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Article history:
Received 23 January 2014
Received in revised form 7 March 2014
Accepted 18 March 2014
Keywords:
Plate heat exchanger
Convection heat transfer
Properties
Buoyancy
a b s t r a c t
Heat transfer of a supercritical refrigerant with highly variable properties close to pseudo-critical temperature was experimentally investigated in plate heat exchangers. Two different plate corrugation angles
(30 and 60) were examined while the Reynolds and the Prandtl number range from 800 to 4200 and
3.2 to 4.2, respectively. The results are found to be different from those obtained using classical DittusBoelter type correlations. Two possible effects were investigated: effect of wall-to-bulk property
ratio and that of buoyancy. The former was found to be important and was accounted for in the correlation using the correction factor proposed by Jackson and Hall. The latter was found not to be signicant
for corrugation angle of 60. For corrugation angle of 30, however, buoyancy effects were found to have
some inuence, yet majority of the data points are found to be within 15% of those predicted using the
correlation.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
On account of their compactness and high heat transfer coefcients, plate-type heat exchangers (PTHEs) have been increasingly
used in various industries in the past decades [13]. With improvements in manufacturing techniques and invention of novel designs,
high pressure and temperature uids can be pumped through
PTHEs [3,4]. Queensland Geothermal Energy Centre of Excellence
(QGECE) has been considering PTHE as a favorite candidate for
being used in the development of binary geothermal power cycles.
An area of major focus in QGECE is the study of power cycles with
supercritical working uids to bring about higher energy conversion efciencies for geothermal energy resources.
The term supercritical uid is used in this paper to address a
uid with a pressure higher than its critical pressure. At any supercritical pressure, there is never two distinguishable liquid and vapor phases in equilibrium. What happens instead is a gradual
transition from high-density liquid-like uid to low-density gaslike uid with an increase in the temperature. With temperature
close to pseudo-critical temperature (Tpc), the rate of this decrease
in density intensies leading to very high thermal expansion coefcients untypical to most single phase uids. Moreover, at a supercritical pressure, specic heat is considerably higher in the vicinity
of Tpc. Pseudo-critical temperature itself depends on the pressure,
Corresponding author. Tel.: +49 721 60845880.
E-mail address: p.forooghi@uq.edu.au (P. Forooghi).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2014.03.052
0017-9310/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
NuVP NuCP
ep
C
C p;b
!a1
qw
qb
a2
;
P. Forooghi, K. Hooman / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 74 (2014) 448459
Nomenclature
Latin symbols
A
area [m2]
C
correlation constant []
CP
effective wall-temperature correction factor []; Eq.
(16)
Cp
specic heat [kJ/kg K]
dh
hydraulic diameter [m]
G
mass velocity [kg/m2 s]
g
gravity acceleration [m/s2]
q q q gd3
Gr
h
HTC
i
L
m, n
_
m
N
Nu
Grashof number; b b l w h
b
enthalpy [kJ/kg]
convective heat transfer coefcient [kW/m2 K]
data point index []
plate length [m]
correlation exponents []
mass ow rate [kg/s]
total number of data points []
h
Nusselt number; HTCd
kb
Pr
Re
h
Reynolds number; Gd
l
Ri
S
T
t
TC
U
x
Richardson number; Gr
Re
standard deviation []
temperature [C]
students statistical factor [];
_ CP
thermal capacity [kJ/s K]; m
overall heat transfer coefcient [kW/m2 K]
coordinate in ow direction [m]
Greek symbols
a1,2
correlation exponents []
b
corrugation angle []
e p R T b C p dT =T b T w . Exponents a1 and a2 were sugwhere C
Tw
gested to be equal to the values used in correlation of Krasnoshchekov and Protopopov [10], which are variables themselves. In a
simpler version of their correlation, Jackson and Hall [9] proposed
constant values of 0.5 and 0.3 for a1 and a2, respectively.
A correlation of kind Eq. (1), however, may not be adequate to
predict heat transfer to or from a supercritical uid ow. In such
a uid ow, buoyancy force may affect the ow eld in a range
of Reynolds number where buoyancy is negligible in typical uid
ows. Most notable occurrence of this phenomenon is reported
for turbulent heat transfer in vertical pipes. It has been observed
that in such ows, with an increase in buoyancy forces, heat transfer is impaired, for upward ow direction, and is enhanced for
downward ow direction [1416]. For a laminar ow the converse
is true. The reason is explained as the deformation of velocity prole due to the effect of buoyancy force leading to a reduction or
enhancement of shear stress (depending on the ow direction) in
a region of ow where turbulence production is concentrated. Such
a change in the level of turbulence production is reected by a
change in the local heat transfer coefcient, which is highly sensitive to the amount of turbulence diffusivity. A detailed description
of the underlying physics can be found in [1720]. One would
expect this phenomenon be geometry-dependent but as all
above-mentioned references studied supercritical uid ow
through vertical pipes, it is hard to extend use of the existing
experimental results for plate heat exchangers. Recently, Forooghi
k
l
q
449
Subscripts
b
bulk
CP
constant property
0
f, f
uid index
G
Ethylene Glycol
HT
heat transfer
i
data point index
in
inlet
mean
mean value
out
outlet
plate
plate
R
refrigerant
VP
variable property
w
wall
Superscripts
(corr)
correlation
(exp)
experimental
Abbreviations
HTC
heat transfer coefcient
LMTD
log mean temperature difference
NWC
not wall-temperature corrected
PTHE
plate type heat exchanger
QGECE Queensland Geothermal Energy Centre of Excellence
THE
test heat exchanger
WC
wall-temperature corrected
450
P. Forooghi, K. Hooman / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 74 (2014) 448459
2. Experiments
2.1. Test facility
Fig. 2b schematically shows the test facility used for this
experimental study. There were two loops, which formed the test
facility; the refrigerant loop or the main loop in which the working uid ows and the Glycol loop or heating loop in which
Ethylene Glycol ows. 98%-pure Peruoro-butane (Molecular formula: C4F10; CAS#: 355-25-9; critical pressure: 2.32 MPa; critical
temperature: 113.2 C) was used as the refrigerant in this study
due to its low critical pressure compatible with the available
equipment. This uid shows expected trends in thermophysical
properties near its critical point (see Fig. 3). The refrigerant and
Ethylene Glycol were circulated in their (separate) loops by
means of a positive displacement pump and a centrifugal pump,
respectively. Mass ow rate of the refrigerant was measured
using a Coriolis owmeter. Before the refrigerant is pumped, it
had to be depressurized. This was done by means of an adjustable
pressure-reduction regulator. The refrigerant cooled down in a
cooler, in which water at ambient temperature was used as the
coolant. A regenerator is added to the refrigerant loop to provide
a suitable heat balance for desired temperatures. For both cooler
and regenerator, similar plate heat exchangers different from
the test heat exchanger described below were used. In order
to reduce the uctuations of mass ow rate, an accumulator lled
with compressed N2 was installed before the inlet of the refrigerant pump. This accumulator was also used to adjust the overall
volume of the refrigerant in different working conditions, to avoid
a need for recharging the loop each time. It was, in particular,
necessary because of the strong sensibility of density to temperature for supercritical working uids leading to dramatic change
in the volume once heating temperature was changed. A
costume-designed electrical oil heater was used to heat up
Ethylene Glycol to a controlled outlet temperature. The maximum
temperature of Ethylene Glycol was always kept below 180 C, in
order to avoid boiling.
The main part of the test loop was the test heat exchanger
(THE), in which the refrigerant received heat from hot Ethylene
Glycol owing in the heating loop. Two commercial brazed plate
heat exchangers, only different in their corrugation angle, were
used in turn as THEs, both of which similarly consist of 10 plates
forming 9 passages (5 in hot side and 4 in cold side). THE was installed in the loop so that the mean ow direction was vertical. The
specications of THEs are presented in Table 1. At all four ports of
the THE, temperatures were measured using four RTDs with Pt100
elements. Pressure was also measured at both inlet and outlet of
refrigerant side using high-accuracy pressure transducers with 0
3 MPa range and accuracy of 0.15%. THE and all connecting pipes
between the measurement spots were thermally insulated using
glass-ber wraps (with a thickness of at least 5 mm) in order to
avoid any heat loss and unwanted heat transfer that might affect
the results.
P. Forooghi, K. Hooman / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 74 (2014) 448459
451
Table 1
Specication of test heat exchangers.
Corrugation angle
Number of plates (including end plates)
Total heat transfer area
Cross section area (cold/hot)
Plate spacing
Plate material
Passage hydraulic diameter
Maximum working pressure
Maximum /minimum working temperature
30, 60
10
0.226 m2
8.64/10.8 104 m2
2 mm
SS316
3.2 mm
4.5 MPa
100/150 C
452
P. Forooghi, K. Hooman / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 74 (2014) 448459
Table 2
Flow arrangement and directions in different cases.
b
Case
Flow arrangement
Direction of refrigerant
30
I
II
III
Parallel-ow
Parallel-ow
Counter-ow
Upward
Downward
Upward
0.19
1.1
1.27
60
IV
V
VI
Parallel-ow
Parallel-ow
Counter-ow
Downward
Upward
Upward
1.3
0.17
1.38
_ R hout hin R :
Q exp m
exp
Q exp
:
AHT DT mean
UxdA=AHT ;
AHT
Ux
1
:
1=HTCR x 1=HTCG x 2 =kplate
Table 3
Working conditions of test loop.
Main loop
High pressure (THEa working pressure)
Low pressure
Mass-ow-rate
THE inlet temperature
THE outlet temperature
2.452.65 MPa
<0.35 MPa
0.020.1 kg/s
3075 C
84128 C
Heating loop
Maximum temperature (THE inlet)
Mass-ow-rate
Heating power
120160 C
0.171.38 kg/s
<10 kW
Obviously, only U can be directly determined from the experimental data. Precisely speaking, convective heat transfer coefcients
(HTCs) can vary in both directions (on a plate), but in this paper,
they are considered only variable in the ow direction (x), which
can be considered a 1D analysis.
In Eq. (3), DTmean is the mean temperature difference of the two
streams in the heat exchanger. Assuming 1D variation in temperatures, it can be shown that
DT mean
DT 2 DT 1
R
DT 2
1=TC R 1=TC G
dlnDT
DT 1 1=TC R 1=TC G
where subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the two ends of the heat exchanger and negative and positive signs must be used for parallel- and
counter-ow, respectively. TC stands for thermal capacity, which
is determined as
_ CP :
TC m
The integral in Eq. (6) can be found merely with knowledge of the
port temperatures. It is possible because CP is only a function of
temperature for every uid (when the variation of pressure is not
dramatic). Temperature of each uid can be found from that of
the other uid, at every point, through rst law of thermodynamics.
As a result, the whole integrant can be stated as a function of one
variable (temperature) only if the variation of CP with temperature
is known. Therefore, it is possible to calculate DTmean directly from
the experimental data.
Eq. (6) can be reduced to the well-known log-mean-temperature-difference (LMTD) formula, if CR and CG are not variable, which
is not the case here, especially for the refrigerant. Ease of use of
LMTD formula, however, may be tempting to use it instead of the
above approach, which requires some extra effort for numerical
integration. To obtain an idea about how much error the simplied
approach might introduce to the analysis, separate calculations
have been done for all data points using both approaches and the
results are presented for the percentage of error for LMTD
approach in Fig. 4. It is observed that the error is not negligible
especially when the temperature of refrigerant tends to the pseudo-critical temperature, where rate of variation in specic heat is
intensied.
All physical properties in this study were determined based on
NIST database using REFPROP software [39].
2.3. Error analysis
Error analysis in this study is based on the well-established
multiple-sample analysis approach presented in [40]. The overall
uncertainty of a quantity is equal to root-sum-square combination
P. Forooghi, K. Hooman / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 74 (2014) 448459
453
of uncertainties due to all sources of error.1 The contribution of random uncertainties, however, can be reduced to a high extent by
using the mean value out of an increased number of independent
measurements. As mentioned before, for each data point, more than
100 measurements have been made to reduce this contribution as
far as possible. Accordingpto
Moffat [40], uncertainty due to random
errors is equal to t S= N where S is standard deviation of all
measurements and N is the number of measurements. t is Students
multiplier, which is approximately 2 for N > 60.
As explained before, there are two types of measured quantities
in the present study: mass-ow-rate and temperature. All
uncertainties introduced to the experiments necessarily stem from
errors in the measurements these two quantities.
Re
G dh
lb
454
P. Forooghi, K. Hooman / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 74 (2014) 448459
Fig. 5. Heat transfer power plotted against refrigerant mass-ow-rate for both test heat exchangers. Error bars indicate on 20 to 1 uncertainty interval.
Fig. 6. Overall heat transfer coefcient plotted against refrigerant average Reynolds number for both test heat exchangers. Error bars indicate on 20 to 1 uncertainty interval.
ant side, which is the dominant side in terms of heat transfer resistance. Therefore, either a 0D approach must be used in which some
averaging practice is required or a 1D one, which accounts for the
variation of temperature, and thereby variations of other parameters. The former approach would lead to some extra uncertainty
in the results, in spite of its simplicity. Therefore, the latter approach was chosen for this study, for which the following heat balance equation was numerically solved for both refrigerant and
Ethylene Glycol streams in the entire heat transfer surface area:
Nu C Ren Pr m :
10
Nu C Ren Pr m
ep
C
C p;b
!a1
qw
qb
a2
:
11
_ f C P;f
m
dT f
Ux T f x T f 0 x;
dx
0
f ; f R; G; f f 0 ; T f x0;f T f ;in ;
HTCf x Nuf x
kb;f
:
dh
12
13
455
P. Forooghi, K. Hooman / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 74 (2014) 448459
[31]. This is quite satisfactory noting the difference between available experimental results in the literature obtained for different
heat exchangers. Furthermore, the present correlation, although
obtained for a different working uid from those of other works,
matches well with other correlations, which is an approval of the
generic nature of our analysis.
In order to investigate the wall temperature correction, it is necessary to compare the scattering intervals of both correlations with
regards to experimental data. To do that, for every data point, the
value of constant C, which exactly leads to the experimental heat
transfer coefcient U exp for that point, is obtained. Obviously,
the value of C reported in Table 4, for either WC or NWC case,
should be the mean of all single-data-point values of C for that
case. To distinguish between mean and single-data-point C, respectively, subscripts mean and i are used:
PN
C mean
Optimum values for (n, m) were found to be almost the same for
both not wall temperature corrected (NWC) and wall temperature corrected (WC) correlations, i.e. Eqs. (10) and (11), respectively. These values are (0.74, 0.35) for b = 30 and (0.71, 0.35) for
b = 60. The value of constant C is however different for the two
correlations being 0.09 (WC) and 0.076 (NWC) for b = 30 and
0.187 (WC) and 0.165 (NWC) for b = 60. A summary of the parameters is presented along with the values reported by other experimentalists in Table 4. To better compare the present correlation
with other correlations their predicted variation of Nusselt number
with Reynolds number are plotted all in the same graph (Fig. 7). A
constant Prandtl number equal to 3.6, which is the average refrigerant Prandtl number for the present study, was used in these
graphs. Both WC and NWC cases were shown in Fig. 7; since the
other works do not account for any wall-to-bulk ratio of density
and/or specic heat, the points for WC correlation in these graphs
are calculated by neglecting the correction factors in Eq. (11), i.e.
a1
a
eC
qw 2
equating C p
with unity. The prediction of WC case lies
q
p;b
perfectly within those of other correlations, while for NWC correlation, some underestimation is observed. Considering WC to be
the correct correlation (this issue will be discussed in depth later),
the present results are in best agreement with those of Okada et al.
Ci
14
Ci
C mean
U exp
:
U corr i
15
In Fig. 8, all values of Ci obtained using both WC and NWC correlations are presented. Ideally, there must be no scatter in these values. It would be the case if an ideal correlation was used, i.e. a
correlation that captures the physics of the problem in full details.
In this sense, the scatter in Fig. 8 could be considered a result of
conceptual error. There is yet another possible source of data scatter in Fig. 8 which could be the result of what addressed in the error
analysis section as the variable part of xed errors. Although care
has been taken to block any source of xed error, except for the
inevitable instrument error, it is always possible that unknown error sources emerge during the experiment. Such an error, if exists,
however, must be almost the same for both heat exchangers since
the whole experimental procedure is exactly similar for all cases
presented in Table 2. Therefore, any difference in the amount of
scatter for the two heat exchangers can only be due to the conceptual error not experimental error.
It is observed in Fig. 8 that, for b = 60, the standard deviation of
data scatter can be signicantly reduced from 12.6% to 4.6% by
including wall temperature correction. For b = 30, however, the
reduction is from 11.4% to 9.7%, which can hardly be called a meaningful improvement. In view of the above, one may argue that
using a heat transfer correlation, which accounts for wall-to-bulk
property variations, can bring about better results for b = 60 and
not for b = 30. This deduction will be further investigated in the
following paragraphs.
Table 4
Correlation parameters; comparison of the present results with other reports.
b
Reference
30
Kumar [84]
Muley and Manglik [99]
Okada et al. [72]
Thonon [95]
Present
WC
NWC
0.108
0.109
0.157
0.2267
0.090
0.076
0.703
0.703
0.66
0.631
0.74
0.33
0.33
0.4
0.33
0.35
WC
NWC
0.348
0.098
0.327
0.2946
0.187
0.165
0.663
0.782
0.65
0.700
0.71
0.33
0.33
0.4
0.33
0.35
60
Kumar [84]
Muley and Manglik [99]
Okada et al. [72]
Thonon [95]
Present
456
P. Forooghi, K. Hooman / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 74 (2014) 448459
Fig. 7. Comparison of the present correlation for Nusselt number with other works for both corrugation angles in the studied range of Reynolds number.
Fig. 8. Scattering of experimental C constant obtained from no wall corrected (up) and wall corrected (down) correlations. For each case, data are plotted against both
refrigerant average Reynolds number and Prandtl number.
P. Forooghi, K. Hooman / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 74 (2014) 448459
457
Fig. 9. Experimental C constant obtained from no wall corrected (left) and wall corrected (right) correlations plotted against effective wall temperature correction factor.
R
CF
AHT
Ren Prm
R
AHT
eC p
C p;b
a1
a2
Ren Pr m
qw
qb
16
In fact, CF measures how much, for each data point, heat transfer
coefcient is corrected because of wall-to-bulk property ratios. It
is clearly observed that, in NWC case, the value of constant C is proportional to CF. For both corrugation angles b = 30, 60, the numerical value of the slope is of the order of magnitude of one although
the trend line is somewhat steeper for b = 60. Comparing WC and
NWC results, it can be argued that, when the employed heat transfer correlation does not include the required correction due to wallto-bulk property ratio (NWC), the required correction emerges in
the value of Ci. In other word, there is a physical variable on which
the heat transfer coefcient depends but is not accounted for by the
heat transfer coefcient. For WC case, i.e. with a correlation of type
Eq. (11), this dependence is already accounted for, so C shows no
dependence on CF. It is observed that the trend lines in the right
hand side picture are also not perfectly horizontal. This is most
probably because of the use of a simplied correction factor with
constant exponents. As mentioned in the introduction, there are
more elaborated correction equations available in the literature,
among which the right choice can be made depending on the
expected accuracy. The important nding of Fig. 9 is existence of
a dependence on wall-to-bulk property ratio, which can be satisfactorily eliminated by use of a right correction equation.
3.3. Effect of buoyancy
It was shown in the previous section that, for both plate geometries, use of a heat transfer correlation, which contains a wall
temperature correction expression can remove, to a satisfactory
extent, the dependency of error on the property ratios, which
would appear if a Dittus and Boelter type correlation was used.
However, as both Figs. 8 and 9 suggest, the amount of data scatter
is only reduced by this correction for b = 60 and not for b = 30.
When WC correlation is used, the experimental data scatters within around 20% of the mean value for b = 30 which is more than 10%
bigger than that of b = 60 (considering root sum square combination of uncertainties, the extra uncertainty is approximately 15%).
As explained in the previous section, this difference in the amount
of scatter should be a result of some conceptual error. It suggests
the existence of a physical effect for b = 30 which is absent in
b = 60. It was mentioned in the introduction that buoyancy can
be able to affect the heat transfer coefcient in supercritical uids
with similar density variations to that of this problem, and its
effect is also highly geometry-dependent.
Forooghi and Hooman [21,22], numerically investigated the possible effect of buoyancy on the ow patterns and heat transfer that
can arise in a plate heat exchanger. They estimated that, in an inclined conduit, the effect of buoyancy on turbulent heat transfer
is most severe around 50% in the worst scenario for c angles
smaller than 10, where c is the angle of the conduit with the vertical direction. This effect decays as c increases and is negligible
for c larger than 50. On the other hand, studies of ow pattern inside plate heat exchangers suggest that, for both b = 30 and 60, the
dominant regime of ow inside a plate heat exchanger is ow along
furrows, which can be regarded analogous to ow in conduits that
make an angle equal to b with the vertical direction [35,38]. Based
on this fact, the effect of buoyancy in the heat exchangers with
either b angle can be roughly estimated by what Forooghi and Hooman [21] reported for the same c angle. The result would be a negligible effect for b = 60 and one with around 15 to 20% inuence for
b = 30. The gures approximately match the value of extra data
scatter observed for b = 30 in the present study. It must be reminded that the buoyancy effect could be positive or negative
depending on the ow direction being downward or upward.
To better investigate the effect of buoyancy, values of Ci for all
data points, distinguished by the direction of ow, are plotted
against Richardson number in Fig. 10. For the test heat exchanger
with b = 60, all points are within approximately 10% of the mean
value. For the one with b = 30, one out of four to ve points lie out
of this accuracy interval, all of which belong to Richardson numbers higher than a certain threshold. For the latter heat exchanger,
data scattering generally increases with Richardson number.
Richardson number is widely used as a measure of buoyancy
forces relative to viscous forces. In this work it is dened as:
Ri
Gr
;
Re
Gr
qb qb qw g d3h
:
lb
17
458
P. Forooghi, K. Hooman / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 74 (2014) 448459
Fig. 10. Experimental C constant obtained from plotted against Richardson number.
!0:5
ep
qw 0:3
C
; b 60 ;
C p;b
qb
!0:5
ep
qw 0:3
C
; b 30 ;
C p;b
qb
but any other correlation obtained through the above two-component approach can bring about satisfactory results. This idea
can be, in particular, useful because a specic correlation developed for a specic design may work the best for that design.
For a plate heat exchanger with corrugation angle of 30 there
might be up to 20% deviation in results due to the effect of
buoyancy. For the corrugation angle of 60 the buoyancy effects
are negligible.
Conict of interest
None declared.
Acknowledgments
This research paper was made possible through substantial
technical support from Mr Jason Czapla. Authors would also like
to appreciate help from staff of the School of Mechanical and
Mining Engineering Workshops in University of Queensland, in
particular, safety ofcer, Mr Hugh Russell.
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