Erosion Phe

4/9/2015
ErosionWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Erosion
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Ingeomorphologyandgeology,erosionistheactionofexogenic
processes(suchaswaterfloworwind)whichremovesoilandrock
fromonelocationontheEarth'scrust,thentransportittoanother
locationwhereitisdeposited.Erodedsedimentmaybetransported
justafewmillimetres,orforthousandsofkilometres.
Whileerosionisanaturalprocess,humanactivitieshaveincreased
by1040timestherateatwhicherosionisoccurringglobally.
Excessive(oraccelerated)erosioncausesboth'onsite'and'offsite'
problems.Onsiteimpactsincludedecreasesinagricultural
productivityand(onnaturallandscapes)ecologicalcollapse,both
becauseoflossofthenutrientrichuppersoillayers.Insomecases,
theeventualendresultisdesertification.Offsiteeffectsinclude
sedimentationofwaterwaysandeutrophicationofwaterbodies,as
wellassedimentrelateddamagetoroadsandhouses.Waterand
winderosionarethetwoprimarycausesoflanddegradation
combined,theyareresponsibleforabout84%oftheglobalextentof
degradedland,makingexcessiveerosiononeofthemostsignificant
environmentalproblemsworldwide.[1][2]
Anactivelyerodingrillonan
intensivelyfarmedfieldineastern
Germany
Intensiveagriculture,deforestation,roads,anthropogenicclimate
changeandurbansprawlareamongstthemostsignificanthuman
activitiesinregardtotheireffectonstimulatingerosion.[3]However,therearemanypreventionand
remediationpracticesthatcancurtailorlimiterosionofvulnerablesoils.
Contents
1Physicalprocesses
1.1Rainfallandsurfacerunoff
1.2Riversandstreams
1.3Coastalerosion
1.4Glaciers
1.5Floods
1.6Freezingandthawing
Anaturalarchproducedbythewind
erosionofdifferentiallyweathered
rockinJebelKharaz,Jordan.
1.7Winderosion
1.8Massmovement
1.9Exfoliation
1.10Lightningstrikes
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosion
1/20
4/9/2015
2Factorsaffectingerosionrates
2.1Climate
2.2Soilstructureandcomposition
2.3Vegetativecover
2.4Topography
3Humanactivitiesthatincreaseerosionrates
3.1Agriculturalpractices
3.2Deforestation
3.3Roadsandurbanization
3.4Climatechange
4Globalenvironmentaleffects
4.1Landdegradation
4.2Sedimentationofaquaticecosystems
Awavelikeseacliffproducedby
coastalerosion,inJinshitanCoastal
NationalGeopark,Dalian,Liaoning
Province,China.
4.3Airbornedustpollution
4.4Tectoniceffects
5Monitoring,measuringandmodelingerosion
6Preventionandremediation
7Seealso
8Notes
9Furtherreading
10Externallinks
Physicalprocesses
Rainfallandsurfacerunoff
Rainfall,andthesurfacerunoffwhichmayresultfromrainfall,
producesfourmaintypesofsoilerosion:splasherosion,sheet
erosion,rillerosion,andgullyerosion.Splasherosionisgenerally
seenasthefirstandleastseverestageinthesoilerosionprocess,
whichisfollowedbysheeterosion,thenrillerosionandfinally
gullyerosion(themostsevereofthefour).[4][5]
Insplasherosion,theimpactofafallingraindropcreatesasmall
craterinthesoil,[6]ejectingsoilparticles.Thedistancethesesoil
particlestravelcanbeasmuchas0.6m(twofeet)verticallyand1.5
m(fivefeet)horizontallyonlevelground.
Soilandwaterbeingsplashedbythe
impactofasingleraindrop.
2/20
4/9/2015
Ifthesoilissaturated,oriftherainfallrateisgreaterthantherateatwhichwatercaninfiltrateintothesoil,
surfacerunoffoccurs.Iftherunoffhassufficientflowenergy,itwilltransportloosenedsoilparticles
(sediment)downtheslope.[7]Sheeterosionisthetransportofloosenedsoilparticlesbyoverlandflow.[7]
Rillerosionreferstothedevelopmentofsmall,ephemeral
concentratedflowpathswhichfunctionasbothsedimentsourceand
sedimentdeliverysystemsforerosiononhillslopes.Generally,
wherewatererosionratesondisturbeduplandareasaregreatest,
rillsareactive.Flowdepthsinrillsaretypicallyoftheorderofa
fewcentimeters(aboutaninch)orlessandalongchannelslopes
maybequitesteep.Thismeansthatrillsexhibithydraulicphysics
verydifferentfromwaterflowingthroughthedeeper,wider
channelsofstreamsandrivers.[8]
Aspoiltipcoveredinrillsandgullies
duetoerosionprocessescausedby
rainfall:Rummu,Estonia
Gullyerosionoccurswhenrunoffwateraccumulatesandrapidlyflowsinnarrowchannelsduringor
immediatelyafterheavyrainsormeltingsnow,removingsoiltoaconsiderabledepth.[9][10][11]
Riversandstreams
Valleyorstreamerosionoccurswithcontinuedwaterflowalonga
linearfeature.Theerosionisbothdownward,deepeningthevalley,
andheadward,extendingthevalleyintothehillside,creatinghead
cutsandsteepbanks.Intheearlieststageofstreamerosion,the
erosiveactivityisdominantlyvertical,thevalleyshaveatypicalV
crosssectionandthestreamgradientisrelativelysteep.Whensome
baselevelisreached,theerosiveactivityswitchestolateralerosion,
whichwidensthevalleyfloorandcreatesanarrowfloodplain.The
streamgradientbecomesnearlyflat,andlateraldepositionof
sedimentsbecomesimportantasthestreammeandersacrossthe
valleyfloor.Inallstagesofstreamerosion,byfarthemosterosion
occursduringtimesofflood,whenmoreandfastermovingwateris
availabletocarryalargersedimentload.Insuchprocesses,itisnot
thewateralonethaterodes:suspendedabrasiveparticles,pebbles
andboulderscanalsoacterosivelyastheytraverseasurface,ina
processknownastraction.[12]
DobbingstoneBurn,ScotlandThis
photoillustratestwodifferenttypes
oferosionaffectingthesameplace.
Valleyerosionisoccurringduetothe
flowofthestream,andtheboulders
andstones(andmuchofthesoil)that
arelyingontheedgesareglacialtill
thatwasleftbehindasiceageglaciers
flowedovertheterrain.
Bankerosionisthewearingawayofthebanksofastreamorriver.
Thisisdistinguishedfromchangesonthebedofthewatercourse,
whichisreferredtoasscour.Erosionandchangesintheformofriverbanksmaybemeasuredbyinserting
metalrodsintothebankandmarkingthepositionofthebanksurfacealongtherodsatdifferenttimes.[13]
Thermalerosionistheresultofmeltingandweakeningpermafrostduetomovingwater.[14]Itcanoccur
bothalongriversandatthecoast.RapidriverchannelmigrationobservedintheLenaRiverofSiberiais
duetothermalerosion,astheseportionsofthebanksarecomposedofpermafrostcementednoncohesive
materials.[15]Muchofthiserosionoccursastheweakenedbanksfailinlargeslumps.Thermalerosionalso
3/20
4/9/2015
affectstheArcticcoast,wherewaveactionandnearshoretemperaturescombinetoundercutpermafrost
bluffsalongtheshorelineandcausethemtofail.Annualerosionratesalonga100kilometre(62mile)
segmentoftheBeaufortSeashorelineaveraged5.6metres(18feet)peryearfrom1955to2002.[16]
Coastalerosion
Shorelineerosion,whichoccursonbothexposedandsheltered
coasts,primarilyoccursthroughtheactionofcurrentsandwaves
butsealevel(tidal)changecanalsoplayarole.
Hydraulicactiontakesplacewhenairinajointissuddenly
compressedbyawaveclosingtheentranceofthejoint.Thisthen
cracksit.Wavepoundingiswhenthesheerenergyofthewave
Wavecutplatformcausedbyerosion
hittingtheclifforrockbreakspiecesoff.Abrasionorcorrasionis
ofcliffsbythesea,atSoutherndown
causedbywaveslaunchingsealoadatthecliff.Itisthemost
inSouthWales.
effectiveandrapidformofshorelineerosion(nottobeconfused
withcorrosion).Corrosionisthedissolvingofrockbycarbonic
acidinseawater.Limestonecliffsareparticularlyvulnerabletothiskindoferosion.Attritioniswhere
particles/sealoadcarriedbythewavesareworndownastheyhiteachotherandthecliffs.Thisthenmakes
thematerialeasiertowashaway.Thematerialendsupasshingleandsand.Anothersignificantsourceof
erosion,particularlyoncarbonatecoastlines,istheboring,scrapingandgrindingoforganisms,aprocess
termedbioerosion.[17]
Sedimentistransportedalongthecoastinthedirectionoftheprevailingcurrent(longshoredrift).Whenthe
upcurrentamountofsedimentislessthantheamountbeingcarriedaway,erosionoccurs.Whenthe
upcurrentamountofsedimentisgreater,sandorgravelbankswilltendtoformasaresultofdeposition.
Thesebanksmayslowlymigratealongthecoastinthedirectionofthelongshoredrift,alternately
protectingandexposingpartsofthecoastline.Wherethereisabendinthecoastline,quiteoftenabuildup
oferodedmaterialoccursformingalongnarrowbank(aspit).Armouredbeachesandsubmergedoffshore
sandbanksmayalsoprotectpartsofacoastlinefromerosion.Overtheyears,astheshoalsgraduallyshift,
theerosionmayberedirectedtoattackdifferentpartsoftheshore.
Glaciers
Glacierserodepredominantlybythreedifferentprocesses:
abrasion/scouring,plucking,andicethrusting.Inanabrasion
process,debrisinthebasalicescrapesalongthebed,polishingand
gougingtheunderlyingrocks,similartosandpaperonwood.
Glacierscanalsocausepiecesofbedrocktocrackoffintheprocess
ofplucking.Inicethrusting,theglacierfreezestoitsbed,thenasit
surgesforward,itmoveslargesheetsoffrozensedimentatthebase
alongwiththeglacier.Thismethodproducedsomeofthemany
thousandsoflakebasinsthatdottheedgeoftheCanadianShield.
Theerosioncausedbyglaciersworldwideerodesmountainsso
effectivelythatthetermglacialbuzzsawhasbecomewidelyused,
whichdescribesthelimitingeffectofglaciersontheheightof
mountainranges.[18]Asmountainsgrowhigher,theygenerally
GlacialmorainesaboveLakeLouise,
inAlberta,Canada.
4/20
4/9/2015
allowformoreglacialactivity(especiallyintheaccumulationzoneabovetheglacialequilibriumline
altitude),[19]whichcausesincreasedratesoferosionofthemountain,decreasingmassfasterthanisostatic
reboundcanaddtothemountain.[20]Thisprovidesagoodexampleofanegativefeedbackloop.Ongoing
researchisshowingthatwhileglacierstendtodecreasemountainsize,insomeareas,glacierscanactually
reducetherateoferosion,actingasaglacialarmor.[18]
Theseprocesses,combinedwitherosionandtransportbythewaternetworkbeneaththeglacier,leave
moraines,drumlins,groundmoraine(till),kames,kamedeltas,moulins,andglacialerraticsintheirwake,
typicallyattheterminusorduringglacierretreat.
Floods
Atextremelyhighflows,kolks,orvorticesareformedbylargevolumesofrapidlyrushingwater.Kolks
causeextremelocalerosion,pluckingbedrockandcreatingpotholetypegeographicalfeaturescalledRock
cutbasins.ExamplescanbeseeninthefloodregionsresultfromglacialLakeMissoula,whichcreatedthe
channeledscablandsintheColumbiaBasinregionofeasternWashington.[21]
Freezingandthawing
Coldweathercauseswatertrappedintinyrockcrackstofreezeandexpand,breakingtherockintoseveral
pieces.Thiscanleadtogravityerosiononsteepslopes.Thescreewhichformsatthebottomofasteep
mountainsideismostlyformedfrompiecesofrock(soil)brokenawaybythismeans.Itisacommon
engineeringproblemwhereverrockcliffsarealongsideroads,becausemorningthawscandrophazardous
rockpiecesontotheroad.
Winderosion
Winderosionisamajorgeomorphologicalforce,especiallyinarid
andsemiaridregions.Itisalsoamajorsourceoflanddegradation,
evaporation,desertification,harmfulairbornedust,andcropdamage
especiallyafterbeingincreasedfarabovenaturalratesbyhuman
activitiessuchasdeforestation,urbanization,andagriculture.[22][23]
Winderosionisoftwoprimaryvarieties:deflation,wherethewind
picksupandcarriesawaylooseparticlesandabrasion,where
surfacesareworndownastheyarestruckbyairborneparticles
carriedbywind.Deflationisdividedintothreecategories:(1)
rboldePiedra,arockformationin
surfacecreep,wherelarger,heavierparticlesslideorrollalongthe
theAltiplano,Boliviasculptedby
ground(2)saltation,whereparticlesareliftedashortheightinto
winderosion.
theair,andbounceandsaltateacrossthesurfaceofthesoiland(3)
suspension,whereverysmallandlightparticlesareliftedintothe
airbythewind,andareoftencarriedforlongdistances.Saltationisresponsibleforthemajority(5070%)
ofwinderosion,followedbysuspension(3040%),andthensurfacecreep(525%).[24][25]
5/20
4/9/2015
Winderosionismuchmoresevereinaridareasandduringtimesofdrought.Forexample,intheGreat
Plains,itisestimatedthatsoillossduetowinderosioncanbeasmuchas6100timesgreaterindrought
yearsthaninwetyears.[26]
Massmovement
Massmovementisthedownwardandoutwardmovementofrock
andsedimentsonaslopedsurface,mainlyduetotheforceof
gravity.[27][28]
Massmovementisanimportantpartoftheerosionalprocess,andis
oftenthefirststageinthebreakdownandtransportofweathered
materialsinmountainousareas.[29]Itmovesmaterialfromhigher
elevationstolowerelevationswhereothererodingagentssuchas
streamsandglacierscanthenpickupthematerialandmoveitto
evenlowerelevations.Massmovementprocessesarealways
WadiinMakhteshRamon,Israel,
occurringcontinuouslyonallslopessomemassmovement
showinggravitycollapseerosionon
processesactveryslowlyothersoccurverysuddenly,oftenwith
itsbanks.
disastrousresults.Anyperceptibledownslopemovementofrockor
sedimentisoftenreferredtoingeneraltermsasalandslide.
However,landslidescanbeclassifiedinamuchmoredetailedwaythatreflectsthemechanismsresponsible
forthemovementandthevelocityatwhichthemovementoccurs.Oneofthevisibletopographical
manifestationsofaveryslowformofsuchactivityisascreeslope.
Slumpinghappensonsteephillsides,occurringalongdistinctfracturezones,oftenwithinmaterialslikeclay
that,oncereleased,maymovequiterapidlydownhill.Theywilloftenshowaspoonshapedisostatic
depression,inwhichthematerialhasbeguntoslidedownhill.Insomecases,theslumpiscausedbywater
beneaththeslopeweakeningit.Inmanycasesitissimplytheresultofpoorengineeringalonghighways
whereitisaregularoccurrence.
Surfacecreepistheslowmovementofsoilandrockdebrisbygravitywhichisusuallynotperceptible
exceptthroughextendedobservation.However,thetermcanalsodescribetherollingofdislodgedsoil
particles0.5to1.0mm(0.02to0.04in)indiameterbywindalongthesoilsurface.
Exfoliation
Exfoliationisatypeoferosionthatoccurswhenarockisrapidlyheatedupbythesun.Thisresultsinthe
expansionoftherock.Whenthetemperaturedecreasesagain,therockcontracts,causingpiecesoftherock
tobreakoff.Exfoliationoccursmainlyindesertsduetothehightemperaturesduringthedayandcold
temperaturesatnight.[30]
Lightningstrikes
Whenwaterincrackedrockisrapidlyheatedbyalightningstrike,theresultingsteamexplosioncancause
rockdisintegrationandshiftboulders.Itmaybeasignificantfactorinerosionoftropicalandsubtropical
mountainsthathaveneverbeenglaciated.Evidenceoflightningstrikesincludecraters,partiallymelted
rockanderraticmagneticfields.[31]
6/20
4/9/2015
Factorsaffectingerosionrates
Climate
Theamountandintensityofprecipitationisthemainclimaticfactorgoverningsoilerosionbywater.The
relationshipisparticularlystrongifheavyrainfalloccursattimeswhen,orinlocationswhere,thesoil's
surfaceisnotwellprotectedbyvegetation.Thismightbeduringperiodswhenagriculturalactivitiesleave
thesoilbare,orinsemiaridregionswherevegetationisnaturallysparse.Winderosionrequiresstrong
winds,particularlyduringtimesofdroughtwhenvegetationissparseandsoilisdry(andsoismore
erodible).Otherclimaticfactorssuchasaveragetemperatureandtemperaturerangemayalsoaffect
erosion,viatheireffectsonvegetationandsoilproperties.Ingeneral,givensimilarvegetationand
ecosystems,areaswithmoreprecipitation(especiallyhighintensityrainfall),morewind,ormorestorms
areexpectedtohavemoreerosion.
Insomeareasoftheworld(e.g.themidwesternUSA),rainfallintensityistheprimarydeterminantof
erosivity,withhigherintensityrainfallgenerallyresultinginmoresoilerosionbywater.Thesizeand
velocityofraindropsisalsoanimportantfactor.Largerandhighervelocityraindropshavegreaterkinetic
energy,andthustheirimpactwilldisplacesoilparticlesbylargerdistancesthansmaller,slowermoving
raindrops.[32]
Inotherregionsoftheworld(e.g.westernEurope),runoffanderosionresultfromrelativelylowintensities
ofstratiformrainfallfallingontopreviouslysaturatedsoil.Insuchsituations,rainfallamountratherthan
intensityisthemainfactordeterminingtheseverityofsoilerosionbywater.[33]
Soilstructureandcomposition
Thecomposition,moisture,andcompactionofsoilareallmajor
factorsindeterminingtheerosivityofrainfall.Sedimentscontaining
moreclaytendtobemoreresistanttoerosionthanthosewithsand
orsilt,becausetheclayhelpsbindsoilparticlestogether.[34]Soil
containinghighlevelsoforganicmaterialsareoftenmoreresistant
toerosion,becausetheorganicmaterialscoagulatesoilcolloidsand
createastronger,morestablesoilstructure.[35]Theamountofwater
presentinthesoilbeforetheprecipitationalsoplaysanimportant
role,becauseitsetslimitsontheamountofwaterthatcanbe
absorbedbythesoil(andhencepreventedfromflowingonthe
Erosionalgullyinunconsolidated
surfaceaserosiverunoff).Wet,saturatedsoilswillnotbeableto
DeadSea(Israel)sedimentsalongthe
absorbasmuchrainwater,leadingtohigherlevelsofsurfacerunoff
southwesternshore.Thisgullywas
[35][36]
excavatedbyfloodsfromtheJudean
andthushighererosivityforagivenvolumeofrainfall.
Soil
Mountainsinlessthanayear.
compactionalsoaffectsthepermeabilityofthesoiltowater,and
hencetheamountofwaterthatflowsawayasrunoff.More
compactedsoilswillhavealargeramountofsurfacerunoffthanlesscompactedsoils.[35]
Vegetativecover
7/20
4/9/2015
Vegetationactsasaninterfacebetweentheatmosphereandthesoil.Itincreasesthepermeabilityofthesoil
torainwater,thusdecreasingrunoff.Itsheltersthesoilfromwinds,whichresultsindecreasedwind
erosion,aswellasadvantageouschangesinmicroclimate.Therootsoftheplantsbindthesoiltogether,and
interweavewithotherroots,formingamoresolidmassthatislesssusceptibletobothwaterandwind
erosion.Theremovalofvegetationincreasestherateofsurfaceerosion.[37]
Topography
Thetopographyofthelanddeterminesthevelocityatwhichsurfacerunoffwillflow,whichinturn
determinestheerosivityoftherunoff.Longer,steeperslopes(especiallythosewithoutadequatevegetative
cover)aremoresusceptibletoveryhighratesoferosionduringheavyrainsthanshorter,lesssteepslopes.
Steeperterrainisalsomorepronetomudslides,landslides,andotherformsofgravitationalerosion
processes.[38][39][40]
Humanactivitiesthatincreaseerosionrates
Agriculturalpractices
Unsustainableagriculturalpracticesarethesinglegreatest
contributortotheglobalincreaseinerosionrates.[41]Thetillageof
agriculturallands,whichbreaksupsoilintofinerparticles,isoneof
theprimaryfactors.Theproblemhasbeenexacerbatedinmodern
times,duetomechanizedagriculturalequipmentthatallowsfor
deepplowing,whichseverelyincreasestheamountofsoilthatis
availablefortransportbywatererosion.Othersincludemono
cropping,farmingonsteepslopes,pesticideandchemicalfertilizer
usage(whichkillorganismsthatbindsoiltogether),rowcropping,
andtheuseofsurfaceirrigation.[42][43]Acomplexoverallsituation
Tilledfarmlandsuchasthisisvery
withrespecttodefiningnutrientlossesfromsoils,couldariseasa
susceptibletoerosionfromrainfall,
resultofthesizeselectivenatureofsoilerosionevents.Lossoftotal
duetothedestructionofvegetative
phosphorus,forinstance,inthefinererodedfractionisgreater
coverandthelooseningofthesoil
[44]
duringplowing.
relativetothewholesoil. Extrapolatingthisevidencetopredict
subsequentbehaviourwithinreceivingaquaticsystems,thereasonis
thatthismoreeasilytransportedmaterialmaysupportalowersolutionPconcentrationcomparedtocoarser
sizedfractions.[45]Tillagealsoincreaseswinderosionrates,bydehydratingthesoilandbreakingitupinto
smallerparticlesthatcanbepickedupbythewind.Exacerbatingthisisthefactthatmostofthetreesare
generallyremovedfromagriculturalfields,allowingwindstohavelong,openrunstotraveloverathigher
speeds.[46]Heavygrazingreducesvegetativecoverandcausesseveresoilcompaction,bothofwhich
increaseerosionrates.[47]
Deforestation
Inanundisturbedforest,themineralsoilisprotectedbyalayerofleaflitterandanhumusthatcoverthe
forestfloor.Thesetwolayersformaprotectivematoverthesoilthatabsorbstheimpactofraindrops.They
areporousandhighlypermeabletorainfall,andallowrainwatertoslowpercolateintothesoilbelow,
8/20
4/9/2015
insteadofflowingoverthesurfaceasrunoff.[48]Therootsofthetreesandplants[49]holdtogethersoil
particles,preventingthemfrombeingwashedaway.[48]Thevegetativecoveractstoreducethevelocityof
theraindropsthatstrikethefoliageandstemsbeforehittingthe
ground,reducingtheirkineticenergy.[50]Howeveritistheforest
floor,morethanthecanopy,thatpreventssurfaceerosion.The
terminalvelocityofraindropsisreachedinabout8metres(26feet).
Becauseforestcanopiesareusuallyhigherthanthis,raindropscan
oftenregainterminalvelocityevenafterstrikingthecanopy.
However,theintactforestfloor,withitslayersofleaflitterand
organicmatter,isstillabletoabsorbtheimpactoftherainfall.[50][51]
Deforestationcausesincreasederosionratesduetoexposureof
mineralsoilbyremovingthehumusandlitterlayersfromthesoil
surface,removingthevegetativecoverthatbindssoiltogether,and
causingheavysoilcompactionfromloggingequipment.Oncetrees
havebeenremovedbyfireorlogging,infiltrationratesbecomehigh
anderosionlowtothedegreetheforestfloorremainsintact.Severe
firescanleadtosignificantfurthererosioniffollowedbyheavy
rainfall.[52]
Inthisclearcut,almostallofthe
vegetationhasbeenstrippedfrom
surfaceofsteepslopes,inanarea
withveryheavyrains.Severeerosion
occursincasessuchasthis,causing
streamsedimentationandthelossof
nutrientrichtopsoil.
Globallyoneofthelargestcontributorstoerosivesoillossintheyear2006istheslashandburntreatment
oftropicalforests.Inanumberofregionsoftheearth,entiresectorsofacountryhavebeenrendered
unproductive.Forexample,ontheMadagascarhighcentralplateau,comprisingapproximatelytenpercent
ofthatcountry'slandarea,virtuallytheentirelandscapeissterileofvegetation,withgullyerosivefurrows
typicallyinexcessof50metres(160ft)deepand1kilometre(0.6miles)wide.Shiftingcultivationisa
farmingsystemwhichsometimesincorporatestheslashandburnmethodinsomeregionsoftheworld.
Thisdegradesthesoilandcausesthesoiltobecomelessandlessfertile.
Roadsandurbanization
Urbanizationhasmajoreffectsonerosionprocessesfirstbydenudingthelandofvegetativecover,
alteringdrainagepatterns,andcompactingthesoilduringconstructionandnextbycoveringthelandinan
impermeablelayerofasphaltorconcretethatincreasestheamountofsurfacerunoffandincreasessurface
windspeeds.[53]Muchofthesedimentcarriedinrunofffromurbanareas(especiallyroads)ishighly
contaminatedwithfuel,oil,andotherchemicals.[54]Thisincreasedrunoff,inadditiontoerodingand
degradingthelandthatitflowsover,alsocausesmajordisruptiontosurroundingwatershedsbyalteringthe
volumeandrateofwaterthatflowsthroughthem,andfillingthemwithchemicallypollutedsedimentation.
Theincreasedflowofwaterthroughlocalwaterwaysalsocausesalargeincreaseintherateofbank
erosion.[55]
Climatechange
Thewarmeratmospherictemperaturesobservedoverthepastdecadesareexpectedtoleadtoamore
vigoroushydrologicalcycle,includingmoreextremerainfallevents.[56]Theriseinsealevelsthathas
occurredasaresultofclimatechangehasalsogreatlyincreasedcoastalerosionrates.[57][58]
9/20
4/9/2015
Studiesonsoilerosionsuggestthatincreasedrainfallamountsandintensitieswillleadtogreaterratesof
erosion.Thus,ifrainfallamountsandintensitiesincreaseinmanypartsoftheworldasexpected,erosion
willalsoincrease,unlessameliorationmeasuresaretaken.Soilerosionratesareexpectedtochangein
responsetochangesinclimateforavarietyofreasons.Themostdirectisthechangeintheerosivepower
ofrainfall.Otherreasonsinclude:a)changesinplantcanopycausedbyshiftsinplantbiomassproduction
associatedwithmoistureregimeb)changesinlittercoveronthegroundcausedbychangesinbothplant
residuedecompositionratesdrivenbytemperatureandmoisturedependentsoilmicrobialactivityaswellas
plantbiomassproductionratesc)changesinsoilmoistureduetoshiftingprecipitationregimesandevapo
transpirationrates,whichchangesinfiltrationandrunoffratiosd)soilerodibilitychangesduetodecrease
insoilorganicmatterconcentrationsinsoilsthatleadtoasoilstructurethatismoresusceptibletoerosion
andincreasedrunoffduetoincreasedsoilsurfacesealingandcrustinge)ashiftofwinterprecipitation
fromnonerosivesnowtoerosiverainfallduetoincreasingwintertemperaturesf)meltingofpermafrost,
whichinducesanerodiblesoilstatefromapreviouslynonerodibleoneandg)shiftsinlandusemade
necessarytoaccommodatenewclimaticregimes.
StudiesbyPruskiandNearingindicatedthat,otherfactorssuchaslandusenotconsidered,itisreasonable
toexpectapproximatelya1.7%changeinsoilerosionforeach1%changeintotalprecipitationunder
climatechange.[59]
Globalenvironmentaleffects
Duetotheseverityofitsecologicaleffects,andthe
scaleonwhichitisoccurring,erosionconstitutes
oneofthemostsignificantglobalenvironmental
problemswefacetoday.[2]
Landdegradation
Waterandwinderosionarenowthetwoprimary
causesoflanddegradationcombined,theyare
responsiblefor84%ofdegradedacreage.[1]
Eachyear,about75billiontonsofsoiliseroded
Worldmapindicatingareasthatarevulnerabletohigh
fromthelandaratethatisabout1340timesas
ratesofwatererosion.
fastasthenaturalrateoferosion.[62]Approximately
40%oftheworld'sagriculturallandisseriously
degraded.[63]AccordingtotheUnitedNations,anareaoffertilesoilthesizeofUkraineislosteveryyear
becauseofdrought,deforestationandclimatechange.[64]InAfrica,ifcurrenttrendsofsoildegradation
continue,thecontinentmightbeabletofeedjust25%ofitspopulationby2025,accordingtoUNU's
GhanabasedInstituteforNaturalResourcesinAfrica.[65]
Thelossofsoilfertilityduetoerosionisfurtherproblematicbecausetheresponseisoftentoapply
chemicalfertilizers,whichleadstofurtherwaterandsoilpollution,ratherthantoallowthelandto
regenerate.[66]
Sedimentationofaquaticecosystems
10/20
4/9/2015
Soilerosion(especiallyfromagriculturalactivity)isconsideredto
betheleadingglobalcauseofdiffusewaterpollution,duetothe
effectsoftheexcesssedimentsflowingintotheworld'swaterways.
Thesedimentsthemselvesactaspollutants,aswellasbeingcarriers
forotherpollutants,suchasattachedpesticidemoleculesorheavy
metals.[67]
Theeffectofincreasedsedimentsloadsonaquaticecosystemscan
becatastrophic.Siltcansmotherthespawningbedsoffish,by
fillinginthespacebetweengravelonthestreambed.Italsoreduces
theirfoodsupply,andcausesmajorrespiratoryissuesforthemas
sedimententerstheirgills.Thebiodiversityofaquaticplantand
algallifeisreduced,andinvertebratesarealsounabletosurviveand
reproduce.Whilethesedimentationeventitselfmightberelatively
shortlived,theecologicaldisruptioncausedbythemassdieoff
oftenpersistslongintothefuture.[68]
Duringthe17thand18thcenturies,
EasterIslandexperiencedsevere
erosionduetodeforestationand
unsustainableagriculturalpractices.
Theresultinglossoftopsoil
ultimatelyledtoecologicalcollapse,
causingmassstarvationandthe
completedisintegrationoftheEaster
[60][61]
Islandcivilization.
Oneofthemostseriousandlongrunningwatererosionproblems
worldwideisinthePeople'sRepublicofChina,onthemiddle
reachesoftheYellowRiverandtheupperreachesoftheYangtzeRiver.FromtheYellowRiver,over1.6
billiontonsofsedimentflowsintotheoceaneachyear.Thesedimentoriginatesprimarilyfromwater
erosionintheLoessPlateauregionofthenorthwest.
Airbornedustpollution
Soilparticlespickedupduringwinderosionareamajorsourceofairpollution,intheformofairborne
particulates"dust".Theseairbornesoilparticlesareoftencontaminatedwithtoxicchemicalssuchas
pesticidesorpetroleumfuels,posingecologicalandpublichealthhazardswhentheylaterland,orare
inhaled/ingested.[69][70][71][72]
Dustfromerosionactstosuppressrainfallandchangestheskycolorfrombluetowhite,whichleadstoan
increaseinredsunsets.Dusteventshavebeenlinkedtoadeclineinthehealthofcoralreefsacrossthe
CaribbeanandFlorida,primarilysincethe1970s.[73]SimilardustplumesoriginateintheGobidesert,
whichcombinedwithpollutants,spreadlargedistancesdownwind,oreastward,intoNorthAmerica.[74]
Tectoniceffects
Theremovalbyerosionoflargeamountsofrockfromaparticularregion,anditsdepositionelsewhere,can
resultinalighteningoftheloadonthelowercrustandmantle.Thiscancausetectonicorisostaticupliftin
theregion.[75][76]
Monitoring,measuringandmodelingerosion
Monitoringandmodelingoferosionprocessescanhelpusbetterunderstandthecauses,makepredictions,
andplanhowtoimplementpreventativeandrestorativestrategies.However,thecomplexityoferosion
processesandthenumberofareasthatmustbestudiedtounderstandandmodelthem(e.g.climatology,
11/20
4/9/2015
hydrology,geology,chemistry,physics,etc.)makesaccuratemodellingquitechallenging.[77][78]Erosion
modelsarealsononlinear,whichmakesthemdifficulttoworkwithnumerically,andmakesitdifficultor
impossibletoscaleuptomakingpredictionsaboutlargeareasfromdatacollectedbysamplingsmaller
plots.[79]
Themostcommonlyusedmodelforpredictingsoillossfromwater
erosionistheUniversalSoilLossEquation(USLE),which
estimatestheaverageannualsoilloss as:[80]
whereRistherainfallerosivityfactor
Terracingisanancienttechniquethat
cansignificantlyslowtherateof
watererosiononcultivatedslopes.
(http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/library/themes/erosion/RainfallErosivity/),Kisthesoilerodibilityfactor
(http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/library/themes/erosion/Erodibility/),LandSaretopographicfactors
representinglengthandslope,andCandParecroppingmanagementfactors.Anewsoilerosionmodel
namedG2monitorssoilerosionbyaspatiotemporalindex.G2
(http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/library/themes/erosion/G2/data.html)isadynamicmodel,asittakesaccount
ofcontemporarychangesofrainfallerosivityandvegetationretention.BasedontheempiricalUSLE
familymodels,itneedscalibrationforrainstormerosivity,whilevegetationretentionisbasedon
biophysicalparametersderivedwithremotesensing.Erosionismeasuredandfurtherunderstoodusing
toolssuchasthemicroerosionmeter(MEM)andthetraversingmicroerosionmeter(TMEM).TheMEM
hasprovedhelpfulinmeasuringbedrockerosioninvariousecosystemsaroundtheworld.Itcanmeasure
bothterrestrialandoceanicerosion.Ontheotherhand,theTMEMcanbeusedtotracktheexpandingand
contractingofvolatilerockformationsandcangiveareadingofhowquicklyarockformationis
deteriorating.
Preventionandremediation
Themosteffectiveknownmethodforerosionpreventionistoincreasevegetativecoverontheland,which
helpspreventbothwindandwatererosion.[81]Terracingisanextremelyeffectivemeansoferosioncontrol,
whichhasbeenpracticedforthousandsofyearsbypeopleallovertheworld.[82]Windbreaks(alsocalled
shelterbelts)arerowsoftreesandshrubsthatareplantedalongtheedgesofagriculturalfields,toshieldthe
fieldsagainstwinds.[83]Inadditiontosignificantlyreducingwinderosion,windbreaksprovidemanyother
benefitssuchasimprovedmicroclimatesforcrops(whichareshelteredfromthedehydratingandotherwise
damagingeffectsofwind),habitatforbeneficialbirdspecies,[84]carbonsequestration,[85]andaesthetic
improvementstotheagriculturallandscape.[86][87]Traditionalplantingmethods,suchasmixedcropping
(insteadofmonocropping)andcroprotationhavealsobeenshowntosignificantlyreduceerosion
rates.[88][89]
Seealso
12/20
4/9/2015
Awindbreak(therowoftrees)
plantednexttoanagriculturalfield,
actingasashieldagainststrong
winds.Thisreducestheeffectsof
winderosion,andprovidesmany
otherbenefits.
Badland
Biorhexistasy
Bridgescour
Cellularconfinement
Coastalsedimentsupply
Denudation
Foodsecurity
Geomorphology
Groundwatersapping
Highlyerodibleland
Icejacking
Lessivage
Marineterrace
Riparianstrips
Riveranticlines
Sedimenttransport
Spaceweathering
Sphericityscale
TERON(Tillageerosion)
Vegetationandslopestability
VetiverSystem
Notes
1. Blanco,Humberto&Lal,Rattan(2010)."Soilandwaterconservation".PrinciplesofSoilConservationand
13/20
4/9/2015
Management(http://books.google.com/books?id=Wj3690PbDY0C&pg=PA2).Springer.p.2.ISBN97890481
85290.
2. Toy,TerrenceJ.etal(2002).SoilErosion:Processes,Prediction,Measurement,andControl
(http://books.google.com/books?id=7YBaKZ28j0C&pg=PA1).JohnWiley&Sons.p.1.ISBN9780471
383697.
3. Julien,PierreY.(2010).ErosionandSedimentation(http://books.google.com/books?
id=Gv72uiVmWEYC&pg=PA1).CambridgeUniversityPress.p.1.ISBN9780521537377.
4. Toy,TerrenceJ.etal(2002).SoilErosion:Processes,Prediction,Measurement,andControl
(http://books.google.com/books?id=7YBaKZ28j0C&pg=PA60).JohnWiley&Sons.pp.6061.ISBN9780
471383697.
5. Zachar,Duan(1982)."Classificationofsoilerosion".SoilErosion(http://books.google.com/books?
id=o8ny2dUkpM8C&pg=PA48).Vol.10.Elsevier.p.48.ISBN9780444997258.
6. seeFig.4inObreschkow(2011)."ConfinedShocksinsideIsolatedLiquidVolumesANewPathofErosion?"
(http://arxiv.org/abs/1109.3175).PhysicsofFluids.
7. FoodandAgricultureOrganization(1965)."Typesoferosiondamage".SoilErosionbyWater:SomeMeasures
forItsControlonCultivatedLands(http://books.google.com/books?id=6KeL3ix6ZqQC&pg=PA23).United
Nations.pp.2325.ISBN9789251004746.
8. Nearing,M.A.,Norton,L.D.,Bulgakov,D.A.,Larionov,G.A.,West,L.T.andDontsova,K.M.(1997).
Hydraulicsanderosioninerodingrills.WaterResourcesResearch33(4),865876.
9. Poesen,Jeanetal.(2007)."GullyerosioninEurope".InBoardman,John&Poesen,Jean.SoilErosionin
Europe(http://books.google.com/books?id=vvOFRskFunwC&pg=PA516).JohnWiley&Sons.pp.516519.
ISBN9780470859117.
10. Poesen,Jeanetal.(2002)."Gullyerosionindrylandenvironments".InBull,LouiseJ.&Kirby,M.J.Dryland
Rivers:HydrologyandGeomorphologyofSemiAridChannels(http://books.google.com/books?
id=qjHoYZXQee0C&pg=PA229).JohnWiley&Sons.ISBN9780471491231.
11. Borah,DevaK.etal(2008)."Watershedsedimentyield".InGarcia,MarceloH.SedimentationEngineering:
Processes,Measurements,Modeling,andPractice(http://books.google.com/books?
id=1AsypwBUa_wC&pg=PA828).ASCEPublishing.p.828.ISBN9780784408148.
12. Ritter,MichaelE.(2006)"GeologicWorkofStreams"
(http://www4.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/fluvial_systems/geologic_work_of_streams.html)The
PhysicalEnvironment:anIntroductiontoPhysicalGeographyUniversityofWisconsin,OCLC79006225
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/79006225)
13. NancyD.Gordon(20040601)."ErosionandScour".Streamhydrology:anintroductionforecologists
(http://books.google.com/?id=_PJHwhSKGgC&pg=PA113).ISBN9780470843574.
14. "ThermalErosion"(http://nsidc.org/cgibin/words/word.pl?thermal%20erosion).NSIDCGlossary.National
SnowandIceDataCenter.Archived(http://www.webcitation.org/5uLakeCcx)fromtheoriginalon20101118.
Retrieved21December2009.
15. Costard,F.Dupeyrat,L.Gautier,E.CareyGailhardis,E.(2003)."Fluvialthermalerosioninvestigationsalong
arapidlyerodingriverbank:applicationtotheLenaRiver(centralSiberia)".EarthSurfaceProcessesand
Landforms28(12):1349.Bibcode:2003ESPL...28.1349C(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003ESPL...28.1349C).
doi:10.1002/esp.592(https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fesp.592).
16. Jones,B.M.Hinkel,K.M.,Arp,C.D.andEisner,W.R.(2008)."ModernErosionRatesandLossofCoastal
14/20
4/9/2015
16. Jones,B.M.Hinkel,K.M.,Arp,C.D.andEisner,W.R.(2008)."ModernErosionRatesandLossofCoastal
FeaturesandSites,BeaufortSeaCoastline,Alaska"
(http://arctic.synergiesprairies.ca/arctic/index.php/arctic/article/view/44/115).Arctic(ArcticInstituteofNorth
America)61(4):361372.doi:10.14430/arctic44(https://dx.doi.org/10.14430%2Farctic44).
17. Glynn,PeterW."Bioerosionandcoralreefgrowth:adynamicbalance."Lifeanddeathofcoralreefs(1997):68
95.
18. StuartN.Thomson,MarkT.Brandon,JonathanH.Tomkin,PeterW.Reiners,CristinVsquez,NathanielJ.
Wilson.Glaciationasadestructiveandconstructivecontrolonmountainbuilding.Nature,2010467(7313):313
DOI:10.1038/nature09365
19. Tomkin,J.H.&Roe,G.H.Climateandtectoniccontrolsonglaciatedcriticaltaperorogens.EarthPlanet.Sci.
Lett.262,385397(2007)
20. Mitchell,S.G.&Montgomery,D.R.Influenceofaglacialbuzzsawontheheightandmorphologyofthe
CascadeRangeincentralWashingtonState,USA.Quat.Res.65,96107(2006)
21. See,forexample:Alt,David(2001).GlacialLakeMissoula&itsHumongousFloods
(http://books.google.com/books?id=s4y3c8fxeEwC).MountainPress.ISBN9780878424153.
22. Zheng,Xiaojing&Huang,Ning(2009).MechanicsofWindBlownSandMovements
(http://books.google.com/books?id=R6kYrbA3XSAC&pg=PA7).Springer.pp.78.ISBN9783540882534.
23. Cornelis,WimS.(2006)."Hydroclimatologyofwinderosioninaridandsemiaridenvironments".InD'Odorico,
Paolo&Porporato,Amilcare.DrylandEcohydrology(http://books.google.com/books?
id=rUsUPZbFHK8C&pg=PA141).Springer.p.141.ISBN9781402042614.
24. Blanco,Humberto&Lal,Rattan(2010)."Winderosion".PrinciplesofSoilConservationandManagement
(http://books.google.com/books?id=Wj3690PbDY0C&pg=PA57).Springer.pp.5657.ISBN978904818529
0.
25. Balba,A.Monem(1995)."Desertification:Winderosion".ManagementofProblemSoilsinAridEcosystems
(http://books.google.com/books?id=uS62XNzDZDsC&pg=PA214).CRCPress.p.214.ISBN978087371811
0.
26. Wiggs,GilesF.S.(2011)."Geomorphologicalhazardsindrylands".InThomas,DavidS.G.AridZone
Geomorphology:Process,FormandChangeinDrylands(http://books.google.com/books?
id=swz4rh4KaLYC&pg=PA588).JohnWiley&Sons.p.588.ISBN9780470710760.
27. VanBeek,Rens(2008)."Hillsideprocesses:masswasting,slopestability,anderosion".InNorris,JoanneE.et
al.SlopeStabilityandErosionControl:EcotechnologicalSolutions(http://books.google.com/books?
id=YWPcffxM_A0C&pg=PA17).Springer.ISBN9781402066757.
28. Gray,DonaldH.&Sotir,RobbinB.(1996)."Surficialerosionandmassmovement".BiotechnicalandSoil
BioengineeringSlopeStabilization:APracticalGuideforErosionControl(http://books.google.com/books?
id=kCbp6IvFHrAC&pg=20).JohnWiley&Sons.p.20.ISBN9780471049784.
29. Nichols,Gary(2009).SedimentologyandStratigraphy(http://books.google.com/books?
id=zl4L7WqXvogC&pg=PA93).JohnWiley&Sons.p.93.ISBN9781405193795.
30. See:Glennie,K.W.(1970)."Deserterosionanddeflation".DesertSedimentaryEnvironments,Volume14
(http://books.google.com/books?id=VvAdX7hhfCYC&pg=PA15).Elsevier.ISBN9780444408501.
31. "ShockingNews:LightningCanShapeaMountain!"(http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/01/140105
lightningmountainssouthafricadrakensbergmountainsgeology/).NationalGeographicSociety.January5,
2014.
32. Blanco,Humberto&Lal,Rattan(2010)."Watererosion".PrinciplesofSoilConservationandManagement
15/20
4/9/2015
0.
33. Boardman,John&Poesen,Jean.SoilErosioninEurope.JohnWiley&Sons.ISBN9780470859117
34. Mirsal,IbrahimA.(2008)."Soildegradation".SoilPollution:Origin,Monitoring&Remediation
(http://books.google.com/books?id=Lr5bMTxom0IC&pg=PA100).Springer.p.100.ISBN9783540707752.
(http://books.google.com/books?id=Wj3690PbDY0C&pg=PA29).Springer.p.29.ISBN9789048185290.
36. Torri,D.(1996)."Slope,aspectandsurfacestorage".InAgassi,Menachem.SoilErosion,Conservation,and
Rehabilitation(http://books.google.com/books?id=AqdSMDSUIgC&pg=PA95).CRCPress.p.95.ISBN978
0824789848.
37. Styczen,M.E.&Morgan,R.P.C.(1995)."Engineeringpropertiesofvegetation".InMorgan,R.P.C.&Rickson,
R.Jane.SlopeStabilizationandErosionControl:ABioengineeringApproach(http://books.google.com/books?
id=3jXg9pyfikQC&pg=4).Taylor&Francis.ISBN9780419156307.
38. Whisenant,SteveG.(2008)."Terrestrialsystems".InPerrowMichaelR.&Davy,AnthonyJ.Handbookof
EcologicalRestoration:PrinciplesofRestoration(http://books.google.com/books?
id=moJHjZ9qW_8C&pg=PA89).CambridgeUniversityPress.p.89.ISBN9780521049832.
0.
40. Wainwright,John&Brazier,RichardE.(2011)."Slopesystems".InThomas,DavidS.G.AridZone
Geomorphology:Process,FormandChangeinDrylands(http://books.google.com/books?
id=swz4rh4KaLYC&pg=PA209).JohnWiley&Sons.ISBN9780470710760.
41. Committeeon21stCenturySystemsAgriculture(2010).TowardSustainableAgriculturalSystemsinthe21st
Century(http://books.google.com/books?id=wdm4qMW1azgC&pg=PT88).NationalAcademiesPress.
ISBN9780309148962.
42. Blanco,Humberto&Lal,Rattan(2010)."Tillageerosion".PrinciplesofSoilConservationandManagement
(http://books.google.com/books?id=Wj3690PbDY0C&pg=PA109).Springer.ISBN9789048185290.
43. Lobb,D.A.(2009)."Soilmovementbytillageandotheragriculturalactivities".InJorgenson,SvenE.
ApplicationsinEcologicalEngineering(http://books.google.com/books?id=aRKO6ZazC8UC&pg=PA247).
AcademicPress.ISBN9780444534484.
44. Poirier,S.C.Whalen,J.K.,Michaud,A.R.(2012)."Bioavailablephosphorusinfinesizedsedimentstransported
fromagriculturalfields".SoilScienceSocietyofAmericaJournal76(1):258267.doi:10.2136/sssaj2010.0441
(https://dx.doi.org/10.2136%2Fsssaj2010.0441).
45. Scalenghe,R.,Edwards,A.C.,andBarberis,E.(2007)."Phosphoruslossinoverfertilizedsoils:TheselectiveP
partitioningandredistributionbetweenparticlesizeseparates".EuropeanJournalofAgronomy27(11):7280.
doi:10.1016/j.eja.2007.02.002(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.eja.2007.02.002).
46. Whitford,WalterG.(2002)."Windandwaterprocesses".EcologyofDesertSystems
(http://books.google.com/books?id=OZ4hZbXS8IcC&pg=PA65).AcademicPress.p.65.ISBN978012
7472614.
47. Imeson,Anton(2012)."Humanimpactondegradationprocesses".Desertification,LandDegradationand
Sustainability(http://books.google.com/books?id=BjJQYi7kNsC&pg=PA165).JohnWiley&Sons.p.165.
16/20
4/9/2015
ISBN9781119977766.
48. Sands,Roger(2005)."Theenvironmentalvalueofforests".ForestryinaGlobalContext
(http://books.google.com/books?id=UO1DAI60IQEC&pg=PA74).CABI.pp.7475.ISBN9780851990897.
49. Themyceliaofforestfungialsoplayamajorroleinbindingsoilparticlestogether.
50. Goudie,Andrew(2000)."Thehumanimpactonthesoil".TheHumanImpactontheNaturalEnvironment
(http://books.google.com/books?id=r8lDMj3XTgC&pg=PA188).MITPress.p.188.ISBN9780262571388.
51. Stuart,GordonW.&Edwards,PamelaJ.(2006)."Conceptsaboutforestsandwater"
(http://treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/14744).NorthernJournalofAppliedForestry23(1).
52. Goudie,Andrew(2000)."Thehumanimpactonthesoil".TheHumanImpactontheNaturalEnvironment
(http://books.google.com/books?id=r8lDMj3XTgC&pg=PA196).MITPress.pp.196197.ISBN9780262
571388.
53. Nr,Dov(1983).Man,aGeomorphologicalAgent:AnIntroductiontoAnthropicGeomorphology
(http://books.google.com/books?id=3HSCQvZ7U2kC&pg=PA121).Springer.pp.121122.ISBN97890277
14015.
54. Randhir,TimothyO.(2007).WatershedManagement:IssuesandApproaches(http://books.google.com/books?
id=PNBlSPdu0JAC&pg=PA56).IWAPublishing.p.56.ISBN9781843391098.
55. James,William(1995)."Channelandhabitatchangedownstreamofurbanization".InHerricks,EdwinE.&
Jenkins,JackieR.StormwaterRunoffandReceivingSystems:Impact,Monitoring,andAssessment
(http://books.google.com/books?id=X0xt9HZbyToC&pg=PA105).CRCPress.p.105.ISBN978156670159
4.
56. IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)(1995)."SecondAssessmentSynthesisofScientific
TechnicalInformationrelevanttointerpretingArticle2oftheUNFrameworkConventiononClimateChange"
(http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/climatechanges1995/2ndassessmentsynthesis.pdf).p.5.
57. Bicknell,Janeetal,ed.(2009).AdaptingCitiestoClimateChange:UnderstandingandAddressingthe
DevelopmentChallenges(http://books.google.com/books?id=77Kmhw6sVOMC&pg=PA114).Earthscan.p.114.
ISBN9781844077458.
58. Foranoverviewofotherhumanactivitiesthathaveincreasedcoastalerosionrates,see:Goudie,Andrew(2000).
"Acceleratedcoastalerosion".TheHumanImpactontheNaturalEnvironment(http://books.google.com/books?
id=r8lDMj3XTgC&pg=PA311).MITPress.p.311.ISBN9780262571388.
59. Pruski,F.F.Nearing,M.A.(2002)."Runoffandsoillossresponsestochangesinprecipitation:acomputer
simulationstudy"(http://www.jswconline.org/content/57/1/7.abstract).JournalofSoilandWaterConservation
57(1):716.
60. Dangerfield,Whitney(April1,2007)."TheMysteryofEasterIsland"(http://www.smithsonianmag.com/people
places/The_Mystery_of_Easter_Island.html).SmithsonianMagazine.
61. Montgomery,David(October2,2008)."Islandsintime".Dirt:TheErosionofCivilizations
(http://books.google.com/books?id=HSu8r15nnoC&pg=PA217)(1sted.).UniversityofCaliforniaPress.
ISBN9780520258068.
62. Zuazo,VictorH.D.&Pleguezuelo,CarmenR.R.(2009)."Soilerosionandrunoffpreventionbyplantcovers:a
review".InLichtfouse,Ericetal.Sustainableagriculture(http://books.google.com/books?id=7cP
2jIIO2wC&pg=PA785).Springer.p.785.ISBN9789048126651.
63. Sample,Ian(August30,2007)."Globalfoodcrisisloomsasclimatechangeandpopulationgrowthstripfertile
land"(http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2007/aug/31/climatechange.food).TheGuardian.
17/20
4/9/2015
land"(http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2007/aug/31/climatechange.food).TheGuardian.
64. Smith,Kate&Edwards,Rob(March8,2008)."2008:Theyearofglobalfoodcrisis"
(http://www.heraldscotland.com/2008theyearofglobalfoodcrisis1.828546).TheHerald(Scotland).
65. Africamaybeabletofeedonly25%ofitspopulationby2025(http://news.mongabay.com/2006/1214unu.html)
66. Potter,KennethW.etal(2004)."ImpactsofagricultureonaquaticecosystemsinthehumidUnitedStates".In
DeFries,RuthS.etal.EcosystemsAndLandUseChange(http://books.google.com/books?
id=CVN5X57pjnAC&pg=PA34).AmericanGeophysicalUnion.p.34.ISBN9780875904184.
67. DaCunha,L.V.(1991)."Sustainabledevelopmentofwaterresources".InBau,Joo.IntegratedApproachesto
WaterPollutionProblems:ProceedingsoftheInternationalSymposium(SISIPPA)(Lisbon,Portugal1923
June1989)(http://books.google.com/books?id=79ztZNhaNvMC&pg=PA12).Taylor&Francis.pp.1213.
ISBN9781851666591.
68. Merrington,Graham(2002)."Soilerosion".AgriculturalPollution:EnvironmentalProblemsandPractical
Solutions(http://books.google.com/books?id=ITFYBiQ_VAC&pg=PA77).Taylor&Francis.pp.7778.
ISBN9780419213901.
69. Majewski,MichaelS.&Capel,PaulD.(1996).PesticidesintheAtmosphere:Distribution,Trends,and
GoverningFactors(http://books.google.com/books?id=T9pRfLqXajQC&pg=PA121).CRCPress.p.121.
ISBN9781575040042.
70. ScienceDaily(19990714)."AfricanDustCalledAMajorFactorAffectingSoutheastU.S.AirQuality"
(http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1999/07/990714073433.htm).Retrieved20070610.
71. Nowell,LisaH.etal(1999).PesticidesinStreamSedimentandAquaticBiota:Distribution,Trends,and
GoverningFactors(http://books.google.com/books?id=UzpDTEO3ZVcC&pg=PA199).CRCPress.p.199.
ISBN9781566704694.
72. Shao,Yaping(2008)."Winderosionandwinderosionresearch".PhysicsandModellingofWindErosion
(http://books.google.com/books?id=XSwwVeraxjcC&pg=PA3).Springer.p.3.ISBN9781402088940.
73. U.S.GeologicalSurvey(2006)."CoralMortalityandAfricanDust"(http://coastal.er.usgs.gov/african_dust/).
Retrieved20070610.
74. JamesK.B.Bishop,RussE.Davis,andJeffreyT.Sherman(2002)."RoboticObservationsofDustStorm
EnhancementofCarbonBiomassintheNorthPacific"(http://www
ocean.lbl.gov/people/bishop/bishoppubs/paparobots.html).Science298.pp.817821.Archived
(http://www.webcitation.org/5uLajGMw8)fromtheoriginalon20101118.Retrieved20090620.
75. Nichols,Gary(2009).SedimentologyandStratigraphy(http://books.google.com/books?
id=zl4L7WqXvogC&pg=PA99)(2nded.).JohnWiley&Sons.p.99.ISBN9781405193795.
76. Burbank,DouglasW.&Anderson,RobertS.(2011)."Tectonicandsurfaceupliftrates".Tectonic
Geomorphology(http://books.google.com/books?id=83FuAvtSwE4C&pg=PT270).JohnWiley&Sons.pp.270
271.ISBN9781444345049.
77. Blanco,Humberto&Lal,Rattan(2010)."Modelingwaterandwinderosion".PrinciplesofSoilConservation
andManagement(http://books.google.com/books?id=Wj3690PbDY0C&pg=PA81).Springer.ISBN97890481
85290.
78. Seealso:Shai,Yaping(2008).PhysicsandModellingofWindErosion(http://books.google.com/books?
id=XSwwVeraxjcC).Springer.ISBN9781402088940.andHarmon,RussellS.&Doe,WilliamW.(2001).
LandscapeErosionandEvolutionModeling(http://books.google.com/books?id=RltaPlIHlrAC).Springer.
ISBN9780306467189.
79. Brazier,R.E.etal(2011)."Scalingsoilerosionmodelsinspaceandtime".InMorgan,RoystonP.C.&Nearing,
18/20
4/9/2015
79. Brazier,R.E.etal(2011)."Scalingsoilerosionmodelsinspaceandtime".InMorgan,RoystonP.C.&Nearing,
Mark.HandbookofErosionModelling(http://books.google.com/books?id=pSO4X3XbhJIC&pg=PA100).John
Wiley&Sons.p.100.ISBN9781405190107.
80. Ward,AndrewD.&Trimble,StanleyW.(2004)."Soilconservationandsedimentbudgets".Environmental
Hydrology(http://books.google.com/books?id=yANwmTjf588C&pg=PA259).CRCPress.p.259.ISBN9781
566706162.
81. Connor,DavidJ.etal(2011).CropEcology:ProductivityandManagementinAgriculturalSystems
(http://books.google.com/books?id=O2eh7vyvuscC&pg=PA351).CambridgeUniversityPress.p.351.
ISBN9780521744034.
82. Foraninterestingarchaeological/historicalsurveyofterracingsystems,seeTreacy,JohnM.&Denevan,William
M.(1998)."Thecreationofcultivablelandthroughterracing".InMiller,NaomiA.TheArchaeologyofGarden
andField(http://books.google.com/books?id=MARsWXbqFCsC&pg=PA91).UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress.
ISBN9780812216417.
83. Forman,RichardT.T.(1995)."Windbreaks,hedgerows,andwoodlandcorridors".LandMosaics:TheEcology
ofLandscapesandRegions(http://books.google.com/books?id=sSRNU_5P5nwC&pg=PA177).Cambridge
UniversityPress.ISBN9780521479806.
84. Johnson,R.J.etal(2011)."Globalperspectivesonbirdsinagriculturallandscapes".InCampbell,W.Bruce&
Ortiz,SilviaLopez.IntegratingAgriculture,ConservationandEcotourism:ExamplesfromtheField
(http://books.google.com/books?id=85KuKnayVMEC&pg=PA76).Springer.p.76.ISBN9789400713086.
85. Udawatta,RanjithP.&Shibu,Jose(2011)."Carbonsequestrationpotentialofagroforestrypracticesintemperate
NorthAmerica".InKumar,B.Mohan&Nair,P.K.R.CarbonSequestrationPotentialofAgroforestrySystems:
OpportunitiesandChallenges(http://books.google.com/books?id=oDzvVdD_dHwC&pg=PA35).Springer.
pp.3536.ISBN9789400716292.
86. Blanco,Humberto&Lal,Rattan(2010)."Winderosion".PrinciplesofSoilConservationandManagement
(http://books.google.com/books?id=Wj3690PbDY0C&pg=PA69).Springer.p.69.ISBN9789048185290.
87. Nair,P.K.R.(1993).AnIntroductiontoAgroforestry(http://books.google.com/books?
id=CkVSeRpmIx8C&pg=PA333).Springer.pp.333338.ISBN9780792321354.
88. Lal,Rattan(1995).TillageSystemsintheTropics:ManagementOptionsandSustainabilityImplications,Issue
71(http://books.google.com/books?id=Cxxj2VczLG0C&pg=PA157).FoodandAgricultureOrganizationofthe
UnitedNations.pp.157160.ISBN9789251037768.
89. Seealso:Gajri,P.R.etal(2002).Tillageforsustainablecropping(http://books.google.com/books?
id=i_acg2gACb8C).PsychologyPress.ISBN9781560229032.andUri,NoelD.(1999).ConservationTillage
inUnitedStatesAgriculture(http://books.google.com/books?id=2uPYFG3XLoEC).PsychologyPress.
ISBN9781560228844.
Furtherreading
Boardman,JohnPoesen,Jean(2006).SoilerosioninEurope.Wiley.ISBN9780470859100.
Montgomery,David(October2,2008).Dirt:TheErosionofCivilizations(http://books.google.com/books?
id=HSu8r15nnoC)(1sted.).UniversityofCaliforniaPress.ISBN9780520258068.
Montgomery,DavidR.(2007)Soilerosionandagriculturalsustainability
19/20
4/9/2015
(http://www.pnas.org/content/104/33/13268.abstract)PNAS104:1326813272.
Brown,JasonDrake,Simon(2009).ClassicErosion.Wiley.
Vanoni,VitoA.(ed.)."Thenatureofsedimentationproblems".SedimentationEngineering
(http://books.google.com/books?id=TxGTDYz_FnwC&pg=PA1).ASCEPublications.ISBN9780784408230.
MainguetM.&DumayF.,2011.Fightingwinderosion.Oneaspectofthecombatagainstdesertification.Les
dossiersthmatiquesduCSFD.N3.May2011.CSFD/AgropolisInternational,Montpellier,France.44pp.
(http://www.csfdesertification.eu/dossier/item/fightingwinderosion)
Externallinks
TheSoilErosionSite(http://www.soilerosion.net/)
InternationalErosionControlAssociation(http://www.ieca.org/)
SoilErosionData(http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/library/themes/erosion/)intheEuropeanSoilPortal
USDANationalSoilErosionLaboratory(http://www.ars.usda.gov/main/site_main.htm?
modecode=36021500)
TheSoilandWaterConservationSociety(http://www.swcs.org/)
Retrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erosion&oldid=655393080"
Categories: Erosion Soilscience Agronomy Industrialagriculture Environmentalsoilscience
Environmentalissues Desertification
Thispagewaslastmodifiedon7April2015,at19:29.
TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmay
apply.Byusingthissite,youagreetotheTermsofUseandPrivacyPolicy.Wikipediaisa
registeredtrademarkoftheWikimediaFoundation,Inc.,anonprofitorganization.
20/20

Erosion Phe

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Erosion Phe

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

4/9/2015

Potrebbero piacerti anche