Volcano Phe

4/9/2015
VolcanoWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Volcano
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Avolcanoisaruptureonthecrustofaplanetarymassobject,such
asEarth,thatallowshotlava,volcanicash,andgasestoescapefrom
amagmachamberbelowthesurface.
Earth'svolcanoesoccurbecauseitscrustisbrokeninto17major,
rigidtectonicplatesthatfloatonahotter,softerlayerinits
mantle.[1]Therefore,onEarth,volcanoesaregenerallyfoundwhere
tectonicplatesaredivergingorconverging.Forexample,amid
oceanicridge,suchastheMidAtlanticRidge,hasvolcanoescaused
bydivergenttectonicplatespullingapartthePacificRingofFire
hasvolcanoescausedbyconvergenttectonicplatescomingtogether.
Volcanoescanalsoformwherethereisstretchingandthinningof
thecrust'sinteriorplates,e.g.,intheEastAfricanRiftandtheWells
GrayClearwatervolcanicfieldandRioGrandeRiftinNorth
America.Thistypeofvolcanismfallsundertheumbrellaof"plate
hypothesis"volcanism.[2]Volcanismawayfromplateboundaries
hasalsobeenexplainedasmantleplumes.Thesesocalled
"hotspots",forexampleHawaii,arepostulatedtoarisefrom
upwellingdiapirswithmagmafromthecoremantleboundary,
3,000kmdeepintheEarth.Volcanoesareusuallynotcreatedwhere
twotectonicplatesslidepastoneanother.
Eruptingvolcanoescanposemanyhazards,notonlyinthe
immediatevicinityoftheeruption.Onesuchhazardisthatvolcanic
ashcanbeathreattoaircraft,inparticularthosewithjetengines
whereashparticlescanbemeltedbythehighoperating
temperaturethemeltedparticlesthenadheretotheturbineblades
andaltertheirshape,disruptingtheoperationoftheturbine.Large
eruptionscanaffecttemperatureasashanddropletsofsulfuricacid
obscurethesunandcooltheEarth'sloweratmosphere(or
troposphere)however,theyalsoabsorbheatradiatedupfromthe
Earth,therebywarmingtheupperatmosphere(orstratosphere).
Historically,socalledvolcanicwintershavecausedcatastrophic
famines.
ClevelandVolcanointheAleutian
IslandsofAlaskaphotographedfrom
theInternationalSpaceStation,May
2006
Ashplumesreachedaheightof19
kilometres(12mi)duringthe
climacticexplosiveeruptionatMount
Pinatubo,Philippinesin1991.
Contents
1Etymology
2Platetectonics
A2007eruptivecolumnatMount
Etnaproducingvolcanicash,pumice
andlavabombs
2.1Divergentplateboundaries
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcano
1/19
4/9/2015
2.2Convergentplateboundaries
2.3"Hotspots"
3Volcanicfeatures
3.1Fissurevents
3.2Shieldvolcanoes
3.3Lavadomes
3.4Cryptodomes
3.5Volcaniccones(cindercones)
UbinasVolcano
3.6Stratovolcanoes(compositevolcanoes)
3.7Supervolcanoes
3.8Submarinevolcanoes
3.9Subglacialvolcanoes
3.10Mudvolcanoes
4Eruptedmaterial
4.1Lavacomposition
4.2Lavatexture
MountShasta
5Volcanicactivity
5.1Popularclassificationofvolcanoes
5.1.1Active
5.1.2Extinct
5.1.3Dormant
5.2Technicalclassificationofvolcanoes
5.2.1Volcanicalertlevel
5.2.2VolcanowarningschemesoftheUnited
States
6Decadevolcanoes
7Effectsofvolcanoes
7.1Volcanicgases
7.2Significantconsequences
SantaAnaVolcano,ElSalvador,a
closeupaerialviewofthenested
summitcalderasandcraters,along
withthecraterlakeasseenfroma
UnitedStatesAirForceC130
HerculesflyingaboveElSalvador.
7.3Acidrain
7.4Hazards
8Volcanoesonotherplanetarybodies
9Traditionalbeliefsaboutvolcanoes
10Seealso
11References
12Furtherreading
2/19
4/9/2015
13Externallinks
Etymology
ThewordvolcanoisderivedfromthenameofVulcano,avolcanicislandintheAeolianIslandsofItaly
whosenameinturnoriginatesfromVulcan,thenameofagodoffireinRomanmythology.[3]Thestudyof
volcanoesiscalledvolcanology,sometimesspelledvulcanology.
Platetectonics
Divergentplateboundaries
Atthemidoceanicridges,twotectonic
platesdivergefromoneanotherasnew
oceaniccrustisformedbythecoolingand
solidifyingofhotmoltenrock.Becausethe
crustisverythinattheseridgesduetothe
pullofthetectonicplates,thereleaseof
pressureleadstoadiabaticexpansionand
thepartialmeltingofthemantle,causing
volcanismandcreatingnewoceaniccrust.
Mapshowingthedivergentplateboundaries(OSROceanic
Mostdivergentplateboundariesareatthe
SpreadingRidges)andrecentsubaerialvolcanoes
bottomoftheoceanstherefore,most
volcanicactivityissubmarine,formingnew
seafloor.Blacksmokers(alsoknownasdeepseavents)areanexampleofthiskindofvolcanicactivity.
Wherethemidoceanicridgeisabovesealevel,volcanicislandsareformed,forexample,Iceland.
Convergentplateboundaries
Subductionzonesareplaceswheretwoplates,usuallyanoceanicplateandacontinentalplate,collide.In
thiscase,theoceanicplatesubducts,orsubmergesunderthecontinentalplateformingadeepoceantrench
justoffshore.Inaprocesscalledfluxmelting,waterreleasedfromthesubductingplatelowersthemelting
temperatureoftheoverlyingmantlewedge,creatingmagma.Thismagmatendstobeveryviscousdueto
itshighsilicacontent,sooftendoesnotreachthesurfaceandcoolsatdepth.Whenitdoesreachthe
surface,avolcanoisformed.TypicalexamplesofthiskindofvolcanoareMountEtnaandthevolcanoesin
thePacificRingofFire.
"Hotspots"
"Hotspots"isthenamegiventovolcanicareasbelievedtobeformedbymantleplumes,whichare
hypothesizedtobecolumnsofhotmaterialrisingfromthecoremantleboundaryinafixedspacethat
causeslargevolumemelting.Becausetectonicplatesmoveacrossthem,eachvolcanobecomesdormant
andiseventuallyreformedastheplateadvancesoverthepostulatedplume.TheHawaiianIslandshave
3/19
4/9/2015
beensuggestedtohavebeenformedinsuchamanner,aswellastheSnakeRiverPlain,withthe
YellowstoneCalderabeingthepartoftheNorthAmericanplatecurrentlyabovethehotspot.Thistheoryis
currentlyundercriticism,however.[2]
Volcanicfeatures
Themostcommonperceptionofavolcanoisofaconicalmountain,
spewinglavaandpoisonousgasesfromacrateratitssummit
however,thisdescribesjustoneofthemanytypesofvolcano.The
featuresofvolcanoesaremuchmorecomplicatedandtheirstructure
andbehaviordependsonanumberoffactors.Somevolcanoeshave
ruggedpeaksformedbylavadomesratherthanasummitcrater
whileothershavelandscapefeaturessuchasmassiveplateaus.
Ventsthatissuevolcanicmaterial(includinglavaandash)andgases
(mainlysteamandmagmaticgases)candevelopanywhereonthe
landformandmaygiverisetosmallerconessuchasPuuona
flankofHawaii'sKlauea.Othertypesofvolcanoinclude
cryovolcanoes(oricevolcanoes),particularlyonsomemoonsof
Jupiter,Saturn,andNeptuneandmudvolcanoes,whichare
formationsoftennotassociatedwithknownmagmaticactivity.
Activemudvolcanoestendtoinvolvetemperaturesmuchlower
thanthoseofigneousvolcanoesexceptwhenthemudvolcanois
actuallyaventofanigneousvolcano.
LakagigarfissureventinIceland,
sourceofthemajorworldclimate
alterationof178384
Fissurevents
Volcanicfissureventsareflat,linearfracturesthroughwhichlava
emerges.
Shieldvolcanoes
Skjaldbreiur,ashieldvolcanowhose
namemeans"broadshield"
Shieldvolcanoes,sonamedfortheirbroad,shieldlikeprofiles,areformedbytheeruptionoflowviscosity
lavathatcanflowagreatdistancefromavent.Theygenerallydonotexplodecatastrophically.Sincelow
viscositymagmaistypicallylowinsilica,shieldvolcanoesaremorecommoninoceanicthancontinental
settings.TheHawaiianvolcanicchainisaseriesofshieldcones,andtheyarecommoninIceland,aswell.
Lavadomes
Lavadomesarebuiltbysloweruptionsofhighlyviscouslava.Theyaresometimesformedwithinthe
craterofapreviousvolcaniceruption,asinthecaseofMountSaintHelens,butcanalsoform
independently,asinthecaseofLassenPeak.Likestratovolcanoes,theycanproduceviolent,explosive
eruptions,buttheirlavagenerallydoesnotflowfarfromtheoriginatingvent.
Cryptodomes
4/19
4/9/2015
Cryptodomesareformedwhenviscouslavaisforcedupwardcausingthesurfacetobulge.The1980
eruptionofMountSt.Helenswasanexamplelavabeneaththesurfaceofthemountaincreatedanupward
bulgewhichsliddownthenorthsideofthemountain.
Volcaniccones(cindercones)
Volcanicconesorcinderconesresultfromeruptionsofmostly
smallpiecesofscoriaandpyroclastics(bothresemblecinders,
hencethenameofthisvolcanotype)thatbuilduparoundthevent.
Thesecanberelativelyshortlivederuptionsthatproduceacone
shapedhillperhaps30to400metershigh.Mostcinderconeserupt
onlyonce.Cinderconesmayformasflankventsonlarger
volcanoes,oroccurontheirown.ParcutininMexicoandSunset
CraterinArizonaareexamplesofcindercones.InNewMexico,
CajadelRioisavolcanicfieldofover60cindercones.
Basedonsatelliteimagesitwassuggestedthatcinderconesmight
occuronotherterrestrialbodiesintheSolarsystemtooonthe
surfaceofMarsandtheMoon.[4][5][6][7]
Stratovolcanoes(compositevolcanoes)
Izalco(volcano)locatedinthe
CordilleradeApanecavolcanicrange
complexinElSalvador,onlyafew
generationsold,istheyoungestand
mostwellknownconevolcano.
Izalcoeruptedalmostcontinuously
from1770(whenitformed)to1958,
earningitthenicknameof
"LighthouseofthePacific".
Stratovolcanoesorcompositevolcanoesaretallconicalmountains
composedoflavaflowsandotherejectainalternatelayers,the
stratathatgivesrisetothename.Stratovolcanoesarealsoknownas
compositevolcanoesbecausetheyarecreatedfrommultiplestructuresduringdifferentkindsoferuptions.
Strato/compositevolcanoesaremadeofcinders,ash,andlava.Cindersandashpileontopofeachother,
lavaflowsontopoftheash,whereitcoolsandhardens,andthentheprocessrepeats.Classicexamples
includeMt.FujiinJapan,MayonVolcanointhePhilippines,andMountVesuviusandStromboliinItaly.
Throughoutrecordedhistory,ashproducedbytheexplosiveeruptionofstratovolcanoeshasposedthe
greatestvolcanichazardtocivilizations.Notonlydostratovolcanoeshavegreaterpressurebuildupfrom
theunderlyinglavaflowthanshieldvolcanoes,buttheirfissureventsandmonogeneticvolcanicfields
(volcaniccones)havemorepowerfuleruptions,astheyaremanytimesunderextension.Theyarealso
steeperthanshieldvolcanoes,withslopesof3035comparedtoslopesofgenerally510,andtheirloose
tephraarematerialfordangerouslahars.[8]Largepiecesoftephraarecalledvolcanicbombs.Bigbombscan
measuremorethan4feet(1.2meters)acrossandweighseveraltons.[9]
Supervolcanoes
Asupervolcanousuallyhasalargecalderaandcanproducedevastationonanenormous,sometimes
continental,scale.Suchvolcanoesareabletoseverelycoolglobaltemperaturesformanyyearsafterthe
eruptionduetothehugevolumesofsulfurandashreleasedintotheatmosphere.Theyarethemost
dangeroustypeofvolcano.Examplesinclude:YellowstoneCalderainYellowstoneNationalParkand
VallesCalderainNewMexico(bothwesternUnitedStates)LakeTaupoinNewZealandLakeTobain
Sumatra,IndonesiaNgorongoroCraterinTanzaniaandKrakatoanearJavaandSumatra,Indonesia.
Becauseoftheenormousareatheymaycover,supervolcanoesarehardtoidentifycenturiesafteran
5/19
4/9/2015
eruption.Similarly,largeigneousprovincesarealso
consideredsupervolcanoesbecauseofthevastamount
ofbasaltlavaerupted(eventhoughthelavaflowis
nonexplosive).
Submarinevolcanoes
Submarinevolcanoesarecommonfeaturesofthe
oceanfloor.Inshallowwater,activevolcanoesdisclose
theirpresencebyblastingsteamandrockydebrishigh
abovetheocean'ssurface.Intheocean'sdeep,the
tremendousweightofthewaterabovepreventsthe
explosivereleaseofsteamandgaseshowever,theycan
bedetectedbyhydrophonesanddiscolorationofwater
becauseofvolcanicgases.Pillowlavaisacommon
eruptiveproductofsubmarinevolcanoesandis
characterizedbythicksequencesofdiscontinuous
pillowshapedmasseswhichformunderwater.Even
largesubmarineeruptionsmaynotdisturbtheocean
surfaceduetotherapidcoolingeffectandincreased
buoyancyofwater(ascomparedtoair)whichoften
causesvolcanicventstoformsteeppillarsontheocean
floor.Hydrothermalventsarecommonnearthese
volcanoes,andsomesupportpeculiarecosystemsbased
ondissolvedminerals.Overtime,theformations
createdbysubmarinevolcanoesmaybecomesolarge
thattheybreaktheoceansurfaceasnewislandsor
floatingpumicerafts.
Subglacialvolcanoes
Crosssectionthroughastratovolcano(vertical
scaleisexaggerated):
1.Largemagma
chamber
2.Bedrock
3.Conduit(pipe)
4.Base
5.Sill
6.Dike
7.Layersofashemitted
bythevolcano
8.Flank
9.Layersoflavaemitted
bythevolcano
10.Throat
11.Parasiticcone
12.Lavaflow
13.Vent
14.Crater
15.Ashcloud
Subglacialvolcanoesdevelopunderneathicecaps.
Theyaremadeupofflatlavawhichflowsatthetopofextensivepillowlavasandpalagonite.Whenthe
icecapmelts,thelavaontopcollapses,leavingaflattoppedmountain.Thesevolcanoesarealsocalled
tablemountains,tuyas,or(uncommonly)mobergs.Verygoodexamplesofthistypeofvolcanocanbeseen
inIceland,however,therearealsotuyasinBritishColumbia.TheoriginofthetermcomesfromTuya
Butte,whichisoneoftheseveraltuyasintheareaoftheTuyaRiverandTuyaRangeinnorthernBritish
Columbia.TuyaButtewasthefirstsuchlandformanalyzedandsoitsnamehasenteredthegeological
literatureforthiskindofvolcanicformation.TheTuyaMountainsProvincialParkwasrecentlyestablished
toprotectthisunusuallandscape,whichliesnorthofTuyaLakeandsouthoftheJenningsRivernearthe
boundarywiththeYukonTerritory.
Mudvolcanoes
Mudvolcanoesormuddomesareformationscreatedbygeoexcretedliquidsandgases,althoughthere
areseveralprocesseswhichmaycausesuchactivity.Thelargeststructuresare10kilometersindiameter
andreach700metershigh.
6/19
4/9/2015
Eruptedmaterial
Lavacomposition
Anotherwayofclassifyingvolcanoesisbythecompositionof
materialerupted(lava),sincethisaffectstheshapeofthevolcano.
Lavacanbebroadlyclassifiedinto4differentcompositions(Cas&
Wright,1987):
Iftheeruptedmagmacontainsahighpercentage(>63%)of
silica,thelavaiscalledfelsic.
Felsiclavas(dacitesorrhyolites)tendtobehighly
viscous(notveryfluid)andareeruptedasdomesor
PhoehoelavaflowonHawaii.The
pictureshowsoverflowsofamain
lavachannel.
short,stubbyflows.Viscouslavastendtoform
stratovolcanoesorlavadomes.LassenPeakin
Californiaisanexampleofavolcanoformedfrom
felsiclavaandisactuallyalargelavadome.
Becausesiliceousmagmasaresoviscous,theytendto
trapvolatiles(gases)thatarepresent,whichcausethe
magmatoeruptcatastrophically,eventuallyforming
stratovolcanoes.Pyroclasticflows(ignimbrites)are
highlyhazardousproductsofsuchvolcanoes,sincethey
arecomposedofmoltenvolcanicashtooheavytogo
upintotheatmosphere,sotheyhugthevolcano'sslopes
TheStrombolistratovolcanooffthe
coastofSicilyhaserupted
continuouslyforthousandsofyears,
givingrisetothetermstrombolian
eruption.
andtravelfarfromtheirventsduringlargeeruptions.
Temperaturesashighas1,200Careknowntooccurinpyroclasticflows,whichwill
incinerateeverythingflammableintheirpathandthicklayersofhotpyroclasticflowdeposits
canbelaiddown,oftenuptomanymetersthick.Alaska'sValleyofTenThousandSmokes,
formedbytheeruptionofNovaruptanearKatmaiin1912,isanexampleofathickpyroclastic
floworignimbritedeposit.VolcanicashthatislightenoughtobeeruptedhighintotheEarth's
atmospheremaytravelmanykilometresbeforeitfallsbacktogroundasatuff.
Iftheeruptedmagmacontains5263%silica,thelavaisofintermediatecomposition.
These"andesitic"volcanoesgenerallyonlyoccurabovesubductionzones(e.g.MountMerapi
inIndonesia).
Andesiticlavaistypicallyformedatconvergentboundarymarginsoftectonicplates,by
severalprocesses:
Hydrationmeltingofperidotiteandfractionalcrystallization
Meltingofsubductedslabcontainingsediments
7/19
4/9/2015
Magmamixingbetweenfelsicrhyoliticandmafic
basalticmagmasinanintermediatereservoir
priortoemplacementorlavaflow.
Iftheeruptedmagmacontains<52%and>45%silica,the
lavaiscalledmafic(becauseitcontainshigherpercentagesof
magnesium(Mg)andiron(Fe))orbasaltic.Theselavasare
usuallymuchlessviscousthanrhyoliticlavas,dependingon
theireruptiontemperaturetheyalsotendtobehotterthan
felsiclavas.Maficlavasoccurinawiderangeofsettings:
Atmidoceanridges,wheretwooceanicplatesare
pullingapart,basalticlavaeruptsaspillowstofillthe
gap
Shieldvolcanoes(e.g.theHawaiianIslands,including
MaunaLoaandKilauea),onbothoceanicand
continentalcrust
SanMiguel(volcano),ElSalvador.
OnDecember29,2013,SanMiguel
volcano,alsoknownas
Chaparrastique,eruptedat10:30
localtime,spewingalargecolumnof
ashandsmokeintotheskythe
eruption,thefirstin11years,was
seenfromspaceandpromptedthe
evacuationofthousandsofpeople
livingina3kmradiusaroundthe
volcano.
Ascontinentalfloodbasalts.
Someeruptedmagmascontain<=45%silicaandproduce
ultramaficlava.Ultramaficflows,alsoknownaskomatiites,
areveryrareindeed,veryfewhavebeeneruptedatthe
Earth'ssurfacesincetheProterozoic,whentheplanet'sheat
flowwashigher.Theyare(orwere)thehottestlavas,and
probablymorefluidthancommonmaficlavas.
Lavatexture
Twotypesoflavaarenamedaccordingtothesurfacetexture:Aa
(pronounced[aa])andphoehoe([paho.eho.e]),bothHawaiian
words.Aaischaracterizedbyarough,clinkerysurfaceandisthe
typicaltextureofviscouslavaflows.However,evenbasalticor
maficflowscanbeeruptedasaaflows,particularlyiftheeruption
rateishighandtheslopeissteep.
AshplumefromSanMiguel
(volcano)"Chaparrastique",seen
fromasatellite,asitheadstowards
thePacificOceanfromtheEl
SalvadorCentralAmericacoast,
December29,2013
Phoehoeischaracterizedbyitssmoothandoftenropeyorwrinklysurfaceandisgenerallyformedfrom
morefluidlavaflows.Usually,onlymaficflowswilleruptasphoehoe,sincetheyofteneruptathigher
temperaturesorhavetheproperchemicalmakeuptoallowthemtoflowwithgreaterfluidity.
Volcanicactivity
Popularclassificationofvolcanoes
8/19
4/9/2015
Apopularwayofclassifyingmagmaticvolcanoesisbytheirfrequencyoferuption,withthosethaterupt
regularlycalledactive,thosethathaveeruptedinhistoricaltimesbutarenowquietcalleddormantor
inactive,andthosethathavenoteruptedinhistoricaltimescalledextinct.However,thesepopular
classificationsextinctinparticulararepracticallymeaninglesstoscientists.Theyuseclassifications
whichrefertoaparticularvolcano'sformativeanderuptiveprocessesandresultingshapes,whichwas
explainedabove.
Active
Thereisnoconsensusamongvolcanologistsonhowtodefinean"active"volcano.Thelifespanofa
volcanocanvaryfrommonthsto
severalmillionyears,makingsucha
distinctionsometimesmeaningless
whencomparedtothelifespansof
humansorevencivilizations.For
example,manyofEarth'svolcanoes
haveerupteddozensoftimesinthe
pastfewthousandyearsbutarenot
currentlyshowingsignsoferuption.
Giventhelonglifespanofsuch
volcanoes,theyareveryactive.By
humanlifespans,however,theyare
not.
SarychevPeakeruption,Matua
FrescowithMountVesuvius
behindBacchusand
Agathodaemon,asseenin
Pompeii'sHouseofthe
Centenary
Island,obliquesatelliteview
Scientistsusuallyconsideravolcano
tobeeruptingorlikelytoeruptifit
iscurrentlyerupting,orshowingsignsofunrestsuchasunusualearthquake
activityorsignificantnewgasemissions.Mostscientistsconsideravolcano
activeifithaseruptedinthelast10,000years(Holocenetimes)the
SmithsonianGlobalVolcanismProgramusesthisdefinitionofactive.Most
volcanoesaresituatedonthePacificRingofFire.[10]Anestimated500millionpeoplelivenearactive
volcanoes.[10]
Historicaltime(orrecordedhistory)isanothertimeframeforactive.[11][12]TheCatalogueoftheActive
VolcanoesoftheWorld,publishedbytheInternationalAssociationofVolcanology,usesthisdefinition,by
whichtherearemorethan500activevolcanoes.[11]However,thespanofrecordedhistorydiffersfrom
regiontoregion.InChinaandtheMediterranean,itreachesbacknearly3,000years,butinthePacific
NorthwestoftheUnitedStatesandCanada,itreachesbacklessthan300years,andinHawaiiandNew
Zealand,onlyaround200years.[11]
Asof2013,thefollowingareconsideredEarth'smostactivevolcanoes:[13]
Klauea,thefamousHawaiianvolcano,hasbeenincontinuous,effusiveeruptionsince1983,andhas
thelongestobservedlavalake.
MountEtnaandnearbyStromboli,twoMediterraneanvolcanoesin"almostcontinuouseruption"
sinceantiquity.
9/19
4/9/2015
MountYasur,inVanuatu,hasbeenerupting"nearly
continuously"forover800years.
Thelongestcurrentlyongoing(butnotnecessarilycontinuous)
volcaniceruptivephasesare:[14]
MountYasur,111years
MountEtna,109years
Klauealavaenteringthesea.
Stromboli,108years
SantaMara,101years
Sangay,94years
Otherveryactivevolcanoesinclude:
MountNyiragongoanditsneighbor,Nyamuragira,are
Africa'smostactivevolcanoes.
PitondelaFournaise,inRunion,eruptsfrequentlyenoughto
beatouristattraction.
LavaflowsatHoluhraun,Iceland,
September2014
ErtaAle,intheAfarTriangle,hasmaintainedalavalake
sinceatleast1906.
MountErebus,inAntarctica,hasmaintainedalavalakesince
atleast1972.
MountMerapi
Whakaari/WhiteIsland,hasbeenincontinuousstateof
smokingsinceitsdiscoveryin1769.
Nyiragongo'slavalake
OlDoinyoLengai
Ambrym
ArenalVolcano
Pacaya
KlyuchevskayaSopka
Sheveluch
Extinct
Extinctvolcanoesarethosethatscientistsconsiderunlikelytoeruptagain,becausethevolcanonolonger
hasamagmasupply.ExamplesofextinctvolcanoesaremanyvolcanoesontheHawaiianEmperor
seamountchaininthePacificOcean,Hohentwiel,ShiprockandtheZuidwalvolcanointheNetherlands.
EdinburghCastleinScotlandisfamouslylocatedatopanextinctvolcano.Otherwise,whetheravolcanois
trulyextinctisoftendifficulttodetermine.Since"supervolcano"calderascanhaveeruptivelifespans
sometimesmeasuredinmillionsofyears,acalderathathasnotproducedaneruptionintensofthousands
10/19
4/9/2015
ofyearsislikelytobeconsidereddormantinsteadofextinct.Somevolcanologistsrefertoextinct
volcanoesasinactive,thoughthetermisnowmorecommonlyusedfordormantvolcanoesoncethoughtto
beextinct.
Dormant
Itisdifficulttodistinguishanextinctvolcanofromadormant
(inactive)one.Volcanoesareoftenconsideredtobeextinctifthere
arenowrittenrecordsofitsactivity.Nevertheless,volcanoesmay
remaindormantforalongperiodoftime.Forexample,Yellowstone
hasarepose/rechargeperiodofaround700,000years,andTobaof
around380,000years.[15]VesuviuswasdescribedbyRomanwriters
ashavingbeencoveredwithgardensandvineyardsbeforeits
eruptionofAD79,whichdestroyedthetownsofHerculaneumand
Pompeii.Beforeitscatastrophiceruptionof1991,Pinatubowasan
inconspicuousvolcano,unknowntomostpeopleinthesurrounding
areas.TwootherexamplesarethelongdormantSoufrireHills
volcanoontheislandofMontserrat,thoughttobeextinctbefore
activityresumedin1995andFourpeakedMountaininAlaska,
which,beforeitsSeptember2006eruption,hadnoteruptedsince
before8000BCandhadlongbeenthoughttobeextinct.
Fourpeakedvolcano,Alaska,in
September2006afterbeingthought
extinctforover10,000years
Technicalclassificationofvolcanoes
Volcanicalertlevel
Thethreecommonpopularclassificationsofvolcanoescanbe
MountRinjanieruptionin1994,in
subjectiveandsomevolcanoesthoughttohavebeenextincthave
Lombok,Indonesia
eruptedagain.Tohelppreventpeoplefromfalselybelievingthey
arenotatriskwhenlivingonornearavolcano,countrieshave
adoptednewclassificationstodescribethevariouslevelsandstagesofvolcanicactivity.[16]Somealert
systemsusedifferentnumbersorcolorstodesignatethedifferentstages.Othersystemsusecolorsand
words.Somesystemsuseacombinationofboth.
VolcanowarningschemesoftheUnitedStates
TheUnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey(USGS)hasadoptedacommonsystemnationwideforcharacterizing
thelevelofunrestanderuptiveactivityatvolcanoes.Thenewvolcanoalertlevelsystemclassifies
volcanoesnowasbeinginanormal,advisory,watchorwarningstage.Additionally,colorsareusedto
denotetheamountofashproduced.DetailsoftheUSsystemcanbefoundatVolcanowarningschemesof
theUnitedStates.
Decadevolcanoes
11/19
4/9/2015
TheDecadeVolcanoesare17volcanoesidentifiedbytheInternationalAssociationofVolcanologyand
ChemistryoftheEarth'sInterior(IAVCEI)asbeingworthyofparticularstudyinlightoftheirhistoryof
large,destructiveeruptionsandproximitytopopulatedareas.They
arenamedDecadeVolcanoesbecausetheprojectwasinitiatedas
partoftheUnitedNationssponsoredInternationalDecadefor
NaturalDisasterReduction.The17currentDecadeVolcanoesare
AvachinskyKoryaksky
(groupedtogether),
Sakurajima,Kagoshima
Kamchatka,Russia
Prefecture,Japan
NevadodeColima,
Santa
JaliscoandColima,
Maria/Santiaguito,
Mexico
Guatemala
MountEtna,Sicily,
Santorini,Cyclades,
Italy
Greece
Galeras,Nario,
TaalVolcano,Luzon,
Colombia
Philippines
MaunaLoa,Hawaii,
Teide,CanaryIslands,
USA
Spain
MountMerapi,Central
Ulawun,NewBritain,
Java,Indonesia
PapuaNewGuinea
MountNyiragongo,
MountUnzen,
DemocraticRepublicof
NagasakiPrefecture,
theCongo
Japan
MountRainier,
Vesuvius,Naples,Italy
Koryakskyvolcanotoweringover
PetropavlovskKamchatskyon
KamchatkaPeninsula,FarEastern
Russia
Washington,USA
Effectsofvolcanoes
Therearemanydifferenttypesofvolcaniceruptionsandassociatedactivity:phreaticeruptions(steam
generatederuptions),explosiveeruptionofhighsilicalava(e.g.,rhyolite),effusiveeruptionoflowsilica
lava(e.g.,basalt),pyroclasticflows,lahars(debrisflow)andcarbondioxideemission.Alloftheseactivities
canposeahazardtohumans.Earthquakes,hotsprings,fumaroles,mudpotsandgeysersoftenaccompany
volcanicactivity.
Volcanicgases
12/19
4/9/2015
Theconcentrationsof
differentvolcanicgasescan
varyconsiderablyfromone
volcanotothenext.Water
vaporistypicallythemost
abundantvolcanicgas,
followedbycarbondioxide
andsulfurdioxide.Other
principalvolcanicgases
includehydrogensulfide,
Schematicofvolcanoinjectionof
hydrogenchloride,and
aerosolsandgases
hydrogenfluoride.Alarge
numberofminorandtrace
gasesarealsofoundinvolcanicemissions,forexamplehydrogen,
carbonmonoxide,halocarbons,organiccompounds,andvolatile
metalchlorides.
Solarradiationgraph19582008,
showinghowtheradiationisreduced
aftermajorvolcaniceruptions
Large,explosivevolcaniceruptionsinjectwatervapor(H2O),
carbondioxide(CO2),sulfurdioxide(SO2),hydrogenchloride
(HCl),hydrogenfluoride(HF)andash(pulverizedrockand
pumice)intothestratospheretoheightsof1632kilometres(10
20mi)abovetheEarth'ssurface.Themostsignificantimpactsfrom
theseinjectionscomefromtheconversionofsulfurdioxideto
sulfuricacid(H2SO4),whichcondensesrapidlyinthestratosphere
toformfinesulfateaerosols.ItisworthmentioningthattheSO2
Sulfurdioxideconcentrationoverthe
emissionsaloneoftwodifferenteruptionsaresufficienttocompare
SierraNegraVolcano,Galapagos
theirpotentialclimaticimpact.[17]TheaerosolsincreasetheEarth's
Islands,duringaneruptioninOctober
albedoitsreflectionofradiationfromtheSunbackintospace
2005
andthuscooltheEarth'sloweratmosphereortropospherehowever,
theyalsoabsorbheatradiatedupfromtheEarth,therebywarming
thestratosphere.Severaleruptionsduringthepastcenturyhavecausedadeclineintheaveragetemperature
attheEarth'ssurfaceofuptohalfadegree(Fahrenheitscale)forperiodsofonetothreeyearssulfur
dioxidefromtheeruptionofHuaynaputinaprobablycausedtheRussianfamineof16011603.[18]
Significantconsequences
Oneproposedvolcanicwinterhappenedc.70,000yearsagofollowingthesupereruptionofLakeTobaon
SumatraislandinIndonesia.[19]AccordingtotheTobacatastrophetheorytowhichsomeanthropologists
andarcheologistssubscribe,ithadglobalconsequences,[20]killingmosthumansthenaliveandcreatinga
populationbottleneckthataffectedthegeneticinheritanceofallhumanstoday.[21]The1815eruptionof
MountTamboracreatedglobalclimateanomaliesthatbecameknownasthe"YearWithoutaSummer"
becauseoftheeffectonNorthAmericanandEuropeanweather.[22]Agriculturalcropsfailedandlivestock
diedinmuchoftheNorthernHemisphere,resultinginoneoftheworstfaminesofthe19thcentury.[23]The
freezingwinterof174041,whichledtowidespreadfamineinnorthernEurope,mayalsooweitsoriginsto
avolcaniceruption.[24]
13/19
4/9/2015
IthasbeensuggestedthatvolcanicactivitycausedorcontributedtotheEndOrdovician,PermianTriassic,
LateDevonianmassextinctions,andpossiblyothers.Themassiveeruptiveeventwhichformedthe
SiberianTraps,oneofthelargestknownvolcaniceventsofthelast500millionyearsofEarth'sgeological
history,continuedforamillionyearsandisconsideredtobethelikelycauseofthe"GreatDying"about
250millionyearsago,[25]whichisestimatedtohavekilled90%ofspeciesexistingatthetime.[26]
Acidrain
Thesulfateaerosolsalsopromotecomplexchemicalreactionson
theirsurfacesthatalterchlorineandnitrogenchemicalspeciesinthe
stratosphere.Thiseffect,togetherwithincreasedstratospheric
chlorinelevelsfromchlorofluorocarbonpollution,generates
chlorinemonoxide(ClO),whichdestroysozone(O3).Asthe
aerosolsgrowandcoagulate,theysettledownintotheupper
tropospherewheretheyserveasnucleiforcirruscloudsandfurther
modifytheEarth'sradiationbalance.Mostofthehydrogenchloride
(HCl)andhydrogenfluoride(HF)aredissolvedinwaterdropletsin
theeruptioncloudandquicklyfalltothegroundasacidrain.The
injectedashalsofallsrapidlyfromthestratospheremostofitis
removedwithinseveraldaystoafewweeks.Finally,explosive
volcaniceruptionsreleasethegreenhousegascarbondioxideand
thusprovideadeepsourceofcarbonforbiogeochemicalcycles.[27]
Ashplumerisingfrom
EyjafjallajkullonApril17,2010
Gasemissionsfromvolcanoesareanaturalcontributortoacidrain.Volcanicactivityreleasesabout130to
230teragrams(145millionto255millionshorttons)ofcarbondioxideeachyear.[28]Volcaniceruptions
mayinjectaerosolsintotheEarth'satmosphere.Largeinjectionsmaycausevisualeffectssuchasunusually
colorfulsunsetsandaffectglobalclimatemainlybycoolingit.Volcaniceruptionsalsoprovidethebenefit
ofaddingnutrientstosoilthroughtheweatheringprocessofvolcanicrocks.Thesefertilesoilsassistthe
growthofplantsandvariouscrops.Volcaniceruptionscanalsocreatenewislands,asthemagmacoolsand
solidifiesuponcontactwiththewater.
Hazards
Ashthrownintotheairbyeruptionscanpresentahazardtoaircraft,especiallyjetaircraftwherethe
particlescanbemeltedbythehighoperatingtemperaturethemeltedparticlesthenadheretotheturbine
bladesandaltertheirshape,disruptingtheoperationoftheturbine.Dangerousencountersin1982afterthe
eruptionofGalunggunginIndonesia,and1989aftertheeruptionofMountRedoubtinAlaskaraised
awarenessofthisphenomenon.NineVolcanicAshAdvisoryCenterswereestablishedbytheInternational
CivilAviationOrganizationtomonitorashcloudsandadvisepilotsaccordingly.The2010eruptionsof
EyjafjallajkullcausedmajordisruptionstoairtravelinEurope.
Volcanoesonotherplanetarybodies
TheEarth'sMoonhasnolargevolcanoesandnocurrentvolcanicactivity,althoughrecentevidence
suggestsitmaystillpossessapartiallymoltencore.[29]However,theMoondoeshavemanyvolcanic
featuressuchasmaria(thedarkerpatchesseenonthemoon),rillesanddomes.
14/19
4/9/2015
TheplanetVenushasasurfacethatis90%basalt,indicatingthatvolcanismplayedamajorroleinshaping
itssurface.Theplanetmayhavehadamajorglobalresurfacingeventabout500millionyearsago,[30]from
whatscientistscantellfromthedensityofimpactcratersonthesurface.Lavaflowsarewidespreadand
formsofvolcanismnotpresenton
Earthoccuraswell.Changesinthe
planet'satmosphereandobservations
oflightninghavebeenattributedto
ongoingvolcaniceruptions,although
thereisnoconfirmationofwhether
ornotVenusisstillvolcanically
active.However,radarsoundingby
theMagellanproberevealed
evidenceforcomparativelyrecent
volcanicactivityatVenus'shighest
volcanoMaatMons,intheformof
ashflowsnearthesummitandon
TheTvashtarvolcanoeruptsaplume
thenorthernflank.
330km(205mi)abovethesurfaceof
Jupiter'smoonIo.
Thereareseveralextinctvolcanoes
onMars,fourofwhicharevast
shieldvolcanoesfarbiggerthananyonEarth.TheyincludeArsiaMons,
AscraeusMons,HecatesTholus,OlympusMons,andPavonisMons.These
volcanoeshavebeenextinctformanymillionsofyears,[31]butthe
EuropeanMarsExpressspacecrafthasfoundevidencethatvolcanicactivity
mayhaveoccurredonMarsintherecentpastaswell.[31]
OlympusMons(Latin,
"MountOlympus"),located
ontheplanetMars,isthe
tallestknownmountainin
oursolarsystem.
Jupiter'smoonIoisthemostvolcanicallyactiveobjectinthesolarsystem
becauseoftidalinteractionwithJupiter.Itiscoveredwithvolcanoesthat
eruptsulfur,sulfurdioxideandsilicaterock,andasaresult,Ioisconstantly
beingresurfaced.Itslavasarethehottestknownanywhereinthesolarsystem,withtemperaturesexceeding
1,800K(1,500C).InFebruary2001,thelargestrecordedvolcaniceruptionsinthesolarsystemoccurred
onIo.[32]Europa,thesmallestofJupiter'sGalileanmoons,alsoappearstohaveanactivevolcanicsystem,
exceptthatitsvolcanicactivityisentirelyintheformofwater,whichfreezesintoiceonthefrigidsurface.
Thisprocessisknownascryovolcanism,andisapparentlymostcommononthemoonsoftheouterplanets
ofthesolarsystem.
In1989theVoyager2spacecraftobservedcryovolcanoes(icevolcanoes)onTriton,amoonofNeptune,
andin2005theCassiniHuygensprobephotographedfountainsoffrozenparticleseruptingfrom
Enceladus,amoonofSaturn.[33][34]Theejectamaybecomposedofwater,liquidnitrogen,dust,ormethane
compounds.CassiniHuygensalsofoundevidenceofamethanespewingcryovolcanoontheSaturnian
moonTitan,whichisbelievedtobeasignificantsourceofthemethanefoundinitsatmosphere.[35]Itis
theorizedthatcryovolcanismmayalsobepresentontheKuiperBeltObjectQuaoar.
A2010studyoftheexoplanetCOROT7b,whichwasdetectedbytransitin2009,studiedthattidalheating
fromthehoststarveryclosetotheplanetandneighboringplanetscouldgenerateintensevolcanicactivity
similartoIo.[36]
15/19
4/9/2015
Traditionalbeliefsaboutvolcanoes
Manyancientaccountsascribevolcaniceruptionstosupernaturalcauses,suchastheactionsofgodsor
demigods.TotheancientGreeks,volcanoes'capriciouspowercouldonlybeexplainedasactsofthegods,
while16th/17thcenturyGermanastronomerJohannesKeplerbelievedtheywereductsfortheEarth's
tears.[37]OneearlyideacountertothiswasproposedbyJesuitAthanasiusKircher(16021680),who
witnessederuptionsofMountEtnaandStromboli,thenvisitedthecraterofVesuviusandpublishedhis
viewofanEarthwithacentralfireconnectedtonumerousotherscausedbytheburningofsulfur,bitumen
andcoal.
VariousexplanationswereproposedforvolcanobehaviorbeforethemodernunderstandingoftheEarth's
mantlestructureasasemisolidmaterialwasdeveloped.Fordecadesafterawarenessthatcompressionand
radioactivematerialsmaybeheatsources,theircontributionswerespecificallydiscounted.Volcanicaction
wasoftenattributedtochemicalreactionsandathinlayerofmoltenrocknearthesurface.
Seealso
GlobalVolcanismProgram
Listofextraterrestrialvolcanoes
Maritimeimpactsofvolcaniceruptions
Predictionofvolcanicactivity
Timetableofmajorworldwidevolcaniceruptions
VolcanicExplosivityIndex
VolcanoNumber
Volcanoobservatory
References
1. NSTAPress(2007)."Earthquakes,Volcanoes,andTsunamis"
(http://enviroliteracy.org/nsfmod/NaturesFury.pdf).ResourcesforEnvironmentalLiteracy.RetrievedApril22,
2014.
2. Foulger,G.R.(2010).Platesvs.Plumes:AGeologicalControversy
(http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd1405161485.html).WileyBlackwell.ISBN9781
405161480.
3. DouglasHarper(November2001)."Volcano"(http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=volcano).Online
EtymologyDictionary.RetrievedJune11,2009.
4. Wood,C.A.,1979b.CinderconesonEarth,MoonandMars.LunarPlanet.Sci.X,13701372.
5. Meresse,S.Costard,F.O.Mangold,N.Masson,P.Neukum,G.(2008)."Formationandevolutionofthe
chaoticterrainsbysubsidenceandmagmatism:HydraotesChaos,Mars".Icarus194(2):487.
doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2007.10.023(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.icarus.2007.10.023).
6. Bro,P.Hauber,E.(2012)."AuniquevolcanicfieldinTharsis,Mars:Pyroclasticconesasevidencefor
explosiveeruptions".Icarus218:88.doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2011.11.030
16/19
4/9/2015
explosiveeruptions".Icarus218:88.doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2011.11.030
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.icarus.2011.11.030).
7. Lawrence,S.J.Stopar,J.D.Hawke,B.R.Greenhagen,B.T.Cahill,J.T.S.Bandfield,J.L.Jolliff,B.L.
Denevi,B.W.Robinson,M.S.Glotch,T.D.Bussey,D.B.J.Spudis,P.D.Giguere,T.A.Garry,W.B.
(2013)."LROobservationsofmorphologyandsurfaceroughnessofvolcanicconesandlobatelavaflowsinthe
MariusHills".JournalofGeophysicalResearch:Planets118(4):615.doi:10.1002/jgre.20060
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fjgre.20060).
8. Lockwood,JohnP.Hazlett,RichardW.(2010).Volcanoes:GlobalPerspectives(http://books.google.com/?
id=eJopFDVRgYMC&pg=PA115&dq).p.552.ISBN9781405162500.
9. Berger,Melvin,GildaBerger,andHigginsBond."Volcanoeswhyandhow."Whydovolcanoesblowtheir
tops?:Questionsandanswersaboutvolcanoesandearthquakes.NewYork:Scholastic,1999.7.Print.
10. "Volcanoes"(http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Space_for_our_climate/SEM3XU2VQUD_0.html).EuropeanSpace
Agency.2009.RetrievedAugust16,2012.
11. Decker,RobertWayneDecker,Barbara(1991).MountainsofFire:TheNatureofVolcanoes
(http://books.google.com/?id=P83AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA7&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=false).CambridgeUniversity
Press.p.7.ISBN0521312906.RetrievedAugust16,2012.
12. Tilling,RobertI.(1997)."Volcanoenvironments"(http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volc/environments.html).Volcanoes.
Denver,Colorado:U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,U.S.GeologicalSurvey.RetrievedAugust16,2012."There
aremorethan500activevolcanoes(thosethathaveeruptedatleastoncewithinrecordedhistory)intheworld"
13. "Themostactivevolcanoesintheworld"(http://www.volcanodiscovery.com/558.html).VolcanoDiscovery.com.
Retrieved3August2013.
14. "TheWorld'sFiveMostActiveVolcanoes"(http://www.livescience.com/29790worldsfivemostactive
volcanoes.html).livescience.com.Retrieved4August2013.
15. Chesner,C.A.Rose,J.A.Deino,W.I.Drake,R.Westgate,A.(March1991)."EruptiveHistoryofEarth's
LargestQuaternarycaldera(Toba,Indonesia)Clarified"
(http://www.geo.mtu.edu/~raman/papers/ChesnerGeology.pdf).Geology19(3):200203.
Bibcode:1991Geo....19..200C(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991Geo....19..200C).doi:10.1130/0091
7613(1991)019<0200:EHOESL>2.3.CO2(https://dx.doi.org/10.1130%2F0091
7613%281991%29019%3C0200%3AEHOESL%3E2.3.CO%3B2).RetrievedJanuary20,2010.
16. "VolcanicAlertLevelsofVariousCountries"(http://www.volcanolive.com/alerts.html).Volcanolive.com.
RetrievedAugust22,2011.
17. Miles,M.G.Grainger,R.G.Highwood,E.J.(2004)."Thesignificanceofvolcaniceruptionstrengthand
frequencyforclimate"(http://eodg.atm.ox.ac.uk/eodg/papers/2004Miles1.pdf).QuarterlyJournaloftheRoyal
MeteorologicalSociety130:23612376.doi:10.1256/qj.30.60(https://dx.doi.org/10.1256%2Fqj.30.60).
18. UniversityofCaliforniaDavis(April25,2008)."VolcanicEruptionOf1600CausedGlobalDisruption"
(http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/04/080423135236.htm).ScienceDaily.
19. "SupervolcanoEruptionInSumatraDeforestedIndia73,000YearsAgo
(http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/11/091123142739.htm)".ScienceDaily.November24,2009.
20. "Thenewbatch150,000yearsago
(http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/prehistoric_life/human/human_evolution/new_batch1.shtml)".BBCScience&Nature
Theevolutionofman.
21. "Whenhumansfacedextinction"(http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2975862.stm).BBC.June9,2003.
17/19
4/9/2015
RetrievedJanuary5,2007.
22. Volcanoesinhumanhistory:thefarreachingeffectsofmajoreruptions(http://books.google.com/books?
id=ipNcKc0Mv5IC&pg=PA155&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false).JelleZeilingadeBoer,DonaldTheodore
Sanders(2002).PrincetonUniversityPress.p.155.ISBN0691050813
23. Oppenheimer,Clive(2003)."Climatic,environmentalandhumanconsequencesofthelargestknownhistoric
eruption:Tamboravolcano(Indonesia)1815".ProgressinPhysicalGeography27(2):230259.
doi:10.1191/0309133303pp379ra(https://dx.doi.org/10.1191%2F0309133303pp379ra).
24. "Grda,C.:Famine:AShortHistory(http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s8857.html)".PrincetonUniversity
Press.
25. "Yellowstone'sSuperSister(http://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/supervolcano/others/others_07.html)".
DiscoveryChannel.
26. BentonMJ(2005).WhenLifeNearlyDied:TheGreatestMassExtinctionofAllTime.Thames&Hudson.
ISBN9780500285732.
27. McGee,KennethA.Doukas,MichaelP.Kessler,RichardGerlach,TerrenceM.(May1997)."Impactsof
VolcanicGasesonClimate,theEnvironment,andPeople"(http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1997/of97262/of97
262.html).UnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey.Retrieved9August2014.
Thisarticleincorporatestextfromthis
source,whichisinthepublicdomain.
28. "VolcanicGasesandTheirEffects"(http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html).U.S.
GeologicalSurvey.RetrievedJune16,2007.
29. M.A.Wieczorek,B.L.Jolliff,A.Khan,M.E.Pritchard,B.P.Weiss,J.G.Williams,L.L.Hood,K.Righter,
C.R.Neal,C.K.Shearer,I.S.McCallum,S.Tompkins,B.R.Hawke,C.Peterson,J,J.Gillis,B.Bussey
(2006)."TheConstitutionandStructureoftheLunarInterior".ReviewsinMineralogyandGeochemistry60(1):
221364.doi:10.2138/rmg.2006.60.3(https://dx.doi.org/10.2138%2Frmg.2006.60.3).
30. D.L.Bindschadler(1995)."Magellan:AnewviewofVenus'geologyandgeophysics".AmericanGeophysical
Union.doi:10.1029/95RG00281(https://dx.doi.org/10.1029%2F95RG00281).
31. "Glacial,volcanicandfluvialactivityonMars:latestimages"
(http://www.esa.int/esaMI/Mars_Express/SEMLF6D3M5E_0.html).EuropeanSpaceAgency.February25,2005.
RetrievedAugust17,2006.
32. "ExceptionallybrighteruptiononIorivalslargestinSolarSystem"
(http://keckobservatory.org/news/exceptionally_bright_eruption_on_io_rivals_largest_in_solar_syatem/),
November13,2002.
33. "CassiniFindsanAtmosphereonSaturn'sMoonEnceladus"
(http://web.archive.org/web/20070310211512/http://www.pparc.ac.uk/Nw/enceladus.asp).PPARC.16March
2005.Archivedfromtheoriginal(http://www.pparc.ac.uk/Nw/enceladus.asp)on20070310.Retrieved4July
2014.
34. Smith,Yvette(March15,2012)."Enceladus,Saturn'sMoon"
(http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_2198.html).ImageoftheDayGallery.NASA.
Retrieved4July2014.
35. "HydrocarbonvolcanodiscoveredonTitan"(http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7489).
Newscientist.com.June8,2005.RetrievedOctober24,2010.
36. Jaggard,Victoria(February5,2010)." "SuperEarth"MayReallyBeNewPlanetType:SuperIo"
(http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/02/100205newtypeplanetcorot7bio/).NationalGeographic
18/19
4/9/2015
(http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/02/100205newtypeplanetcorot7bio/).NationalGeographic
websitedailynews.NationalGeographicSociety.RetrievedMarch11,2010.
37. Williams,Micheal(November2007)."Heartsoffire".MorningCalm(KoreanAirLines)(112007):6.
Furtherreading
Cas,R.A.F.andJ.V.Wright,1987.VolcanicSuccessions.UnwinHymanInc.528p.ISBN0045520224
Macdonald,GordonandAgatinT.Abbott.(1970).VolcanoesintheSea.UniversityofHawaiiPress,Honolulu.
441p.
Marti,JoanandErnst,Gerald.(2005).VolcanoesandtheEnvironment.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN0
521592542.
Ollier,Cliff.(1988).Volcanoes.BasilBlackwell,Oxford,UK,ISBN063115664X(hardback),ISBN0631
159770(paperback).
Sigursson,Haraldur,ed.(1999).EncyclopediaofVolcanoes.AcademicPress.ISBN012643140X.Thisisa
referenceaimedatgeologists,butmanyarticlesareaccessibletononprofessionals.
Externallinks
Volcanoes
WikimediaCommonshas
mediarelatedtoVolcano.
Wikivoyagehasatravel
guideforVolcanoes.
(https://www.dmoz.org/Science/Earth_Sciences/Geology/Volcanoes)atDMOZ
Volcano(http://www.fema.gov/hazard/volcano/index.shtm),U.S.FederalEmergencyManagement
AgencyFEMA
VolcanoWorld(http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/)
Volcanos(http://www.worsleyschool.net/science/files/volcano/page.html)(WorsleySchool)
Retrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Volcano&oldid=654967510"
Categories: Volcanoes Geologicalhazards Geologicalprocesses Platetectonics Volcaniclandforms
Volcanicrocks Volcanology
Thispagewaslastmodifiedon4April2015,at21:56.
TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmay
apply.Byusingthissite,youagreetotheTermsofUseandPrivacyPolicy.Wikipediaisa
registeredtrademarkoftheWikimediaFoundation,Inc.,anonprofitorganization.
19/19

Volcano Phe

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Volcano Phe

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

4/9/2015

Potrebbero piacerti anche