Intro To Map Week 1 PDF

UCL DEPARTMENT OF Civil Environmental and Geomatic Engineering
CEGEG034 Mapping Science
Introductions to Maps
based on Prof. Ian Dowman 2009
Dietmar Backes
Content of this lecture:
Fundamental definitions
Examples and Key-characteristics of maps
Methods of Mapping
Some accuracy measures for Maps
Geometric corrections and registrations of images

Terminology
Maps are traditionally paper documents.
Now the information which used to be depicted on a paper map is stored
in digital form.
Image maps are now very common e.g. Google Earth.
Subsequently we will use the term MAP to cover information stored in
both paper and digital form.
Digital data can be presented in paper form, but also in other ways such
as perspective views, but these can still be referred to as maps.
Remark:
This Lectures gives a first glimpse on key issues which will be discussed in
detail at later parts of this module.
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The role of Maps

A Map is a traditional method of recording and displaying objects and
their spatial location and distribution
Maps are an indispensable aid for everyone from a scientist to a traveller
It serves as a means of communicating the spatial relationship and the forms of the
objects
Many maps also give accurate location
Basic elements of a map

Location and attribute to that location
Location means where in space
Attribute means what is it about or quality of that location
Types of map
Based on the theme of the map
Based on the scale of the map
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Types of Maps
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Fit for Purpose

We need to assess weather maps are suitable for the
application in mind
We need to decide the best way to generate maps which satisfy
the requirements of the intended application
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Examples of different Maps and their key properties
An ancient map of a city in

Mesopotamia on a clay tablet
A section of first topographic map of Paris

(good horizontal accuracy poor vertical accuracy)
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Topographic Maps
Ordnance Survey 1:25 000
Ordnance Survey 1:50 000

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Scale of the Map
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Global Map with 8 Layers
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Google Earth/Maps
Data from different sources
Example of image maps, produced from aerial photographs and
satellite data
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Google Earth/Maps
Data acquired at different times
Multitemporal data collection

Seamlines in are a specific disadvantage of image maps
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Representing the 3rd dimension 2.5D elevation

The representations introduced so far are 2D. Heights can be
represented by:
Contours
Spot heights
Relief shading
Digital Elevation Models (DEMs)
(rasterised) digital elevation models are convenient for use in a

computer and can be displayed in many ways.
We call such representations 2.5 D
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2.5D DEM of a large area
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Representing the 3rd dimension 3D point clouds

Example: ATLAS - High resolution Laser Terrain mapping
The Helicopter mounted ATLAS
system collects approximately
30,000 3D data points per
second.
Flying at an altitude of 150m and
60kph this translates to a density
of 30 points per square metre on
the ground. A typical swath width
at this altitude is 60m
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This area is subject

to rapid technical
advances!
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Applications: 3D City Models
Rendered LiDAR point clouds

Examples by Infoterra
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Example Microsoft Virtual World (Bing maps)

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Example Virtual Berlin
courtesy of Prof. Kolbe
(in Google maps)
Today 3D visualisations are often

called 3D maps; however it is
more complex to represent and
model semantic information in 3D.
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Example Deformation maps:

DEMs showing differential movement using interferometric SAR (IfSAR)
Subsidence in urban areas
Fringe vectors superimposed

onto Landsat TM
4m total displacement detected
IZMIT Earthquake
Such maps providing millimetre precision

in heights
based on complex analysis of Satellite
imagery
Examples by fNPA
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Sources of Data
Existing maps
Existing maps are very useful source of data. Currency of the map with respect to
the dynamism of the theme of the map and the area has to be checked before
utilising the existing maps
Ground survey
Ground survey for some selected location or at random locations are required for
most of the surveying and mapping methods. Ground survey for the entire area is
also applicable for certain types of maps
Ground survey is often used to fix Ground Control Points
GPS (Global Positioning System) very useful
New Platforms and Mobile Mapping

Low flying unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and ground based vehicles are
currently developed and tested for rapid mapping. Such systems deploying a range
of sensors. Currency of information will be very high.
Aerial photographs
Currency of information available is high if the data is newly acquired
Satellite data
Currency of information available is high as the data is available on repeated
coverage
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Methods of Mapping
Conventional ground surveying
Using surveying and levelling instruments such as theodolites
and GPS receivers
Airborne and Spaceborne sensing
Aerial photographs - Photogrammetry

Satellite data
Lidar data
Radar data (radargrammetry)
Interferometric data
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Comparison of methods of mapping
Conventional Ground Surveying

Useful for highly accurate large scale maps
Highly labour intensive method and hence unsuitable for larger areal coverage and
unsuitable for small scale maps
Airborne sensing (e.g. Photogrammetry from aerial photographs)
Useful from large scale to small scale maps

Cost of data acquisition is high
High initial investment is required to derive maps
Requirement of specially trained labour
New techniques such as Lidar and Radar extend the scope
Space borne Sensing (e.g. Photogrammetry from satellite data)

Cost of data acquisition is comparatively cheaper
Suitable for medium scale to small scale maps
Suitable for updating the existing maps as the repeated coverage is available
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Accuracy of maps
Absolute accuracy
depends on a grid being present.
Related to the scale of the map. The horizontal accuracy is usually represented as
width of line as the smallest feature that can be interpreted from a map, which is
0.3 mm to 0.5 mm on the map.
hence on 1:50,000 map

0.3 mm to 0.5 mm = 15m to 25m
The horizontal accuracy of 1:50,000 map is 15m to 25m.
The vertical accuracy is usually represented with respect to the contour interval,
which in turn depends on the scale of the map and the type of the terrain.
The contour interval for 1:50,000 scale map is 20m and the vertical accuracy of
that map is 6m to 10m. The contour interval for 1:50000 scale map can be 10m
as well, if the terrain is relatively smoothly undulating and then the expected
accuracy of that map is 3m to 5m.
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Note
also Digital Elevation Models

Accuracy of maps
Relative accuracy
Accuracy of an object with reference to another object
irrespective of the absolute accuracy of either of the objects or
accuracy of one location with respect to another location in the
same map irrespective of absolute accuracy of either of the
locations
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Factors affecting the accuracy of the map

Scale
Method of compilation
Generalisation/presentation
Some features are omitted in the map
Some are exaggerated and presented
Some are approximated and presented
Generalisation / Presentation depends on the scale of the
map, type and purpose of the map
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Generalisation - effect of the Scale of the Map
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IGN 1:25,000
IGN 1:100,000
IGN 1:250,000
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Generalisation - Feature selection or elimination
1:10,000
1:25,000
1:50,000
1:100,000
Imhof (1968)
The concept of Mapping will be discussed in detail later in the course.
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Assessing accuracy
The accuracy can be determined by calculating the closeness of measured coordinates (on the map) to the true value. This is measured by root mean square error.
(v )
2
rmse
where v is the residual error and n is the number of points.
The precision of a set of observation - the closeness of measurements to each other is estimated by the standard deviation ():
(v v )
n 1
where v
n
is the mean difference
Reliability is a measure of accuracy given by the proportion of points which fall outside
a given limit. The rule of thumb usually applied is that 95% of points will have a
precision of 2 and 99% will have a precision of 3 .
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Absolute Accuracy of UK topographic maps from

Ordnance Survey
Scale and method of
original survey
Expected absolute accuracy

at differing confidence level
68%
95%
99%
1:1250
0.5m
0.8m
1.0m
1:2500
Resurveyed / reformed
1.1m
1.9m
2.4m
1:2500
overhaul
2.8m
4.8m
6.0m
1:10000
4.1m
7.1m
8.8m
The detail may be less accurate than these values.

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Relative Accuracy of UK topographic maps from

Ordnance Survey
Scale and method of
original survey
Expected relative accuracy at

differing confidence level
68%
95%
99%
1:1250
0.4m
0.8
1.0m
1:2500
Resurvey/reformed
1.1m
1.8m
2.3m
1:2500
Overhaul
1.2m
2.3m
3.0m
1:10000
3.5m
6.7m
8.8m
The detail may be less accurate than these values.

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Geometric correction and registration of earth

observation data for mapping (e.g. Satellite
images)
Motivation:
As seen in previous section, images collected by airborne
and space borne sensors but also from the Ground are an
efficient data source for mapping.
Fundamental Problem:
How can images, captured from a airborne camera, related to
the maps projected to the curved surface of our Earth?
Show Example!
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Geometric correction and registration of images

Mapping on the earth surface
A Spherical earth is presented on a two dimensional flat
paper map (most of the time), which needs projection
techniques
This projections cause some distortions will be discussed
in the Foundation module in detail
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Principles of image formation
A frame may be formed in three ways:
1.As a single exposure - that is with no significant movement of the sensor whilst
the image is formed as in the case of a frame camera.
2. As a series of lines almost normal to the track of the sensor. In this case a
single line can be considered without a time parameter but time must be
considered in constructing a full frame. The push broom scanners fall into this
category.
3. As a series of points each recorded at a separate time. This is the most
distorted type of image requiring the most complex mathematical model. The
scanner systems and microwave systems fall into this category.
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Single Exposure
With a central projection the whole image is exposed at once.
This ensures no distortion due to movement.
n
b
a
H
D
A
C
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Cross track (whisk broom) and
along track (pushbroom) scanners

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Sources of errors in airborne and satellite imagery
Effects caused by the earth:

earth rotation,
earth curvature,
relief.
Effects caused by movement of the platform:

position,
attitude.
Effects caused by the operation of the sensor:

panoramic effect,
rotation of the mirror,
non-linearity of the mirror movement.
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Effects due to the Earth
Earth rotation
imaged
recorded
Earth curvature
a a
a a = dr radial displacement
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Displacement due to relief
a
a'
aa/an = h/H
dr/r = h/H
dr = r.(h/H)
H
A
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Examples of relief distortion from various sensors
Sensor
1. Aerial camera with
f=150mmm
2. Metric camera on
Spacelab
f=300mm
3. Landsat
4. SPOT nadir
5. SPOT 27
Altitude (km)
10
Half swath (km)

4
dr for h= 500m
200
Pixels
133
250
90
180
705
830
830
90
30
450
64
18
271
2
2
27
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GEOMETRIC DISTORTIONS DUE TO EARTH ROTATION AND
MOVEMENT OF THE PLATFORM
Earth rotation
Pitch variation
Altitude variation
Roll variation
Spacecraft velocity
Yaw variation
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Correction of distortions
The systematic effects can be corrected by applying a mathematical
transformation based on polynomials
Error due to relief cannot be corrected by this method
Also known as rubber sheeting or rubber sheet wrapping
Use of these method requires ground control points (GCPs)
GCPs must be carefully selected and must be evenly distributed over
the image
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transforming image to map
Similarity transformation
Affine transformation
X ax by c
Y ax by d
X a0 a1 x a2 y
Y b0 b1 x b2 y
Polynomial transformation
X a0 a1 x a2 y a3 x 2 a4 y 2 a5
Y b0 b1 x b2 y b3 x 2 b4 y 2 b5
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2D Similarity transformation 4 Parameter
This transformation is to relate any two-dimensional rectangular co-ordinate
system to any other two-dimensional rectangular co-ordinate system. It preserves
the internal geometry of the transformed system. Two control points required
(minimum).
X = ax - by + c
Y = bx + ay + d
A similarity transformation is performed by applying:

- 1 scale factor ( m = (a2 + b2)),
- 1 rotation angle (tan = b/a),
- 2 translations (c and d).
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2D affine transformation 6 Parameter
An affine transformation enables adjustment to be applied independently in each
direction. Thus for scanner images, it corrects first-order distortions such as
affinity due to non-orthogonality and scale difference between scan along track
directions which may be caused by earth rotation, map projection and other
geometric distortions.
Three ground control points, at least, are required.
X = ao + a1x + a2y
Y = bo + b1x + b2y
A affine transformation is performed by applying:
- 2 scale factor,
- 2 rotation angle,
- 2 translations.
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Second-order Polynomials 12 Parameter
Polynomials in the form:
X = ao + a1x + a2y + a3x2 + a4y2 + a5xy

Y = bo + b1x + b2y + b3x2 + b4y2 + b5xy
If polynomials are used great care must be taken to ensure that a sufficient number of
control points are available and that they are distributed over the whole area to be
transformed. A minimum of six ground control points are necessary .
Additional terms may be added to equations 6 to correct for higher order distortions, the
need for care in use of control points is greater for higher orders.
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Resampling
In order to create a new, corrected, image it is necessary to transform each
pixel individually. The transformation will not generate integer values for the new
row and column positions in the corrected image, hence the density value from
the original image must be assigned to the nearest row and column position in
the new image. This is known as resampling.
Resampling is commonly carried out using
one of three methods:
1.NEAREST NEIGHBOUR
straightforward and computationally economic but
may produce shifts in position and poor visual impression.
1.BILINEAR INTERPOLATION
an acceptable compromise.
1.CUBIC CONVOLUTION
smooths the image but computationally intensive.
ALL RESAMPLING DEGRADES THE IMAGE TO SOME EXTENT.

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Exercises:
Following Practical's are offered on a voluntary
base:
Character and Key parameter of Maps
Image registration and Geo-referencing
Excel Spreadsheet transformation
Geo-referencing a image in ArcGIS
Information can be found on Moodle

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Any Questions ?
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UCL DEPARTMENT OF Civil Environmental and Geomatic Engineering

CEGEG034 Mapping Science

Content of this lecture:

UCL DEPARTMENT OF Civil Environmental and Geomatic Engineering

UCL DEPARTMENT OF Civil Environmental and Geomatic Engineering

The role of Maps

Basic elements of a map

UCL DEPARTMENT OF Civil Environmental and Geomatic Engineering

UCL DEPARTMENT OF Civil Environmental and Geomatic Engineering

Fit for Purpose

UCL DEPARTMENT OF Civil Environmental and Geomatic Engineering

Examples of different Maps and their key properties

An ancient map of a city in

A section of first topographic map of Paris

UCL DEPARTMENT OF Civil Environmental and Geomatic Engineering

Examples of different Maps and their key properties

UCL DEPARTMENT OF Civil Environmental and Geomatic Engineering

Examples of different Maps and their key properties

Ordnance Survey 1:25 000

Ordnance Survey 1:50 000

UCL DEPARTMENT OF Civil Environmental and Geomatic Engineering

Scale of the Map

UCL DEPARTMENT OF Civil Environmental and Geomatic Engineering

Global Map with 8 Layers

UCL DEPARTMENT OF Civil Environmental and Geomatic Engineering

UCL DEPARTMENT OF Civil Environmental and Geomatic Engineering

Multitemporal data collection

UCL DEPARTMENT OF Civil Environmental and Geomatic Engineering

Representing the 3rd dimension 2.5D elevation

(rasterised) digital elevation models are convenient for use in a

UCL DEPARTMENT OF Civil Environmental and Geomatic Engineering

2.5D DEM of a large area

UCL DEPARTMENT OF Civil Environmental and Geomatic Engineering

Representing the 3rd dimension 3D point clouds

This area is subject

UCL DEPARTMENT OF Civil Environmental and Geomatic Engineering

Applications: 3D City Models

Rendered LiDAR point clouds

UCL DEPARTMENT OF Civil Environmental and Geomatic Engineering

Applications: 3D City Models

Example Microsoft Virtual World (Bing maps)

UCL DEPARTMENT OF Civil Environmental and Geomatic Engineering

Applications: 3D City Models

Today 3D visualisations are often

UCL DEPARTMENT OF Civil Environmental and Geomatic Engineering

Example Deformation maps:

Fringe vectors superimposed

Such maps providing millimetre precision

UCL DEPARTMENT OF Civil Environmental and Geomatic Engineering

New Platforms and Mobile Mapping

UCL DEPARTMENT OF Civil Environmental and Geomatic Engineering

Airborne and Spaceborne sensing

Aerial photographs - Photogrammetry

UCL DEPARTMENT OF Civil Environmental and Geomatic Engineering

Comparison of methods of mapping

Conventional Ground Surveying

Airborne sensing (e.g. Photogrammetry from aerial photographs)

Useful from large scale to small scale maps

Space borne Sensing (e.g. Photogrammetry from satellite data)

UCL DEPARTMENT OF Civil Environmental and Geomatic Engineering

hence on 1:50,000 map

also Digital Elevation Models