Construction and Building Materials 24 (2010) 11581165

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Construction and Building Materials

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Fatigue behavior of SMA and HMA mixtures

F. Moghadas Nejad, E. Aaki *, M.A. Mohammadi
Department of Civil Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 1 June 2009
Received in revised form 5 November 2009
Accepted 18 December 2009
Available online 12 January 2010
Keywords:
HMA
SMA
Fatigue
Indirect tensile test
Stiffness modulus

a b s t r a c t
Fatigue crack is a main form of structural damage in exible pavements. Under the action of repeated
vehicular loading, deterioration of the asphalt concrete materials in pavements caused by the accumulation and growth of the micro and macro cracks gradually takes place. The indirect tensile tests was carried out on hot mix asphalt HMA and stone matrix asphalt SMA mixtures comprising different nominal
maximum aggregate sizes NMAS in three temperatures of 5, 25 and 40 C. Stiffness modulus, fatigue lives
and fatigue prediction equation of the mixtures were developed and characterized in terms of aggregate
gradation type, coarseness and neness of gradation, temperature and asphalt content.
2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Asphalt pavements in general are facing serious distress problems world-wide. So much has been done to improve the quality
of the mix through research and innovations. However, the problem of fatigue cracking is still persistent on asphalt roads.
The fatigue resistance of a bituminous mixture is its ability to
withstand repeated bending without fracture. Fatigue manifests itself in the form of cracking from repeated trafc loading. It has
been shown that low asphalt content, high air void mixes are prone
to show fatigue cracking, and high asphalt content mixes tend to
rut rst [1]. Previous researches have been reported that there
are several factors affecting the fatigue lives of bituminous mixtures. According to the NCHRP APPENDIX II-I and SHRP-A-404
[2,3], pavements with different mix stiffness, thickness, subgrade
modulus, air void and asphalt content exhibit different fatigue
behaviors.
Numerous models of varying sophistication have been developed to predict the fatigue behavior of asphalt concrete including
elastic, viscoelastic, elastoplastic, viscoplastic, and crack models
that are developed by using different laboratory testing modes.
The most common methods for characterizing the fatigue behavior
of asphalt mixtures are the Wohler approach, dissipated energy
method and fracture mechanics approach [4]. Various kinds of asphalt mixes with different properties show different fatigue behav-

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +98 21 64543005; fax: +98 21 6414213.

E-mail addresses: f.moghadas@aut.ac.ir (F.M. Nejad), eaaki@aut.ac.ir (E. Aaki),
gishar@gmail.com (M.A. Mohammadi).
0950-0618/$ - see front matter 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2009.12.025

iors. Specic properties such as aggregate gradation, air void and

asphalt content have direct effects on asphalt mixtures [13].
Stone matrix asphalt SMA is a gap-graded hot mix that has
gained popularity world-wide. SMA was rst devised in Germany
in the 1960s. In the United States, the SMA technology started an
evolution in the early 1990s and has been widely used since [5
7]. Most of the reports by the researchers highlighted the mixtures
great potential in resisting permanent deformation or rutting, but
ignored any potential fatigue resistance of the SMA [8].
Some of the properties of SMA mixtures include its high rut
resistance [911], high durability [1214], improved resistance to
reective cracking and reduced noise pollution, however drainage
of binder and higher primary costs could be mentioned of its disadvantages [15]. Due to both the gap-graded nature of SMA mixes
and the relatively large proportion of asphalt content, it needs stabilization in order to inhibit draindown of asphalt and this requirement is commonly achieved by adding bers or polymer modiers
to the mix [16,17].
In this research, fatigue behavior of SMA mixtures with three
different gradations by NMAS of 19, 12.5 and 9.5 mm were evaluated and compared with hot mix asphalt HMA mixtures and the effects of different mix properties on fatigue life were assessed.
2. Objective
The main objective of the research presented in this paper was
to characterize the fatigue behavior of SMA and HMA mixtures in
terms of gradation type, coarseness and neness of gradation, temperature and asphalt content. An experimental study of fatigue life
in asphalt concrete material has been made. Fatigue life of each

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F.M. Nejad et al. / Construction and Building Materials 24 (2010) 11581165

mixture was measured and the fatigue life prediction equation was
obtained using the regression analysis. Fatigue behavior of the two
mixtures was compared to each other and the effect of each mixture parameter was investigated.

3. Research approach
To satisfy the objectives of this study, HMA and SMA specimens
were prepared at optimum asphalt content. Limestone aggregate,
asphalt with 60/70 penetration, and two aggregate gradations
were used in preparing HMA specimens and the same materials
where used in preparing SMA specimens with three aggregate gradations. Fatigue tests were performed on the prepared Marshall
specimens with a diameter of 10 cm and height of 7 cm to evaluate
the effect of aggregate gradation type, temperature, asphalt content, neness and coarseness of gradation on fatigue life and to obtain the fatigue life prediction equations of mixtures on specic
temperature.
3.1. Materials used
This study included two types of wearing course materials, conventional HMA and SMA. The particle size distribution of the
aggregates is shown in Fig. 1 for HMA and Fig. 2 for SMA. SMA mixture types include type A, B and C with a nominal maximum aggregate size of 19, 12.5 and 9.5 mm, respectively and HMA mixture
types include type H1 and H2 with a NMAS of 9.5 and 12.5 mm,
respectively. The limestone was used in the mixture for both
coarse and ne aggregates. The properties of coarse and ne aggregates are given in Table 1. The bitumen used in SMA and HMA is
the 60/70 penetration bitumen. Results of its properties are listed
in Table 2.

Fig. 2. Aggregate gradation curve of SMA mixtures types C, B, and A by the NMAS of
9.5, 12.5 and 19 mm, respectively.

Table 1
Properties of coarse and ne aggregates.
Properties

Value

Coarse aggregates
Los angeles abrasion value (%)
Water absorption (%)
Particle density (g/cm3)

25
1.2
2.622

Fine aggregates
Water absorption (%)
Particle density (g/cm3)

1.8
2.597

Table 2
Physical properties measured of bitumen.

3.2. Specimen preparation

HMA specimens were prepared at optimum asphalt content
using the Marshall Mix design procedure [18]. The optimal gradation and binder content of the SMA mixtures are also determined
using the AASHTO MP8 standard. Furthermore, the ber-stabilizer
was added into the SMA mixture as to improve the mixture performance and to prevent the binder draindown. The nal results
including the mixtures properties are presented in Table 3. The
process to develop the optimal gradation and binder content of
SMA mixtures is discussed in another paper [19].

Parameter measured

Test method (AASHTO)

Value

Specic gravity at 25 C (g/cm3)

Penetration at 25 C (0.1 mm)
Softening point (R and B C)
Viscosity at 120 C (centistokes)
Viscosity at 135 C (centistokes)
Viscosity at 160 C (centistokes)
Ductility at 25 C (cm)

T228
T49
T53
T201
T201
T201
T51

1.014
60
52
882
407
135
>10

Table 3
Summary of design results.
Parameter

HMA
type H1

HMA
type H2

SMA
type A

SMA
type B

SMA
type C

NMAS (mm)
Asphalt content (%)
Stability
Bulk specic
gravity (g/cm3)
Air void (%)
VMA (%)
VCAmix (%)
VCAmix (%)
Theoretical maximum
gravity (g/cm3)

9.5
5.07
849
2.511

12.5
4.95
800
2.579

19
7.8

12.5
5.5

9.5
6.5

2.305

2.316

2.319

3.5
14.7
N.A
N.A
2.618

3.5
14.4

3.52
17.1
35.55
37.44
2.492

3.56
17.53
35.58
38.46
2.364

3.86
17.85
38.31
38.72
2.381

2.663

3.3. Methodology
Fig. 1. Aggregate gradation curve of HMA mixtures types H1 and H2 by the NMAS
of 9.5 mm and 12.5 mm respectively.

Two laboratory tests that were used in this research are the
indirect tensile stiffness modulus test and the indirect tensile fati-

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F.M. Nejad et al. / Construction and Building Materials 24 (2010) 11581165

gue test which results in a perception of the bituminous material

ability for load spreading and its resistance to fatigue cracking.

4. Test results and discussion

The main objectives of this study were to evaluate the effect of
gradation type, coarseness and neness of gradation, temperature
and asphalt content on fatigue life of hot mix asphalt and stone
mastic asphalt specimens at different load magnitudes. To achieve
these objectives, HMA specimens with two aggregate gradations
and SMA specimens with three aggregate gradations were prepared according to Code 101 standard of Iran Management and
Programming Organization [21] and AASHTO MP8 [22], respectively. The prepared specimens were evaluated by performing
the indirect tensile fatigue test using the universal testing machine
UTM.

3.3.1. Indirect tensile stiffness modulus test

The ITSM test [20] was used to determine the tensile properties
of the asphalt concrete which can be further related to the cracking
properties of the pavement. Using the draft version of BS DD 213
standard for fatigue behavior characterization, indirect tensile
stiffness modulus test was used in order to determine the stiffness
modulus of the mixtures. Specimens were subjected to a repeated
dynamic compressive load across the vertical cross section along
the depth of the specimen using two loading strips 12.5 mm in
width. The loading was applied at constant amplitudes of stress
from 30 to 1000 kPa depending on test temperatures. All materials
were tested at three temperatures (5, 25, and 40 C). The deformation of the specimen was monitored through linear variable differential transducers LVDTs. The LVDTs were clamped vertically on
the diametrical side of the specimen.

4.1. Indirect stiffness modulus and fatigue life results

The asphalt mixtures stiffness modulus, and fatigue life of specimens prepared using different aggregate gradations (H1 and H2
gradations for HMA and A, B and C gradations for SMA) were determined at different loading magnitudes (301000 kPa) and different
temperatures (5, 25 and 40 C). The test results are summarized in
Tables 4 and 5 for HMA and SMA, respectively. The data shown are
the mean value of two tested specimens for each of the two different kinds of wearing course mixtures.
The HMA mixtures have the average stiffness signicantly higher than that of the SMA mixtures at any test temperature. This result is because of the aggregate gradation of HMA mixtures that are
continuous dense graded and will make the mixture stiffer than
the gap-graded SMA mixtures [8].

3.3.2. Indirect tensile fatigue test

The indirect tensile fatigue test was one of the tests that can
characterize the fatigue behavior of the mixture. The tests were
performed in controlled stress mode according to the BS DD 213
standard. Relationship between tensile stress and number of cycle
to failure for each material was established. Linear relationship
was recorded when log stress is plotted against log cycles to failure
and the fatigue life prediction equations were developed. In addition, tensile strains could be determined by using the relationship
between stress and stiffness modulus.

Table 4
Results of indirect tensile stiffness modulus test and indirect tensile fatigue test for HMA mixtures.
Temperature (C)

Gradation
HMA type H1 (NMAS:9.5 mm)

25

40

HMA type H2 (NMAS:12.5 mm)

Applied stress (kPa)

Sm (MPa)

Nf

Applied stress (kPa)

Sm (MPa)

Nf

800

13,623

493,531

800

11,794

422,081

850

13,413

335,471

850

11,824

300,261

900

13,162

172,792

900

11,344

135,224

950

13,412

129,363

950

10,871

98,686

1000

13,529

111,764

1000

10,607

67,576

400

2398

2744

400

2107

2328

500

2200

1299

500

1906

1224

600

2202

444

600

1798

603

700

1957

206

700

1653

404

800

1768

168

800

1452

170

900

1517

80

900

1291

50

100

492

2814

100

462

2099

150

477

1224

150

451

914

200

467

443

200

422

512

250

440

235

250

415

158

300

409

104

300

396

92

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F.M. Nejad et al. / Construction and Building Materials 24 (2010) 11581165

Table 5
Results of indirect tensile stiffness modulus test and indirect tensile fatigue test for SMA mixtures.
Temperature (C)

Gradation
SMA type A (NMAS:19 mm)

25

40

SMA type B (NMAS: 12.5 mm)

Sm (MPa)

Nf

Applied stress (kPa)

Sm (MPa)

Nf

Applied stress (kPa)

Sm (MPa)

Nf

600

9738

177,781

600

10,127

243,813

800

11,741

423,746

700

9630

147,838

700

10,590

182,639

850

11,482

265,175

800

9533

78,819

800

10,887

143,423

900

11,346

201,493

900

8853

48,303

900

10,597

79,159

950

11,379

125,411

1000

8762

46,412

1000

10,347

58,261

1000

11,431

104,448

50

1970

37,687

100

2190

55,429

200

2485

26,140

100

1565

20,609

200

2155

4969

250

1796

9044

200

1329

2285

300

1937

1999

300

2169

4364

300

1087

733

400

1760

544

400

1988

1109

400

691

163

500

1606

178

500

1812

474

600

1381

42

600

1630

235

10

288

16,242

30

510

36,323

30

618

40,470

30

208

3828

50

496

6598

50

560

9008

50

182

985

75

448

1335

75

500

2440

75

165

323

100

391

644

100

473

1133

100

147

49

150

408

196

150

437

217

200

370

47

200

384

169

Using the regression analysis, the fatigue equations were developed which are in the form of Wohlers fatigue prediction model
(Eq. (1)). For every type of the gradation in every three temperature, the fatigue equations are shown in Table 6.

Nf k1

 k2
1

In Eq. (1), Nf is the number of cycles to failure of the specimen, r is

the applied stress and k1 and k2 are the coefcients related to the
mixture properties.

Table 6
Fatigue prediction equations of HMA and SMA mixtures.
Asphalt type

R2

Fatigue equation

SMA type A
SMA type B
SMA type C
HMA type H1
HMA type H2

0.944
0.958
0.987
0.926
0.978

Nf = 4  1013r2.989
Nf = 3  1013r2.869
Nf = 1  1024r6.378
Nf = 2  1026r7.071
Nf = 3  1030r8.578

25

SMA type A
SMA type B
SMA type C
HMA type H1
HMA type H2

0.944
0.970
0.971
0.981
0.961

Nf = 2  109r2.614
Nf = 3  1012r3.787
Nf = 4  1012r3.647
Nf = 5  1015r4.684
Nf = 2  1013r3.823

SMA type A
SMA type B
SMA type C
HMA type H1
HMA type H2

0.910
0.995
0.991
0.983
0.960

Nf = 6  106r2.351
Nf = 4  109r3.405
Nf = 1  109r3.021
Nf = 3  109r2.987989
Nf = 1  109r2.879

Temperature (C)

40

SMA type C (NMAS: 9.5 mm)

Applied stress (kPa)

Using the fatigue prediction equations and the corresponding

coefcients developed for a specic type of asphalt in a particular
temperature, one could compare the fatigue behavior of different
mixtures. Fatigue life of a pavement constructed by a specic asphalt mixture is affected by different properties of the mixture
including type and amount of binder used in the mixture, temperature, gradation properties and air void [2,3].
Variations of the k1 and k2 coefcients for SMA and HMA mixtures are presented in Figs. 3 and 4.
From Figs. 3 and 4, it can be concluded that fatigue life decreases with increase in temperature. This conrms the previous
researches on this issue [2,3]. Also, it could be seen that, HMA mixtures generally have greater fatigue lives than SMA mixtures that
may be because of their aggregate gradation type which include
a dense graded structure of aggregates interlocked to each other
in comparison with SMA mixtures by a gap-graded aggregate
structure with stone-on-stone contact.
Also, the fatigue diagrams for SMA and HMA mixtures are
shown in Figs. 513. These diagrams are drawn in a way that the
results of the two kinds of mixture by an equal NMAS could be
compared in a specic temperature.
4.2. Effects of different parameters on fatigue life
For an appropriate comparison between the fatigue behavior of
HMA and SMA, different affecting parameters of asphalt mixtures
should be correctly considered. In this regard, by considering the
varying and constant parameters in mixtures, the results could
be analyzed.

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F.M. Nejad et al. / Construction and Building Materials 24 (2010) 11581165

Fig. 3. Coefcient of k1 in fatigue prediction equation for HMA and SMA mixtures in test temperatures.

Fig. 4. Coefcient of k2 in fatigue prediction equation for HMA and SMA mixtures in test temperatures.

Parameters such as gradation type, neness and coarseness of

gradation and the asphalt content could be considered as inuencing factors of fatigue behavior in these series of laboratory tests.
However, it should be noted that, the asphalt contents are not constant in mixtures. So its effect is considered together with the temperature or gradation properties as a constant parameter.
4.2.1. Effect of aggregate type on fatigue life
Considering the results of stiffness modulus Sm of bituminous
mixtures (Tables 4 and 5), the HMA mixtures have greater Sm than
SMA mixtures. It should be mentioned that this comparison is
made in mixtures by equal NMASs (e.g. between SMA type C and
HMA type H1 by NMAS of 9.5 mm). Thus, it can be found that
the HMA mixtures should have a greater fatigue life than SMA mixtures by the same NMAS that could also be drawn from the above
gures.

Gap-graded SMA mixtures using stone-on-stone contact, have a

structure that makes it greatly rut resistant. This comes from its
strength against the compressive stresses that is supported by its
stone matrix [2,3,11,19]. It seems that SMA are not capable of
undergoing tensile stresses that will lead to fatigue cracking [8].
On the contrary, HMA mixtures with a continuous dense graded
aggregate structure have greater interlocking between the aggregates that makes it more resistant to tensile stresses and consequently have better fatigue behavior.
4.2.2. Effect of asphalt content and gradation neness and coarseness
on fatigue life
Since all of the mixtures in this study are prepared by the optimum air void, increasing the asphalt content will make the mixture less stiff and therefore, less fatigue resistant [2]. The results
show that the SMA mixtures with greater amount of asphalt con-

F.M. Nejad et al. / Construction and Building Materials 24 (2010) 11581165

Fig. 5. Fatigue diagrams of HMA type H1 and SMA type C in 5 C.

1163

Fig. 8. Fatigue diagrams of HMA type H2 and SMA type B in 5 C.

Fig. 9. Fatigue diagrams of HMA type H2 and SMA type B in 25 C.

Fig. 6. Fatigue diagrams of HMA type H1 and SMA type C in 25 C.

Fig. 10. Fatigue diagrams of HMA type H2 and SMA type B in 40 C.

Fig. 7. Fatigue diagrams of HMA type H1 and SMA type C in 40 C.

tent have smaller fatigue lives comparing with the HMA mixture
by the same NMAS.
Considering the effect of asphalt content on fatigue life of SMA
mixtures, type C by NMAS of 9.5 mm with the asphalt content percentage of 6.5% should have a fatigue life less than type B by NMAS
of 12.5 mm and asphalt content percentage of 5.5%. But the results
do not conrm this conclusion. So it can be inferred from the results that the effect of coarseness and neness of aggregate grada-

tion on fatigue behavior is a lot more than the effects of asphalt

content [1]. Asphalt mixture with ner aggregate gradation will
show a better fatigue behavior than with coarse aggregate
gradation.
4.2.3. Combined effects on fatigue life comparison
Because of the same NMAS of 9.5 mm of SMA mixtures type C
and HMA mixtures type H1, they cannot be compared according

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F.M. Nejad et al. / Construction and Building Materials 24 (2010) 11581165

Comparing with the two types of HMA mixtures, SMA mixtures

type A are made of coarser aggregates in addition to its gap-graded
aggregate structures that makes it more vulnerable to fatigue damages. Asphalt mixtures with ner gradation have a better fatigue
behavior because of a better interlocking of the aggregates and
making a denser mixture [1]. Also, according to the stiffness modulus results (Tables 4 and 5) SMA mixtures type A have smaller
stiffness modulus than both HMA mixture types, and it is reasonable that SMA type A have a smaller fatigue life than both HMA
mixtures (Figs. 1113).
In addition to the effects of type of gradation and neness and
coarseness of gradation in decreasing the fatigue life of SMA type
A comparing with the HMA types, the percentage of AC 7.8% in
SMA type A is also effective in this respect.

5. Conclusions
Fig. 11. Fatigue diagrams of HMA types H1, H2 and SMA type A in 5 C.

In this paper a fatigue behavior comparison between SMA and

HMA mixtures were presented. The indirect tensile fatigue testing
was carried out and the following conclusions are drawn based on
the comparison performed between the two kinds of mixture:
1. Increasing the temperature will decrease the stiffness modulus
and the fatigue life of asphalt mixture. This trend is independent of the gradation type, asphalt content and other inuencing factors in fatigue behavior of asphalt mixtures.
2. Stiffness modulus and fatigue life of HMA mixtures are greater
than SMA mixtures with the same nominal maximum aggregate size in a specic test temperature that results from the gradation type effects on fatigue behavior of asphalt mixtures.
3. An asphalt mixture with ner aggregate gradation has a better
fatigue performance than with coarser aggregate gradation that
is caused by its denser nature.
4. The effects of coarseness and neness of aggregate gradation
are greatly more than the effects of asphalt content on fatigue
life of asphalt mixtures.

Fig. 12. Fatigue diagrams of HMA types H1, H2 and SMA type A in 25 C.

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Fig. 13. Fatigue diagrams of HMA types H1, H2 and SMA type A in 40 C.

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and H2 by the NMASs of 9.5 mm and 12.5 mm, respectively.

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