4.16.B.

MEASUREMENT OF ULTRASOUND
VELOCITY IN LIQUIDS
Purpose of experiment
Determine ultrasound phase and group velocities.

Tasks of experiment:

Determine ultrasound wave phase velocity

Determine detector displacement dependence on reiterations of the phase overlaps.
Determine ultrasound group velocity

Theoretical topics

Sound waves, their properties, ultrasound generation and detection.

Piezoelectric effect, piezoelectric ultrasonic transformer.
Ultrasound waves propagation, propagation time.
Phase and group wave velocity, wavelength, frequency, amplitude.
Ultrasound interaction with biological tissues, ultrasound application in medicine.

Equipment and materials

Generator, oscilloscope, cables, ultrasonic pickup, glass cell, thermometer, glycerol, sodium
chloride, distilled water.

Theoretical part
Sound waves are generally described as a pressure variations that occur in the medium (solid or
fluid) due to the mechanical vibrations of a body. As a sound wave passes through the medium the
distance between the molecules or atoms of the fluid or solid are forced to change periodically.
Sound waves in a fluid or gases are longitudinal; those in a solid can be transverse or longitudinal.
Under some conditions, waves may propagate along interfaces between media; such waves are
generally referred to as surface waves.
All sound waves can exhibit the following phenomena: reflection, refraction, interference and
diffraction. When the reflection of the wave is not total, part of the wave energy can be transmitted.
The media acoustic resistance defines the amount of the energy which is reflected and transmitted.
For sound waves, the resistance Z is defined as the ratio of sound pressure p to particle velocity

v: = . The units for resistance are Pas/m.

The characteristic acoustic resistance of a medium (fluid or solid) is referred to the medium in
the open space condition where there are no obstructions to the wave which would cause the
wave to be reflected or scattered. The characteristic resistance of a material is usually denoted by
Z0, and it can be determined by the product of the mean density of the medium with the speed of
sound c in the medium. The characteristic resistance of air at room temperature is about, 410
Pas/m.

FBML - 4.16.B MEASUREMENT OF ULTRASOUND VELOCITY IN LIQUIDS

The acoustic resistance concept is particularly useful. Consider a sound wave that passes from an
initial medium with one resistance into a second medium with a different resistance. If the
resistances are identical, all of the sound energy will pass from the first medium into the second
across the interface between them. If the resistances of the two media are different, some of the
energy will be reflected back into the initial medium. Thus the resistance enables one to
characterize the acoustic transmission and reflection at the boundary of the two materials. The
difference in Z, which leads to some of the energy being reflected back into the initial medium, is
often referred to as the resistance mismatch. When the acoustic boundary conditions apply which
require that the particle velocity and pressure be continuous across the interface between the two
media, the reflection coefficient can be described by
=(

) ,

(4.16.B.1)

Where
and
are the densities of the two media. The fraction of the energy transmitted into the
second medium is given by = 1 .
Ultrasound applications
Sound waves below the frequency of human hearing are called infrasound, while sound waves with
frequency above the range of human hearing are called ultrasound. These sounds have many
interesting properties, and are being widely studied. Ultrasound is very important in medical and
industrial imaging. It also forms the basis of a growing number of medical procedures, both
diagnostic and therapeutic. Ultrasound has many applications in scientific research, especially in the
study of solids and fluids.
There has been a steady improvement in the quality of diagnostic ultrasound imaging. Two
important commercial developments have been the advent of real-time three-dimensional (3-D)
imaging and the development of hand-held scanners. Although measurements on isolated tissue
samples show that acoustic attenuation and backscatter correlate with pathology, implementing
algorithms to obtain this information on a clinical scanner is challenging at the present time.
The therapeutic use of ultrasound has blossomed in recent years. Shock-wave lithotripsy is the
predominant surgical operation for the treatment of kidney stones. Shock waves also appear to be
effective at helping heal broken bones. High-intensity focused ultrasound is used to heat tissue
selectivity so that cells can be destroyed in a local region. Ultrasonic devices appear to hold promise
for treating glaucoma, fighting cancer, and controlling internal bleeding. Advanced therapies, such
as puncturing holes in the heart, promoting localized drug delivery, and even carrying out brain
surgery through an intact skull appear to be feasible with ultrasound.
Historical measurements of sound
The first serious attempt to measure the speed of sound in liquid was probably that of the Swiss
physicist Daniel Colladon, who in 1826 conducted studies in Lake Geneva. In 1825, the Academy
of Sciences in Paris had announced as the prize competition for 1826 the measurement of the
compressibility of the principal liquids. D. Colladon measured the static compressibility of several
liquids, and he decided to check the accuracy of his measurements by measuring the speed of
sound, which depends on the compressibility. The compressibility of water computed from the
speed of sound turned out to be very close to the statically measured values. Oh yes, he won the
prize from the Academy.
In 1808, the French physicist J. B. Biot measured the speed of sound in a 1000 m long iron water
pipe in Paris by direct timing of the sound travel. He compared the arrival times of the sound
through the metal and through the air and determined that the speed is much greater in the metal. E.
Chladni had earlier studied the speed of sound in solids by noting the pitch emanating from a struck
FBML - 4.16.B MEASUREMENT OF ULTRASOUND VELOCITY IN LIQUIDS

solid bar, just as we do today. He deduced that the speed of sound in tin is about 7.5 times greater
than in air, while in copper it was about 12 times greater. J. B. Biots values for the speed in metals
agreed well with E. Chladnis.
The science of underwater technology in the 20th century is based on the remarkable tools of
transduction that the 19th century gave us. It was partly motivated by the two world wars and the
cold war and the threats raised by submarines and underwater mines. Two nonmilitary commercial
fields that have been important driving forces in underwater acoustics are geophysical prospecting
and fishing. The extraction of oil from the seafloor now supplies 25% of our total supply.
Essential to understanding underwater sound propagation is detailed knowledge about the speed of
sound in the sea. In 1924, Heckand Service published tables on the dependence of sound speed on
temperature, salinity, and pressure. Summer conditions, with strong solar heating and a warm
atmosphere, give rise to sound speeds that are higher near the surface and decrease with depth,
while winter conditions, with cooling of the surface, reverses the temperature gradient. Thus, sound
waves will bend downward under summer conditions and upward in the winter.

Methodology
The experimental setup for ultrasound velocity
measurement is displayed in Fig. 4.16.B.1. The
generator 6 sends alternate electric signal to the
probe 5 which is fixed in a holder. Alternate
electrical field applied to probe piezoelectric
crystal force the crystal to expand and contract
with the amplitude proportional to the field
amplitude. In case the applied electrical signal
has a frequency exceeding 20 kHz, such a
mechanical vibrations of a crystal make a source
of ultrasound waves propagating in the media.
The probes active layer is placed on one side of
a glass cell 3 filled with the liquid. The ultrasonic
receiver 4 which detects ultrasonic waves is
4.16.B.1 pav. Experimental setup for Ultrasound
immersed in the liquid. The registered signal is Fig.
velocity measurement: 1 measure rule; 2 receiver
sent to the oscilloscope 7, where the data is holder; 3 glass cell with water; 4 ultrasonic
analysed. The signal from the generator is also receiver; 5 probe; 6 generator; 7 osciloscope.
sent to the oscilloscope.
The generator can transmit two different types of signal: control and synchronization. The control
signal is an electric signal by which the piezoelectric crystal is stimulated, in other words, the
control signal directly repeats the ultrasound signal sent by the probe. The synchronization signal is
a rectangular pulse which is used in the oscilloscope as a trigger. Using the trigger signals, the
generated pulses can be related to the detected pulses in a time scale.
The wave phase velocity cph is the rate at which the phase of the wave propagates in space. This is
the velocity at which the phase of any wave component travels in medium. The phase velocity is

calculated as a ratio of the wavelength and period T: = .

In order to estimate phase velocity, the receivers position in the liquid is changed while registering
the number of ultrasound wavelengths in the displacement. For this research stage, the control
signal from the generator is used and the number of points where control and receiver signals
overlap is calculated.
The receiver signal phase difference from the starting point depends on the distance l between the
probe and the receiver:

FBML - 4.16.B MEASUREMENT OF ULTRASOUND VELOCITY IN LIQUIDS

(4.16.B.2)

At the points where the phase difference reappears, the phase difference can be written as:

n 2 ;

(4.16.B.3)

here n number of repetitions.

The ultrasound wavelength is determined:

l
l
2 .

(4.16.B.4)

When the sound frequency is known, the phase velocity is calculated:

c f .

(4.16.B.5)

Group velocity describes velocity at which the pulse, group of waves, propagate through the space.
In order to evaluate ultrasound group velocity, the probe transmits an ultrasound pulse and the delay
time () of the received pulse (compared with the synchronization pulse) is measured with the
oscilloscope. Group velocity is calculated by comparing delay time with the displacement of the
receiver (l):

c gr

l
.

(4.16.B.6)

Group and phase velocities are interdependent:

c gr c f

dc f
d

(4.16.B.7)

If phase and group velocities are equal (cgr= cph) within the limits of measurement error, then there
is no dispersion:
dc f
d

0.

(4.16.B.8)

Procedures
1. Prepare the experimental setup (Fig. 4.16.B.1): connect the ultrasound probe to the generators
Ultrasonic Head plug 3 (Fig. 4.16.B.2), the ultrasonic pickup to the oscilloscope CH1 plug 11
(Fig. 4.16.B.3), connect the generator Monitor plug 5 (Fig. 4.16.B.2) to the oscilloscope CH2
plug 11 (Fig. 4.16.B.3).
2. Wet the sound-radiating surface of the generator with glycerol or water in order to improve the
connectivity and place it against the wall of the glass cell.
3. Fill the glass cell 3 (Fig. 4.16.B.1) with distilled water in such a way that the water level is
higher than the top of the ultrasound probe active layer.
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4. The ultrasound receiver 4 (Fig. 4.16.B.1) is immersed in water in the glass cell as close to the
probe 5 as possible (Fig. 4.16.B.1).
5. Switch on the generator 6 (Fig. 4.16.B.1) and oscilloscope 7 (Fig. 4.16.B.1).
6. Rotate generator knob Amplitude 1 (Fig. 4.16.B.2) clockwise until the signal is clearly seen
on the oscilloscope screen. The generator button Operating mode 2 (Fig. 4.16.B.2) should be
switched to Cont mode 2.2 (Fig. 4.16.B.2).
7. Observe the two signals on the oscilloscope screen (input signal in CH1 and detected signal in
CH2) and overlap their phases by rotating the generator Phase 7 (Fig. 4.16.B.2) and Frequency
6 (Fig. 4.16.B.2) knobs.
8. Write down the position l0 of the ultrasonic pick-up holder 2 (Fig. 4.16.B.1) (on the ruler 1
(Fig. 4.16.B.1)).
9. Move the holder 2 (Fig. 4.16.B.1) of the ultrasound pick-up away from the ultrasound probe 5
(Fig. 4.16.B.1) while counting the reiterations of the phase overlaps. Write down positions of holder
(l1, l2, ...), when the phase reiterates 5, 10, 15, ... times.
10. Calculate the displacements l li l0 of the holder, here i number of measurements.
11. Calculate the ultrasound wavelength i (4.16.B.4 formula) for each measurement. Calculate the
average ultrasound wavelength vid.
12. Calculate the phase ultrasound velocity cph (4.16.B.5 formula) using the average ultrasound
wavelength.
13. Fill in the data in Table 1.
Table 1.

vid

cph

14. Plot the graph ll(n).

15. Connect the oscilloscope cable from the generator Monitor plug (5) to Synchr plug (4)
(Fig. 4.16.B.2). Now the oscilloscope will receive the synchronization pulse.
16. Choose a higher time scale value on the oscilloscope (on the front oscilloscope panel
Horizontal Position 1 (Fig. 4.16.B.3) block rotate SEC/DIV knob counter clockwise) until the
signal is seen in a wide time interval.
17. Move the ultrasound pick up close to the ultrasound probe (around 1 cm away).
18. Switch the generator to pulse mode with the button Imp. 2.1 (Fig. 4.16.B.2). In pulse mode
the Generator creates a very loud noise so it is recommended that the pulse mode be used as briefly
as possible. The oscilloscope image on the screen can be stopped by pressing the oscilloscope
button Run/Stop 6 (Fig. 4.16.B.3). After stopping the image you can switch the generator to
continuous mode Cont 2.2 (Fig. 4.16.B.2).
19. Write down the position l0 of the ultrasonic pick-up holder 2 (Fig. 4.16.B.1) (on the ruler 1
(Fig. 4.16.B.1)) and measure the pulse delay 0 (time duration between synchronisation and detected
pulses). Press the Cursor button (15; Fig. 4.16.B.3) on the oscilloscope front panel. At the bottom
of the screen in the Type window (above H1 button) Time mode should be switched on. If
Time mode is not switched on, then press the H1 button 16 (Fig. 4.16.B.3) and press the F3
button in the newly opened window to switch on Time mode. Cursors on the screen can be
moved with the VERTICAL POSITION (17; Fig. 4.16.B.3) knobs. The values of the cursors and
the difference between the values are written in the bottom left corner of the screen.
20. Moving the pick-up holder away from the probe, write down the positions (l1, l2, ...) of the
holder and measure the pulse delays (1, 2, ...) for several points.

FBML - 4.16.B MEASUREMENT OF ULTRASOUND VELOCITY IN LIQUIDS

21. Calculate the group velocity for each measurement: c gr =

li l0
, here i number of
i 0

measurements.
22. Calculate the average ultrasound group velocity.
23. Fill in the data in Table 2.
Table 2.
i

cgr_i

cgr

24. Plot the graph ll().

25. Compare measured phase and group velocity values. Also compare measured velocity values
with theoretical values.
Table 3. Ultrasound velocity in various liquids
Liquid

Temperature, C

Velocity, m/s

Glycerol
Glycerol
Distilled water

20
25
25

1923
1904
1497

Thermal constant of
velocity (m/(sC))
-1,8
-2,2
2,5

References:
1. Thomas D. Rossing (ed.), Springer handbook of acoustics, New York N.Y.: Springer, 1182
psl., 2007.
2. B.H.Brown, P.V. Lawford, R.H. Smallwood, D.R. Hose, D.C.Barber, Medical physics,
Taylor& Francis, 1999, 736 p.
3. G.B.Benedek, F.M.H. Villars. Physics with Illustrative Examples from Medicine and Biology:
Mechanics, 2nd edition, Springer-Verlag, 2000.
4. Arthur C. Guyton, John E. Hall, Textbook of medical physiology, Philadelphia Pa.:
Saunders/Elsevier (2011).

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Appendix 1
Generator front panel
1. "Amplitude" adjusting knob with on/off
switching function: for adjustment of the sound
output in sine mode.
2. "Operating mode" key: The "Operating
mode" key is for switching from "Sine mode" to
"Pulse mode" or vice versa. In sine mode, the
synchronous output supplies a continuous
sinusoidal oscillation. In pulse mode, it supplies
a series of pulses of 500 Hz frequency and
constant amplitude.
2.1. "Sine mode" diode.
2.2. "Pulse mode" diode.
Fig. 4.16.B.2. Generator front panel
3. "Ultrasonic Head" output: output with BNC
output socket which serves for connection of the sound head.
4. "Synchro" output: BNC output socket for external triggering of an oscilloscope connected to
the "Monitor" output. Synchronous and excitation voltages are coupled for the same frequency and
fixed phase. The synchronous output supplies a sine voltage 5 V, when operated in the sine
mode, or a positive pulse voltage 5 V in pulse mode operation.
5. "Monitor" output: BNC output socket for connection of an oscilloscope. The monitor voltage
has the same frequency as the excitation voltage. When operated in sine mode, the monitor output
voltage is proportional to the excitation voltage that is set and is max. 5 Vss. In pulse mode, a series
of positive ~5 V amplitude pulses are applied to the monitor output. Monitor and excitation pulses
start practically simultaneously.
6. "Frequency" adjusting knob: in sine mode, the "Frequency" adjusting knob serves to set the
frequency of the output signal within the approx. 780 kHz to 830 kHz range.
7. "Phase" adjusting knob: in sine mode, the "Phase" adjusting knob allows a phase displacement
between the excitation and monitor voltages of about 150.
8. "Frequency" display: in sine mode, this shows the frequency at the output.

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Appendix 2
Oscilloscope front panel
15.

17.

18.

16.

Fig. 4.17.B.3. Oscilloscope front panel

1 Power On/Off button.

2 Display Area.
3 F1-F5 menu function buttons.
4 Multipurpose-knob.
5 Menu keys.
6 Run/Stop button.
7 Trigger-control.
8 Horizontal-control. HORIZONTAL POSITION knob controls position of the trigger,
SEC/DIV knob controls the time scale, HORIZ MENU button switches on the menu of
additional time scale parameters.
9 Probe compensation: Signal output (5V/1KHz).
10 External trigger input plug.
11 Signal Input plugs: CH1 and CH2 channels.
12 CH1 and CH2 channels vertical position control buttons. CH1 MENU and CH2 MENU
buttons bring up the CH1 and CH2 channels parameters menu, Math button brings up the
mathematics operations menu, in which 6 different mathematics operations can be chosen: CH1CH2, CH2-CH1, CH1+CH2, CH1*CH2, CH1/CH2 and FFT. Two VERTICAL POSITION
knobs control CH1 and CH2 channels vertical positions, two VOLTS/DIV knobs control CH1
and CH2 channels voltage scales.
13 Menu Off buttons.
14 H1-H5 menu function buttons.
15 Cursor button which switches on cursors for measuring.
16 H1 button selects the Time mode .
17 VERTICAL POSITION knobs with which the cursors can be controlled.
18 SEC/DIV knob with which the time scale can be tuned.

FBML - 4.16.B MEASUREMENT OF ULTRASOUND VELOCITY IN LIQUIDS