: NBOCAYA Sitatex: MEXCAYA fits were offered by the data link ser vices, and pointed out that
Canada H3C 5H7 Facsimile: 011-254-2-226-706 Facsimile: 011-525-203-2757
Telephone: 514-954-8219 Telephone: 011-254-2-622-395 Telephone: 011-525-250-3211 the introduction of data link may require changes to the roles
Facsimile: 514-954-6077 E-mail: icao@icao.unon.org E-mail: icao_nacc@mexico.icao.int
E-mail: icaohq@icao.int
and responsibilities assumed by operational staff.
South American Office
Website: www.icao.int European and North Atlantic Of fice
Lima, Peru
Feedback from the participants indicates that they would like
Paris, France
Sitatex: PAREUYA Sitatex: LIMCAYA the FLIPCY service to evolve into a controller tool that not only
REGIONAL OFFICES Telex: 616 766 ICAO FRANCE Facsimile: 011-51-1-575-0974
Facsimile: 011-33-1-46418500 Telephone: 011-51-1-575-1646 detects discrepancies in aircraft routes but also enables the dis-
E-mail: mail@lima.icao.int
Asia and Pacific Office Telephone: 011-33-1-46418585 crepancies to be resolved. This could be achieved by providing
Bangkok, Thailand E-mail: icaoeurnat@paris.icao.int Western and Central
Sitatex: BKKCAYA African Office the ability to uplink the ground system route to the aircraft.
Telex: TH87969 ICAOBKK Middle East Office, Cairo, Egypt Dakar, Senegal
Facsimile: 011-662-537-8199 Sitatex: CAICAYA This recommendation has been relayed to the Eurocontrol
Sitatex: DKRCAYA
Telephone: 011-662 537-8189 Facsimile: 011-202-267-4843 Facsimile: 011-221-823-6926 group responsible for the operational definition of initial air-
E-mail: Telephone: 011-202-267-4841 Telephone: 011-221-839-9393
icao_apac@bangkok.icao.int E-mail: icaomid@cairo.icao.int E-mail: icaodkr@icao.sn/ ground data link communications — ODIAC — which initially
Web Site: www.cairo.icao.int
defined the services implemented by EOLIA. ■

42 ICAO JOURNAL