Well Test Complete

1 Testing overview
Introduction
Accurate, long-term projections about a reservoir cannot be made based on wireline data alone.
Well tests must be run at the surface in order to gain more information about a reservoir. This
topic provides an overview of well testing. It describes why and when reservoirs are tested, what
is measured during testing, and what information is derived from testing. Well testing activities
can be divided into two major phases: data acquisition and data interpretation.
Why Is a Reservoir Tested?

Reservoirs are tested to answer questions about the reservoir that cannot be answered by wireline
and other techniques such as mud logging, coring, electrical logging, and seismic measurements.
Although extremely valuable, these techniques provide information only about static reservoir
conditions:
Porosity
Lithology
Rock type
Formation dip
Water saturation
Well testing is required to answer critical questions about the reservoir. By measuring relevant
parameters under dynamic conditions, these questions can be answered:
Will the reservoir flow?

What quantity of hydrocarbons are in place?
What quality of hydrocarbons exist?
How long will it be productive?
How long will it be profitable?
When Is a Reservoir Tested?

Tests on oil and gas wells are performed at various stages in the life of a well. Traditionally, a
well is tested after logging is finished and before or after the well is completed. It is also
common for a well to be tested one or more times during its life.
What Is Measured During a Test?

Data is gathered during the data acquisition phase. This topic describes the parameters that are
acquired when a reservoir is tested.
Flowrate values
Fluid flow rate (Q) values are obtained using surface testing equipment. To bring the well
fluids to surface where they can be handled and measured with surface testing equipment,
a flow path is needed between the reservoir (downhole) and surface. The path the fluid
takes is provided either by the well's permanent completion (tubing) or a temporary
completion called drill stem test (DST) string.
Pressure and temperature
Initial reservoir pressure and pressure and temperature behavior are acquired from
downhole pressure (P) and temperature (T) values. These values are recorded using
electronic pressure sensors or gauges that are placed at the reservoir either in the DST
string or hung on a cable (slickline or electrical line).
PVT data
Fluid from the reservoir is identified using PVT (pressure, volume, and temperature)
values. PVT data is derived from samples that are taken either at the surface or downhole
using sampling techniques and equipment. PVT values are obtained from the lab analysis
of these samples.
Porosity values
Porosity values ( ) are obtained from wireline open-hole log data and/or coring.
What Is Derived from a Test?

During the interpretation phase, the data acquired during testing is used to make evaluations.
Using the parameters acquired in the data acquisition phase, the following can be calculated:
Reservoir parameters:
o Permeability (k)
o Heterogeneity parameters (lambda [
o Hydraulic fracture parameter (Xf)
o Initial reservoir pressure (pi)
], omega [ ], kappa [ ])
Well parameters:
o Near well-bore formation damage: skin factor (S)
o Inflow performance relationship (IPR)
o Wellbore storage coefficient (C)
Geometry of the reservoir and its extent:

Reserve quantities
Hydraulic communication between wells
The accuracy of these evaluations during the interpretation stage is closely related to the
accuracy and the quality of the data collected during the data acquisition phase.
Different Types of Well Tests

The following are the typical well tests:
Exploration tests (oil or gas)

Productivity tests (oil or gas)
Injection tests
Interference tests
Pulse tests
Slug tests
Layered tests
Well Test Setup Diagram

See the "Well Test Setup" figure for a diagram of a well test setup.
Main Services Provided in Well Testing

The following lists the main services performed in well testing:
Surface testing
Downhole testing (e.g., DST)
Sampling
Data acquisition (surface and downhole)
Slickline
2. Surface Testing
Introduction
In order to accurately test a reservoir, tests must be run at the surface and downhole. Because
current technology does not allow all test equipment to function in a downhole environment,
surface testing is required. This training page describes the dynamic conditions under which well
tests must be performed, lists the surface testing equipment used to perform well tests,
summarizes how this equipment is used to collect samples at the surface and lists several
considerations that influence the layout of surface equipment.
Testing a Reservoir under Dynamic Conditions

A reservoir test can only be performed under dynamic conditions. This means the reservoir must
be exposed to a disturbance which will cause the reservoir pressure to change. This pressure
change, when recorded and interpreted along with the measured flowrates, will yield information
about well and reservoir parameters and geometry.
Creating a Pressure Disturbance

How a pressure disturbance is created depends on whether the reservoir is producing or shut
down:
If the well has been shut for a long time, the best way to create a pressure disturbance is
to flow the reservoir; this is called a drawdown.
If the well has been flowing for a long time, a pressure disturbance can be creating by
shutting the well; this is called a buildup. A pressure disturbance can also be created in a
flowing well by either increasing or decreasing the flowrate.
Surface Testing Equipment

In reservoir engineering, a period in which the well experiences changes in pressure is known as
a pressure transient. At the surface, the fluids produced during pressure transients must be
handled using temporary equipment. This is true because, in most cases, permanent production
facilities have not yet been installed. The temporary surface testing equipment must safely and
reliably perform a wide range of functions:
Quickly control pressure and flowrates at the surface and shut the well.
Separate the resulting effluent into three separate fluids (oil, gas and water) and
accurately meter these fluids.
Collect surface samples.
Dispose of the resulting fluids in an environmentally safe manner.
The following is a list of surface testing equipment:
Flowhead
Choke manifold
Emergency shut down (ESD) system
Heat exchanger
Separator
Tanks
Transfer pumps
Oil and gas manifolds
Burners and booms
Piping
Layout of Surface Testing Equipment

The surface equipment and the layout of the surface equipment needed to perform well tests
differs considerably depending on the type of environment, well conditions, and the client
requirements.
The following figure shows a typical offshore layout of surface testing equipment.
These are some of the considerations that dictate how surface equipment should be set up:
Location:
Land operation
Offshore operation
Well conditions:
High flowrate and high pressure

Effluent properties (oil properties and hydrate formation)
Sand production
Corrosive fluids (H2S, CO2, acid)
3. Equipment layout
Introduction
Prior to setting up the equipment for a well test, the equipment layout must be defined. The
layout diagram defines which pieces of surface testing equipment are to be used, identifies where
the equipment is located (zones and recommended distances), illustrates the sequence in which
the equipment is connected, and shows the general piping layout.
The surface testing layout varies according to these factors:
Location (offshore or onshore)

Type of well effluent (oil or gas)
Well effluent characteristics (high pressure, high flow rates, or high viscosity)
Safety regulations (some equipment is restricted to certain zones)
The various combinations of these factors makes it possible to have many different layouts. Four
typical surface testing layouts are described in this training page.
Objectives
Upon completion of this package, you should be able to:
Draw a typical offshore surface testing equipment layout with the recommended safety
distances.
Draw a typical onshore surface testing equipment layout with the recommended safety
distances.
Give the definitions for safety zones 1 and 2.
Applications
The individual pieces of equipment that make up the surface testing layout are put together for
the purpose of producing the well at the surface, measuring the different components of the well
effluent, taking component samples, and disposing of the well effluent in an environmentally
safe manner.
Four typical surface testing layouts are described in this training page:
Standard onshore setup

Standard offshore setup
High flow rate setup
High viscosity oil or foaming oil setup
Standard Onshore Layout
A typical layout for testing an onshore oil well is shown in "Onshore Surface Testing Layout"
drawing.
Although the order in which the surface testing equipment is connected is similar for all layouts,
equipment selection and placement can vary. The following text describes how safety
considerations and well effluent characteristics affect equipment selection and placement.
The required pressure rating for the flowhead, choke manifold, and separator depends on the
expected wellhead pressure and flow rates.
To reduce the length of the high pressure flow line between the flowhead and the choke
manifold, the choke manifold is located on the rig floor. This limits the length of piping with
high pressure flow. Placing the choke manifold on the rig floor also reduces the pressure drop
between the flowhead and the choke manifold, where the wellhead pressure and temperature are
monitored. The closer the choke manifold is to the wellhead, the more accurate the wellhead
pressure and temperature readings.
The gauge tank is positioned downwind of the drilling rig. Because the gas from the gauge tank
is vented to the atmosphere, it's important to keep the gas as far away from the working area as
possible.
The transfer pump is used to empty the tank to the burning pit. This layout does not use burners
to burn off oil and gas. Instead, oil and gas are driven to a burning pit with tubing joints
connected on the ground. Tubing joints should be at least 300 ft long and secured to the ground,
if high flow rates are expected. Today, burners are more frequently used than burning pits on
land, for both safety and environmental reasons.
The emergency shutdown system (ESD) is designed to shut off the well in case of an emergency.
Standard Offshore Layout
A typical layout for testing an offshore well is shown in the "Offshore Surface Testing Layout"
drawing. All the standard equipment used onshore is also used offshore.
Because space is scarce on offshore rigs, the space that's allotted for well testing equipment
dictates many layout decisions.
This layout uses a gauge tank instead of a surge tank. A surge tank is mandatory only when H2S
gas is present because H2S must be burned, not released to the atmosphere. To burn the gas
coming out of the surge tank, an additional gas line must be connected to the surge tank. Surge
tanks are used more frequently offshore because its vertical tank takes up less deck space than
the horizontal gauge tank.
Some offshore rigs have permanent piping to facilitate the connection between the different
pieces of equipment. The permanent piping is located inside the gray area shown in the
"Offshore Surface Testing Layout" diagram.
Offshore, two burners mounted on booms, one on each side of the rig, are used to dispose of the
oil and the gas. One burner or the other is used, depending on the wind direction. Burners require
compressed air to properly burn the oil and propane is necessary to supply the pilot lights for the
burners.
Identical to onshore layouts where burners are used, oil and gas manifolds are required to divert
the oil and gas coming out of the separator. A water pump is used to inject water into the oil
flame at the burner, which improves combustion, and to create a water screen behind the burner,
which reduces heat radiation.
High Flow Rate Layout
Although most tests worldwide are run with flow rates up to 5000 BOPD or 30 MMscf/D, flow
rates that surpass separator capacity are sometimes encountered. In these cases, the well testing
layout typically includes a parallel arrangement of several separators and choke manifolds to
handle the higher flow rates.
The "Surface Testing Layout for High Flow Rate Test" drawing shows an example of an onshore
high flow rate layout with two separators and two choke manifolds connected in parallel. Each
separator has its own gas and oil flare lines going to the burning pit. These lines should be at
least 1000 ft long and anchored to the ground. The size of the piping that connects the different
elements should be selected based on the expected flow rates. Correct piping size prevents very
high fluid velocities, large pressure losses, and overpressurization of the equipment.
For very high flow rate wells, the intensity of the heat generated at the burners makes it
dangerous and unsafe to use the standard burner and booms attached to the rig. To test these
types of wells, the effluent must either be injected into a pipeline or burned at a permanent flare
system far away from the rig.
High Viscosity Oil or Foaming Oil Layout
The main problems encountered with high viscosity oil are:
Flowing the well to surface

Flowing the well through the surface equipment
Separating oil from gas and oil from water
Measuring each phase
Obtaining samples
Disposing effectively of oil without creating pollution
Reducing the viscosity of the oil is the key to minimizing these problems. The following text
focuses on the equipment and additives that reduce the viscosity of the oil, making it easier to
flow the well through the surface testing equipment. It also addresses prevention of hydrate
formation and foaming.
The (American Petroleum Institute) API definition of oil gravity is a function of the viscosity,
temperature, and amount of tar in the oil. API oil gravity is used as an indicator of viscosity.
Before a high viscosity well can be tested (with only minor modifications to equipment and
procedures), oil gravity must be above 10o API (viscosity below 300 centipoises).
Viscosity is reduced downhole by either heating the oil or by injecting diesel, gas, or steam into
the well. At the surface, viscosity is reduced by adding a heater or steam exchanger to heat the
well effluent before it enters the separator. The "Surface Testing Layout for a Gas Well or
Viscous Oil Test" drawing shows an onshore surface testing layout that includes a heater.
To prevent the formation of hydrates (common with gas wells), a pump can be used to inject
glycol upstream of the choke manifold.
When foaming oil is expected, silicon additives are injected, if heat is not sufficient to reduce or
eliminate the foam. Additives are injected as close as possible to the point where the foam
occurs.
Safety
The general safety considerations related to the layout of the surface testing equipment are:
Equipment layout and spacing must be done in accordance with classified zones.
All of the pieces of surface testing equipment must be grounded.
The electrical connection required for certain pieces of surface testing equipment, such as the
transfer pump or the laboratory cabin, must be safe and approved.
Piping used for high pressure wells must be anchored.
Piping must be color coded to identify the working pressure of the pipe. It is helpful if the piping
is labeled to identify the fluids passing through it.
The dominate wind direction must be identified to properly orient equipment that vents or
burns gas.
Classified Zones
The information in this topic describes why classified zones were established, defines the
classified zones, and identifies which pieces of surface testing equipment are associated with
which zones.
A well site is classified into areas, zones, or divisions based upon the probability that flammable
gases or vapors may be present around a specific piece of equipment. For safety purposes, both
the API and French Association of the Oil and Gas Explorers and Producers have defined such
zones.
The following paragraphs rank classified zones from most to least hazardous and define each
zone. Zone restrictions don't dictate the placement of all well test equipment. For example, the
ESD and the oil and gas manifolds, although usually placed in zone 2, are not restricted to a
specific zone. However, other well test equipment is restricted to certain zones as described
below.
Zone 0
Area or enclosed space where any flammable or explosive substance (gas, vapor, or volatile
liquid) is continuously present in a concentration that's within the flammable limits for the
substance. The borehole or the well below the wellhead is zone 0.
Zone 1
Area where any flammable or explosive substance (gas, vapor, or volatile liquid) is processed,
handled, or stored; and where, during normal operations, an explosive or ignitable
concentration of the substance is likely to occur in sufficient quantity to produce a hazard.
The gauge tank is placed in a zone 1 because the presence of flammable gases in the
immediate vicinity of the gauge tank vent is normal.
Most of the electric-driven transfer pumps are designed for use in zone 1, however,
their use in this zone may be subject to geographical restrictions or client approvals.
At the choke manifold samples of well effluent are taken, typically at the beginning of a
test. Because sampling causes some gas to be released to the atmosphere, the choke
manifold is usually placed in zone 1.
Because the flowhead is used as a means of introducing tools into the well during a well
test, the area around the flowhead is classified as zone 1, otherwise the area around the
flowhead is classified as zone 2.
Zone 2
Area where any flammable or explosive substance (gas, vapor, or volatile liquid) is processed
and stored under controlled conditions. The production of an explosive or ignitable
concentration of such a substance in sufficient quantity to constitute a hazard is only likely to
occur under abnormal conditions.
The separator is placed in zone 2 because the separator only releases flammable gases
or vapors under abnormal conditions, such as a leak.
Diesel-driven transfer pumps can be located in zone 2 if they are equipped with
automatic shut down devices, spark arrestors, inertia starters or special electrical
starters.
The indirect heater must be located in zone 2 because it uses a naked flame to heat well
effluent. Because its surfaces can reach high temperatures, the steam exchanger is also
restricted to zone 2.
Clean Zone
Area where no flammable or explosive substances are processed, handled, or stored. This zone
is also referred to as a non-hazardous or safe area. An example of a clean zone is the living
quarters of an offshore drilling rig.
Note: Schlumberger's safety procedures recommend not overlapping classified zones within a
well testing layout.
Safety Standards
The following drawings identify, for both onshore and offshore surface testing layouts, which
pieces of surface testing equipment are associated with which zones.
This list summarizes the key points illustrated in the "Onshore Safety Standards" and the
"Offshore Safety Standards" drawings.
Onshore, the area around the flowhead is classified as zone 2 within a radius of 15 m (45 ft) and
offshore it is classified as zone 2 within a radius of 10 m (30ft).
In the event the separator vessel is overpressurized, the rupture disc will burst releasing effluent
to the atmosphere. Because of this risk, the area around the separator rupture disc pipe is
classified as zone 1 within a radius of 5 m (15 ft) and as zone 2 within a radius of 10 m (30 ft).
For both offshore and onshore layouts, the area (3 m or 15 ft) above the roof of the gauge tank
is classified as zone 1.
Recommended Distances
The following drawings show how the recommended distances between different pieces of
equipment affect the onshore and offshore surface testing layout.
This list summarizes the key points illustrated in the "Onshore Recommended Distances" and the
"Offshore Recommended Distances" drawings.
Onshore, the separator should be located 25 m (75 ft) away from the wellhead. Offshore this
distance may be reduced to 13 m (40 ft).
Onshore, the heater / steam exchanger should be located 30 m (90 ft) away from the wellhead.
Offshore this distance may be reduced to 10 m (30 ft).
Onshore, the gauge tank should be located 30 m (90 ft) from the wellhead. Offshore, this
distance may be reduced to 25 m (75 ft).
Onshore, the distance between the separator and the heater should be 30 m (90 ft). Offshore,
this distance can be reduced to 3 m (10 ft).
Onshore, the distance between the gauge tank and the separator should be 25 m (75 ft).
Offshore, this distance can be reduced to 15 m (45 ft).
Onshore, the distance between the heater and the gauge tank should be 30 m (90 ft). Offshore,
this distance can be reduced to 15 m (45 ft).
For more information about how zones for petroleum sites are classified, see the references listed
for this training page.
Summary
In this training page, we have discussed:
Four typical well testing layouts:

o standard onshore layout
o standard offshore layout
o high flow rate layout
o high viscosity and foaming oil layout
The different classified zones and their definitions.

The safety standards for an offshore and onshore well testing equipment layout.
The recommended distances for an offshore and onshore well testing equipment layout
Self Test
1.
2.
3.
4.
What factors influence a surface testing layout?

Why would you locate the choke manifold as close as possible to the flowhead?
Why is a well site divided into zones?
Give the definition of zone 1.
Equipment
A) Flow head
This training page is divided into the following main headings:
Introduction
Objectives
Principles of Operation
Equipment
Safety
Maintenance
Summary
Self Test
References / Other Useful Links
Introduction
Introduction
Objectives
Equipment
The "Surface Test Equipment" figure shows where the flowhead is located
in relationship to the other surface testing equipment. The flowhead is
located directly on top of the well and is the first piece of equipment that
fluid from the well flows through. Its principal function is to control the
fluid flow in and out of the well.
The flowhead can be used to provide temporary shut off at the surface for:
pre-completion testing
drill stem testing (DST)
post-completion testing (carried out without the use of a christmas tree)
After the well is tested and completed, a permanent assembly of surface equipment (referred to
as the christmas tree) replaces the flowhead and will provide shut off services.
The flowhead has five principal functions:
It supports the weight of the test string.

It allows up-and-down (reciprocal) movement of the test string; if a swivel is attached it also
allows rotation of the test string. Whether or not a swivel is needed depends on the type of
downhole test equipment used. Some tools can be completely operated using up and down
movements, some will need to be rotated, and others will require both types of movement.
It controls flow out of the well through a flow valve.
It allows a kill line to be connected so the well can be killed off after a testing operation is done
or during an emergency. The kill line is essential to control the pressure in the well. Pressure
control is necessary to pull the downhole test string out of the well after testing is complete and
is essential for safety. For example, if the downhole pressure is too great, the tool string could
be shot up through the rig floor.
It allows tools to be introduced into the well through the swab valve.
Objectives
Explain the purpose of a flowhead.

Explain the operating principles for flowheads and swivels.
Explain the function of the different parts of the flowhead.
Describe the various types of flowheads and their applications and limitations.
Upon completion of the practical exercises for the Flowhead, you should be able to:
List the specifications for the flowhead that you are working on.
Document the procedures for pressure testing a flowhead and swivel, both at the shop and at
the well site.
Using the flowhead provided, study the complete fast inspection tool (FIT) and tool review and
inspection monthly (TRIM) as described in the maintenance manual for the flowhead, and study
the Field Operating Handbook (FOH) for Surface Well testing.
The flowhead consists of four gate valves: a master valve, two wing valves, and a swab valve.
The outlet wing valve is opened and closed using an hydraulic actuator. Above the swab valve is
a lifting subassembly (sub) with a threaded connection. The threaded connection is often called
a quick union. The quick union is used to connect auxiliary pressure equipment which is needed
if tools are to be run downhole. Some flowheads have a protection frame bolted to the main
block to prevent damage to the valves during handling. Beneath the optional swivel are the
master valve assembly and the bottom sub. In order to raise and lower a drill stem test (DST)
string, elevators (clamps) are attached to the flowhead. Each of the elements that comprise the
flowhead or that can be attached to the flowhead are described later in this topic.
Basic to the operation of the flowhead is the opening and closing of valves in a particular
sequence or order depending on what operation needs to be done. The following list describes
several common operations and provides figures that show the typical status of the valves for
these operations. The valve settings may change depending on whether other operations must be
performed simultaneously.
Build up and set packer
Build up describes the time period when the well is shut

down and pressure is building up in the well. One way to set
the valves when you are shutting down the well is shown in
the "Build Up/Set Packer" figure.
As a part of the drill stem test (DST), a packer is set
downhole to isolate the zone to be tested, typical valve
settings for this operation are also shown in the "Build Up/Set
Packer" figure.
Drawdown
Drawdown describes the time period when the well is open. For
this operation, the valves are set so fluids can flow to the surface
as shown in the "Drawdown" figure.
Killing and acidizing
To stop the well from producing, the well is killed by

injecting a fluid inside the well that has a greater density than
the well effluent. The typical valve settings for this operation
are shown in the "Killing/Acidizing" figure.
Acid is injected into the well to improve well production by
enlarging the passages through which the reservoir flows. The
"Killing/Acidizing" figure shows the typical valve settings for
this operation.
Running tools downhole

To run tools downhole, one way to set the valves for this
operation is shown in the "Running Tools Downhole" figure. The
swab and master valve will always remain open when the tools
are downhole.
The following list describes the elements of a flowhead from the bottom up:
Bottom sub
The bottom sub connects the test string to the flowhead. It also
protects the threads at the bottom of the flowhead. (Replacing a sub
is inexpensive compared to remachining the flowhead threads.)
Master valve
The master valve, connected to the top of the test string, isolates the
surface equipment from the downhole string. It is the first valve at
the surface to control the fluid coming from downhole. The master
valve is manually operated.
Swivel
The flowhead swivel is inserted between the master valve and the
main valve block. It allows the subsurface equipment to be rotated
with respect to the main flowhead block. Using a swivel, it is possible
to rotate the subsurface equipment without disconnecting the flow
line or the kill line. An example of this is using the swivel to set the
drill stem test (DST) packer downhole.
The swivel is designed to allow rotation of the subsurface string (at speeds slower than 25 rpm)
under pressure, while supporting the weight of the whole subsurface string. Roller bearings are
used to support the significant weight of the test string and the downhole tools. Ball bearings are
used to support the lighter weight of the flowhead and the equipment above the flowhead.
Wing valves
The outlet wing valve allows fluids to flow from the well to the
process equipment. It is normally closed. To open it, an hydraulic
actuator is used. This actuator is usually connected to an
emergency shutdown (ESD) system. If the surface pressure
exceeds a preset value or suddenly drops, indicating a surface
equipment failure, the ESD is automatically activated by pressure
pilots or manually activated from a push button station to close
the wing valve.
The inlet wing valve, manually operated, allows fluid to be
pumped into the well. Typical examples are: pumping mud into
the formation to contain reservoir pressure, injecting acid into the
formation to increase production, or high pressure injecting of a
fluid to enlarge the passages through which the reservoir flows.
Hydraulic actuator
The hydraulic actuator is a safety device that operates the flowhead outlet wing valve. The valve
is normally closed. Pressure needs to be applied to the actuator to compress the spring and open
the valve.
The pressure needed to keep the valve open can be provided with a simple hand pump which, in
an emergency, is bled off on the rig floor. However, a more sophisticated system called an
emergency shut down (ESD) is recommended because it allows the actuator to be activated
remotely.
Wing union connection

Both wing valves are equipped with wing unions connections. They allow quick connection or
disconnection of pipe work using a sledge hammer.
Swab valve
The manually operated swab valve allows introduction and
retrieval of wireline tools.
Lifting sub
The lifting sub, located above the swab valve, allows the
flowhead to be handled using the rig elevators.The top part of
the sub is fitted with threads which allow pressure equipment to
be connected onto the flowhead.
Elevator
Elevators are used for many drilling-related operations; for the flowhead, the elevator latches
onto the flowhead to raise and lower the entire test string in and out of the hole.
Pressure equipment
A set of equipment that is temporarily placed above the swab valve on top of the flowhead. It is
used to run tools into a well under pressure without having to close the well.
Equipment
Flowheads are available in working pressure ratings of 3,000; 5,000; 10,000; and 15,000 psi. The
biggest difference between flowheads are the gate valves. Schlumberger uses gate valves from
several manufacturers: Malbranque, McEvoy, and Worldwide Oilfield Machine (WOM) Inc. The
wide range of flowheads available makes it possible to select a flowhead to accommodate all
types of well tests, without having to use equipment that is larger, more complicated, or
expensive than the overall project requires.
These drawings show examples of several types of flowheads and a swivel. For each drawing,
specifications are provided.
Description The FHT-AS flowhead is a lightweight, compact flowhead for low-pressure

operations. The main assembly consists of two wing valves with inte-gral swivel joint. Attached
to the top of the main assembly are a swab valve and lifting sub with quick union for wireline
equipment. Beneath the swivel are the master valve assembly and saver sub.
The master valve allows isolation of the sur-face equipment from the downhole test string.
The swab valve allows introduction and retrieval of wireline tools or a tubing-conveyed
perforating drop bar, for example.
The flowhead has two wing valves, one allowing fluid to flow from the well and the other for
pumping into the well. The wing valves are equipped with WECO hammer unions for quick
connection/disconnection of pipework.
The valves are manually operated gate valves.
Specifications
Certifying authority
None
Design codes
API 6A
Assembly number
M-834246
Project code
FHT-AS
Working pressure
3000 psi [207 bar]
Test pressure
6000 psi [415 bar]
Maximum load
At 0 psi
At working
pressure
Protection
90,000 lbf
61,000 lbf
Marine anticorrosion coating
Nominal valve ID
Master valve/swab valve 2 9 16 in. [65 mm]
Wing valves
2 1 16 in. [52 mm]
API 6A classifications
Product specification
level
Fluid classification
Temperature
classification
PSL 1
AA (general service)
P+U, 20 to 250F [28 to 121C]
Connections
Swab and master valves 3 5 8 -in. -4 Acme box-box
Wireline quick union * 5-in. -4 Acme box
(3 1 2 -in. [88.9-mm] ID box for 5000psi lubricators)
Flowline
2-in. Fig. 602 M hammer union
Kill line
2-in. Fig. 602 F hammer union
Maximum
Minimum
3000 ft-lbf
2000 ft-lbf
Dimensions
Length
Width
Depth
Lifting sub diameter
Weight
66 in. [1.67 m]
41 in. [1.03 m]
24 in. [0.61 m]
3 1 2 in. [88.9 mm]
2200 lbm [1000 kg]
* Delivered with plug fitted with 1 2 -in. NPT pressure port
Description The well test flowhead consists of four gate valves. The main block contains a swab
valve and two wing valves, one with a hydraulic actuator. Attached to the top of the main block
is a lifting sub with a quick union for wireline equipment.
A protection frame is bolted to the main block. Beneath the optional swivel are the master valve
assembly and saver sub. The master valve allows isolation of the surface equipment from the
downhole test string. The swab valve allows introduction and retrieval of wireline tools.
pumping into the well. The flowline valve is normally closed and is operated by a hydraulic
actuator, which is usually connected to an emer-gency shutdown system.
(See separate data sheet for information on swivel assembly.)
Specifications
Det Norske Veritas
Design codes
DNV Drill "N," DOE

SI 289
API 6A, NACE MR
01 75
Assembly number
P-579047
P-579048
Project code
FHT-F
FHT-G
Working pressure
5000 psi [345 bar]
10,000 psi [690 bar]
Test pressure
10,000 psi [690 bar]
15,000 psi [1034

bar]
Maximum load
At 0 psi
At working
pressure
300,000 lbm
200,000 lbm
490,000 lbm
300,000 lbm
3000 ft-lbf
2000 ft-lbf
7500 ft-lbf
4000 ft-lbf
Makeup torque
Maximum
Minimum
Protection
Marine anticorrosion
coating
Nominal valve ID
Master valve/swab valve 2 9 16 in. [65 mm]
Wing valves
2 1 16 in. [52 mm]
level
Temperature
classification
PSL2
PSL3
DD
EE
P+U, 20 to 250F [28
to 121C]
Connections
Master valve (box)
Wireline quick union *
Flowline
Kill line
Dimensions
Length
Width
Depth (including
protective frame)
Weight
4 1 2 -in. -4 Stub
Acme
6 1 2 -in. -4 Acme
3-in. Fig. 1002 M
3-in. Fig. 1002 F/M
6 1 2 -in. -4 Acme
6 1 2 -in. -4 Acme
3-in. Fig. 1502 M
3-in. Fig. 1502 F/M
149 in. [3.78 m]

37 in. [0.94 m]
149 in. [3.78 m]

39 in. [0.99 m]
35 in. [0.89 m]
35.5 in. [0.90 m]
4410 lbm [2000 kg]
5000 lbm [2265 kg]
* Delivered with plug fitted with 1 2 -in. NPT

pressure port
Description
The well test flowhead consists of four gate valves. The main block contains a swab valve and
two wing valves, one with a hydraulic actua-tor. Attached to the top of the main block is lifting
sub with a quick union for wireline equipment.
A protection frame is bolted to the main block. Beneath the optional swivel are the master valve
assembly and saver sub. The master valve allows isolation of the surface equipment from the
downhole test string. The swab valve allows introduction and retrieval of wireline tools.
pumping into the well. The flowline valve is normally closed and is operated by a hydraulic
actuator, which is usually connected to an emer-gency shutdown system.
(See separate data sheet for information on swivel assembly.)
Specifications
Det Norske Veritas
Design codes
DNV Drill N, DOE

SI 289
API 6A, NACE MR
01 75
Assembly number
P-839688
P-873654
Project code
FHT-DM
FHT-HM
Working pressure
15,000 psi [1034 bar] 15,000 psi [1034 bar]
Test pressure
22,500 psi [1380 bar] 22,500 psi [1380 bar]
Maximum load
At 0 psi
At working
pressure
661,400 lbf
322,900 lbf
661,400 lbf
322,900 lbf
7500 ft-lbf
4000 ft-lbf
7500 ft-lbf
4000 ft-lbf
Makeup torque
Maximum
Minimum
Protection
coating
PSL3
level
EE (H2S, CO2)
Temperature
P+U, 20 to 250F
classification
PSL3
EE (H2S, CO2)
P+X, 20 to 320F
Connections
Master valve (box)
Wireline quick union
Flowline
Kill line
Dimensions
Length
Width
Depth (including
protective frame)
Weight
* 6 1 2 -in. -4 Acme
Hostile
7-in. -5 Acme, 3-in. 7-in. -5 Acme, 3-in.
ID
ID
3-in. Fig. 2202 M
3-in. Fig. 2202 M
3-in. Fig. 2202 F/M 3-in. Fig. 2202 F/M
6 1 2 -in. -4 Acme
157 in. [3.99 m]

59.5 in. [1.51 m]
157 in. [3.99 m]

59.5 in. [1.51 m]
65 in. [1.65 m]
65 in. [1.65 m]
8600 lbm [3900 kg] 8600 lbm [3900 kg]
Option
Graylock HUB connectors can replace Fig. 2202 WECO Unions.
* The 6 1 2 -in. -4 Acme Hostile connections are not
interchangeable with the 6 1 2 -in. -4 Acme connections of FHTDM.
Description
The flowhead swivel is inserted between the flow-head master valve
and the main valve block. With the flowhead swivel, the test string
suspended from the flowhead can be rotated independently of the main
flowhead block (for example, when setting a packer or for emer-gency
disconnection of a subsea test tree). The swivel should not be rotated
when pressurized.
Specifications
Det Norske Veritas
Design codes
DNV Drill N, DOE SI

289
API 6A, NACE MR 01
75
Assembly number
M-838710
M-832758
M-832683
Project code
FHS-B
FHS-C
FHS-D
Working pressure
5000 psi
[345 bar]
10,000 psi
[690 bar]
15,000 psi
[1034 bar]
Test pressure
10,000 psi
[690 bar]
15,000 psi
[1034 bar]
22,500 psi
[1550 bar]
Nominal ID (drift)
3 1 8 in. [79 mm]
3 1 16 in. [78 mm] 3 1 16 in. [78 mm]
Maximum load without

rotation
At 0 psi
At working pressure
300,000 lbf
200,000 lbf
Connections
4 1 2 -in. -4 Acme
Protection
coating
Product specification level
Temperature classification
490,000 lbf
300,000 lbf
661,400 lbf
322,900 lbf
6 1 2 -in. -4 Acme 6 1 2 -in. -4 Acme
PSL 2
PSL 3
DD (H2S)
EE (H2S, CO2)
P+U
P+U
20 to 250F [28 to 121C]
PSL 3
EE (H2S, CO2)
P+U
Makeup torque
Maximum
Minimum
Dimensions
Total length
Makeup length
Diameter
Weight
3000 ft-lbf
2000 ft-lbf
42.5 in. [1.08 m]

32.7 in. [0.83 m]
12.6 in. [0.32 m]
880 lbm [400 kg]
7500 ft-lbf
4000 ft-lbf
48.5 in. [1.23 m]

38.0 in. [0.96 m]
15.3 in. [0.39 m]
1210 lbm [550 kg]
7500 ft-lbf
4000 ft-lbf
48.5 in. [1.23 m]

38.0 in. [0.96 m]
15.3 in. [0.39 m]
1210 lbm [550 kg]
The 15,000-psi FHC-DC "hostile" swivel has a temperature rating to 320F (API 6A, P+X).
Flowheads from these manufacturers currently satisfy the Schlumberger pressure operation
guidelines for surface pressure control:
A minimum of two primary pressure barriers must be used in the flow path: the master valve
and the flow line valve.
The valves must be rated at least 1.2 times the maximum expected shut-in wellhead pressure.
The maximum pressure that can be used to test the flowhead at the well site is the working
pressure.
When the surface equipment includes a swivel, it must always be located downstream of the
master valve.
Flowhead Selection Guidelines
The principal criteria for selecting a flowhead are:
Project requirements (some jobs will require christmas tree equipment).

Pressure rating greater than 1.2 times the expected shut-in well-head pressure.
Required service type (operating environment): H2S resistant or not H2S resistant.
Fluid temperature: high or low.
Additional selection considerations are:
Swivel requirement (mandatory with some downhole tools requiring rotation).

Connection (cross-over) requirements for test string, flow line, and the kill line.
Pressure equipment may require quick-union compatibility.
Emergency shut-down (ESD) system needed for hydraulic actuator.
Internal diameter of the flowhead.
Flowhead Identification
The flowhead can be identified by its working pressure (WP) rating and service type. The
information can be on: a metal plate, a permanently attached metal ring, or a dot that is stamped
on a noncritical area of the flowhead. It is also typical to use colored bands (painted or taped) on
the flowhead for quick visual identification of flowhead pressure and service type.
Safety
The following is a list of key safety considerations for flowheads:
A flowhead is a safety device. As such, they must be maintained in perfect condition and
operated by competent people.
Only Schlumberger employees are allowed to operate flowhead controls.
Do not lift the flowhead by the eye bolts that are fitted to some flowheads. The eye bolts are
not designed to support the weight of the flowhead.
During testing, numerous hydraulic hoses overcrowd the rig floor. Make sure the flowhead
control hoses are neatly laid down, located, and well marked.
Do not use steel hammers to tighten wing union connections. Brass or copper hammers must be
used to prevent sparks. The brass or copper hammer must be in good condition to avoid injuries
from metal chips that can break off of these hammers.
Always open a well slowly using the master valve to avoid the shock from a large pressure kick
which can occur due to the difference in pressure between the atmosphere and the well.
For all types of gate valves, count the number of turns to open and close each valve, then back
up the valves one-quarter turn to make it easier to open and close valves and to prevent
sticking.
For wireline jobs, make sure that the wireline string is totally inside the lubricator before closing
the swab or the master valve. If these valves are closed on the wireline string, they could be
damaged or cause damage to other equipment.
Make sure there are always enough piping lengths on the wing valves to manipulate the tool
string and to compensate for up and down movement (heave) of the offshore rig so the
flowhead is never submitted to lateral forces. On offshore rigs, the string is fixed but the rig will
heave. Sufficient piping must be used between the flowhead and the choke manifold (flowline)
and between the flowhead and the pump (kill line) to compensate for this movement.
After every job, the flowhead must be cleaned thoroughly to prevent corrosion from well fluids.
To determine if a connection is backing off, all connections on the flowhead are marked with
chalk or paint to easily recognize if a connection has loosened.
Always remove all valve handles from the flowhead after opening or closing them to prevent
handles from falling onto the rig floor as the flowhead is manipulated.
Maintenance
For information about flowhead preparation and functional checks, see the recommended steps
in the "Field Operating Handbook (FOH) for Surface Well Testing."
For infomation about equipment maintenance, see the maintenance manuals for the flowhead and
the "FOH for Surface Well Testing."
Summary
The five principle functions of the flowhead.

Each of the components that make up a typical flowhead.
The swivel's main application is its ability to rotate the subsurface equipment without
disconnecting the flowline and the kill line.
How the hydraulic actuator, connected to the outlet wing valve, operates to safely and quickly
shut down the flowline.
Valve settings (open-closed) for four common flowhead operations.
The criteria for selecting a flowhead.
Self Test
1.
2.
3.
4.
List the five principal functions of the flowhead.

What is the purpose of the swab valve?
When is a swivel needed?
If you are monitoring the well head pressure at the choke manifold during a build up, which
flowhead valves should be open?
5. Why is the outlet wing valve equipped with an hydraulic actuator?
6. When rigging up the flowhead, how can you verify that the connections do not back off?
b) Choke manifold
Introduction
The choke manifold is used to control the fluid from

the well by reducing the flowing pressure and by
achieving a constant flow rate before the fluid enters
the processing equipment on the surface.
When testing a well, the aim is to impose critical
flow across the choke. When critical flow is
achieved, changes in pressure and flow rate made
downstream from the choke do not affect downhole
pressure and flow rate.
Features and Benefits
The choke manifold has the following features and benefits:
four gate valves used to isolate the choke boxes on either side of the choke manifold.
an adjustable choke to gain quick control of the well and to change fixed choke beans without
interrupting the flow.
a fixed choke box to insert calibrated choke beans of different diameters, depending on the
pressure and flow rate required.
tapping points for measurement of the upstream and downstream pressures.
thermometer well inserted in the flow path allowing the fluid temperature to be monitored.
The choke manifold, with a design featuring a fixed and adjustable choke, is a versatile piece of
equipment. At both chokes, the size of the orifice that fluid flows through can be varied,
allowing maximum control over fluid flow rate and pressure. In addition, the adjustable choke
makes it possible to control flow pressure without stopping the well, further enhancing the
flexibility of the system.
The combination of a fixed and adjustable choke allows the choke manifold to achieve various
flow rates (low and high) as needed to support well testing requirements and client
specifications.
Applications
The choke manifold is part of the minimum set of surface testing equipment needed when a well
is being tested. It is used whenever the fluid flow rate and pressure need to be controlled or
altered for the purpose of testing the well.
This package is divided into the following main headings:
Introduction
Objectives
Equipment
Safety
Maintenance
Summary
Self Test
Introduction
The "Surface Test Equipment" figure shows where the choke manifold is located in relation to
the other surface testing equipment. The choke manifold is downstream of the flowhead. Its
principal function is to control flowrate and pressure. Fluid flows from the flowhead to the choke
manifold, where flowrate and pressure are reduced by the restrictive orifices in the choke
manifold.
A choke device is used for a number of purposes at the surface or downhole. For example,
chokes can be used downhole as safety devices to control the formation of hydrate (solid
chemical compounds of hydrocarbons and water). Its principal use is to control flow rate and
pressure at the well head. This topic focuses on the surface choke, commonly used during testing
and production.
During production, a choke is located in the flow line where the well fluids leave the christmas
tree.
During testing, a special piece of equipment, the choke manifold, is used. The choke manifold
has a fixed and an adjustable choke. The fixed choke has a fixed diameter. The size of the orifice
on the adjustable choke can be varied. In addition the adjustable choke allows fixed chokes to be
switched out as needed without stopping the well, increasing the flexibility of the overall system.
The surface choke has these principle functions:
It allows wellhead pressure to be controlled, improving safety.

It maintains a certain flow rate, as required for testing. A test can require different flow rates
over several time periods, requiring the use of different choke sizes.
It prevents formation sand from entering the well by limiting the flow rate. Limiting the flow
rate reduces the speed of the fluid, which in turn, minimizes the amount of sand entering the
well.
It also prevents water and gas coning by limiting the flow rate.
It is also used to ensure that the flow is critical, meaning that the pressure fluctuations
downstream of the choke manifold do not affect downhole pressure and flow rate of the well.
(As a rule of thumb, critical flow is obtained when the downstream choke pressure is
approximately 0.6 times the upstream pressure.)
Objectives
Upon completion of this package, a person should be able to:
Explain the purpose of a choke manifold.

Explain the operating principles for choke manifolds.
Describe the various types of choke manifolds, their applications and limitations.
Describe the function of each component of the choke manifold.
Describe how to change the choke when the well is flowing.
Upon completion of the practical exercises for this package, a person should be able to:
Write a procedure that tells how to pressure-test and operate a choke manifold.
Using the choke manifold provided, review fast inspection tool (FIT) and tool review and
inspection monthly (TRIM) procedures for the choke manifold as per the maintenance manual.
Dismantle and reassemble the adjustable choke assembly.
The choke manifold controls the fluid produced from the well by imposing a constant flow rate.
A choke is simply a device used to restrict fluid flow and the choke manifold usually has two
choke boxes that house two chokes: one is usually adjustable, while the other is fixed.
The choke manifold has an upstream (high pressure) side and a downstream (low pressure) side.
It is vitally important to know, at a glance, which side is which because the valves and spacers
can be rated for different working pressures. However, today most valves have the same pressure
rating on both sides, making the valves interchangeable.
Flow can be directed through one choke or the other, or through both in parallel. It is important
to know the exact diameter of the choke when making pressure and flow rate measurements
because the choke size is part of the flow rate calculation and the flow rate description. It's
standard to include the choke size when describing flow rate: "2,000 barrels a day on a 1/2-inch
choke."
A typical choke operation involves switching the flow from the adjustable choke side to the fixed
choke side to change the pressure or flow rate. First the well is opened to flow fluid through the
adjustable choke that has been preset to a specific diameter. (This is done before the upstream
valve on the choke manifold is opened.) The adjustable choke size is changed until the required
wellhead pressure or flow rate is attained. The proper choke size to choose for a specified flow
rate can be estimated from choke performance charts that show the relationships between choke
size, pressure, and flow rates. When the required pressure is reached and is stable, the graduated
barrel on the adjustable choke is read and the corresponding size of fixed choke bean is put in the
fixed choke box. If the adjustable choke reading is 1/2-inch, then the 1/2-inch choke bean is put
in the fixed choke box. The flow can then be diverted through the fixed choke.
Gate valves
The four manual valves on the choke manifold are gate valves. These valves are arranged so the
flow can be directed through one of two choke boxes that contain either a fixed or an adjustable
choke. The downstream gate valves can have a different working pressure rating than the
upstream gate valves. This is especially true for older choke manifolds; for choke manifolds
manufactured today, the four valves have identical pressure ratings and are interchangeable.
Tapping points
Both inlet and outlet (Y-shaped) of the choke manifold have four 1/2-inch National Pipe Threads
(NPT) tapping points or holes. These holes connect temperature and pressure gauges, either
mechanical or electrical, to monitor the pressure and temperature of effluent during a test. All
the pressure tapping points are fitted with a needle valve so the gauges can easily be isolated.
Tapping points are also used to collect samples for quick on-site analysis.
On the upstream side, three holes are used to connect independent pressure recorders that
monitor the well head pressure. The fourth hole usually has a thermometric well installed
so that a simple mercury thermometer or an electric thermometer can be inserted to
measure temperature.
The downstream side is identical to the upstream side: one hole is usually fitted with a
thermometric well and the other holes are used to monitor the downstream choke
pressure.
Independent pressure/temperature recorders
The following types of independent pressure recorders are used to to monitor the wellhead
pressure. Its important to note that, more and more, mechanical measuring devices are used as
backups due to the widespread use of electrical sensors that are connected to a computer.
a Bourdon tube pressure gauge quickly provides an indication of the upstream pressure.
a dead weight tester (DWT) accurately measures the well head pressure.
a chart pressure recorder keeps track of the behavior of the well-head pressure during
the test.
thermometer, either electrical or mercury.
Fixed choke
On one side of the choke manifold, calibrated choke beans are used to control flow rate through
the fixed choke box. Each bean is a specific diameter, usually in graduations of 1/64-inch, and is
screwed into the choke box. These are the most common sizes (in inches) of choke beans used:
1/8, 3/16, 1/4, 5/16, 3/8, 7/16, 1/2, 9/16, 5/8, 3/4, 7/8, 1, 1-1/4, and 1-1/2. Depending on the
type of equipment used, the size of the choke bean can be as large as 3 inches. (In the field the
term fixed choke is used to refer to the fixed choke bean.)
The fixed choke box is equipped with a 1/2 inch-NPT hole connection that is used to
bleed off the pressure before changing the bean.
Adjustable choke
An adjustable or variable choke manifold is a variable geometry orifice that is fitted on one side
of the choke manifold. It allows the size of the orifice that fluids flow through to be changed,
and it permits the fixed choke to be changed out without interrupting the fluid flow from the
well. The adjustable choke is a conical plug against a tapered seat. Flow control is obtained by
turning the external handwheel which opens or closes the choke. A graduated barrel on the axle
indicates the orifice size. The seat for the adjustable choke looks similar to the choke beans for
the fixed choke; however they are different, both in the length and in the shape of the inlet.
Don't put the seat from an adjustable choke inside the fixed choke.
Because the size of the opening varies, flow rate calculations for adjustable chokes may
not be as accurate as flow rate calculations for fixed chokes.
Adjustable chokes are particularly vulnerable to erosion from suspended sand particles.
The adjustable choke is not designed to work as a valve.
Seats are available in the following sizes: 1-inch , 1-1/4 inch, and 1-1/2 inch. Depending
on the type of equipment used, the size of the choke seat can be as large as 3 inches.
The fixed choke box is equipped with a 1/2 inch-NPT hole connection that is used to
bleed off the pressure before changing the seat.
Bleed off port

On both choke boxes, the bleed off port is also used to connect a hose, one end of which is
immersed in a bucket of water. At the very beginning of a test, if effluent does not reach the
surface the hose and bucket can be used to check whether air/gas flow exists. During the cleanup period, this hose can also be used to collect fluid samples at surface to measure the amount
of basic sediments and water (BSW).
Centrifuge
BSW is measured with a manual or electric centrifuge which separates the sample into its
components according to their densities. The percentage of oil, water and sediments is read
directly from the graduated glass tubes in which the sample was taken. This check will ensure
that the flow will not be diverted to the separator before less than 1% of BSW is obtained so the
separator will not be filled with sediments.
Sniffer
At the same time a fluid sample is taken, you can measure the gas concentration, typically CO2
and or H2S, using a sniffer. The reactive tube connected to the sniffer is made of glass and
contains a reactive material for the gas that it measures. The concentration of gas is measured
by the graduated lines in the reactive tube.
Weco connections
Both the inlet and outlet of the choke manifold are equipped with Weco hammer wing union
connectors to allow quick connection and/or disconnection to other equipment.
Equipment
Pressure Ratings for Choke Manifolds
Choke manifolds are available in 3,000; 5,000; 10,000; and 15,000 psi. The choke manifolds in
the following figures satisfy the Schlumberger pressure operations guidelines for surface testing
equipment. The wide range of choke manifolds available makes it possible to select a choke
manifold that accommodates the well tests required, while not being larger, more complicated, or
expensive than the overall project requires.
The choke manifolds used by Schlumberger can be assembled with gate valves from several
different manufacturers: Malbranque, McEvoy, and WOM.
These figures show examples of several types of choke manifolds and list their specifications.
Description
The choke manifold is used for controlling flow rate and for reducing the effluent pressure to
acceptable levels before it enters the process equipment.
The choke manifold is composed of four gate valves, a variable choke box, a fixed choke box
and tapping points for measurement of upstream and downstream pressures. A thermometer
well is usually provided. Each choke box has a pressure bleedoff port that is fitted with a needle
valve.
The manifold is skid mounted and comes with an integral storage box for a fixed choke set,
valve handles and other accessories.
Specifications
None
Design codes
API 6A
Assembly number
M-834275
Project code
FMF-AA
Integral bypass valve
NO
Working pressure
3000 psi [207 bar]
Test pressure
6,000 psi [415 bar]
Nominal ID (drift)
2 1 16 in. [52 mm]
Adjustable choke size
1 1 4 in. [32 mm]
Choke bean series
D-52
Protection
Fluid classi ication
PSL 1
AA
P+U, 20 to 250F [28 to 121C]
Connections
Inlet
Outlet
2-in. Fig. 602 F/M WECO Union

2-in. Fig. 602 M WECO Union
Dimensions
Length
27.5 in. [0.7 m]
Width
40.5 in. [1.03 m]
Height
23 in. [0.58 m]
Height to centerline of inlet / outlet 8.5 in. [0.22 m]
Weight
590 lbm [260 kg]
Description
The choke manifold is used for controlling flow rate and for reducing the effluent pressure to
The choke manifold is composed of four gate valves (five if a bypass valve is included), a
variable choke box, a fixed choke box and tapping points for measurement of upstream and
downstream pressures. A thermometer well is usually provided. Each choke box has a pressure
bleedoff port that is fitted with a needle valve.
The manifold is skid mounted and comes with an integral storage box for a fixed choke set, valve
handles and other accessories.
Specifications
Det Norske Veritas
Design codes
DNV Drill N, DOE SI 289

API 6A, NACE MR 01 75
Assembly number
M-873331
M-873330
Project code
FMF-BBS
FMF-D *
Yes
No
Working pressure
5000 psi [345 bar]
5000 psi [345 bar]
Test pressure
10,000 psi [690 bar]
10,000 psi [690 bar]
Nominal ID (drift)
3 1 8 in. [79 mm]
3 1 8 in. [79 mm]
1 1 2 in. [38 mm]
1 1 2 in. [38 mm]
Choke bean series
D-58
D-58
Protection
coating
PSL 2
DD (H2S)
P+U, 20 to 250F [28 to 121C]
Connections
Outlet
Inlet
Dimensions
Length
Width
Height
Height to centerline of inlet /
outlet
Weight
3-in. Fig. 1002 M WECO

Union
3-in. Fig. 1002 F WECO Union
63 in. [1.59 m]
81 in. [2.05 m]
38 in. [0.96 m]
70 in. [1.78 m]
72 in. [1.84 m]
38 in. [0.96 m]
13 in. [0.33 m]
13 in. [0.33 m]
5350 lbm [2390 kg]
4450 lbm [2000 kg]
* The FMF-D is not shaped as overleaf but has Y inlet and outlet pieces.
Description
The choke manifold is used for controlling flow rate and reducing the effluent pressure to
variable choke box, a fixed choke box and tapping points for measuring upstream and
Specifications
Det Norske Veritas
Design codes

Assembly number
P-579052
P-579053
Project code
FMF-F
FMF-G
No
No
Working pressure
5000 psi [345 bar]
10,000 psi [690 bar]
Test pressure
10,000 psi [690 bar]
15,000 psi [1035 bar]
Nominal ID (drift)
3 1 8 in. [79 mm]
3 1 16 in. [78 mm]
1 1 2 in. [38 mm]
2 in. [51 mm]
Choke bean series
D-58
D-72
Protection
PSL 2
PSL 3
DD (H2S)
EE (H2S, CO2)
P+U, 20 to 250F [28 to 121C]
Connections
Inlet (WECO Union)
Outlet (WECO Union)
3-in. Fig. 1002 F

3-in. Fig. 1002 M
Dimensions
Length
70.1 in. [1782 mm]
Width
72.4 in. [1839 mm]
Height
37.6 in. [955 mm]
Height to centerline of inlet / outlet 13.0 in. [330 mm]
Weight
4000 lbm [1820 kg]
3-in. Fig. 1502 F

3-in. Fig. 1502 M
77.3 in. [1965 mm]
77.5 in. [1970 mm]
38.8 in. [986 mm]
13.0 in. [330 mm]
4500 lbm [2040 kg]
Description
variable choke box, a fixed choke box and tapping points for measuring upstream and
Specifications
Det Norske Veritas
Design codes

Assembly number
M-837771
M-838980
Project code
FMF-ABJ
FMF-CCM
Yes
No
Working pressure
10,000 psi [690 bar]
10,000 psi [690 bar]
Test pressure
15,000 psi [1035 bar]
15,000 psi [1035 bar]
Nominal ID (drift)
3 1 16 in. [78 mm]
3 1 16 in. [78 mm]
2 in. [51 mm]
2 in. [51 mm]
Choke bean series
D-72
D-72
Protection
PSL 2
DD (H2S)
P+U, 20 to 250F [28 to 121C]
Connections
Outlet
Inlet
3-in. Fig. 1502 F/M WECO Union
Dimensions
Length
80.3 in. [2040 mm]
63.6 in. [1620 mm]
Width
94.5 in. [2400 mm]
94.5 in. [2400 mm]
Height
35.4 in. [900 mm]
35.4 in. [900 mm]
Height to centerline of inlet / outlet 21.7 in. [550 mm]
21.7 in. [550 mm]
Weight
4950 lbm [2250 kg]
3850 lbm [1750 kg]
Description
The choke manifold is composed of four gate valves, a variable choke box, a fixed choke box
and tapping points for measuring upstream and downstream pressures. A thermometer well is
usually provided. Each choke box has a pressure bleedoff port fitted with a needle valve.
The manifold is skid mounted and comes with integral storage boxes for a fixed choke set, valve
handles and other accessories. Inlet and outlet connections are 3-in. Fig. 2202 WECO unions, or
CIW/Graylock hubs when metal-to-metal seals are required.
Specifications
Det Norske Veritas

equivalent
Design codes
DNV Drill N, DOE SI

289
Working pressure
15,000 psi [1035 bar]
Test pressure
22,500 psi [1380 bar]
Nominal valve ID
2 9 16 in. [65 mm]
2 in. [51 mm]
Choke bean series
Cameron Unitaper
Protection
coating
PSL 3
EE (H2S, CO2)
P+U, 20 to 250F [28 to

121C]
Connections
Inlet
3-in. Fig. 2202 F WECO

Union
(optional 3 1 16 -in.
CIW hubs)
Outlet
3-in. Fig. 2202 M WECO
Union
(optional Graylock C-25
hubs)
Dimensions
Length
65 in. [1.64 m]
Width
105 in. [2.67 m]
Height
44 in. [1.22 m]
Height to centerline of inlet / outlet
27 in. [0.69 m]
Weight
2800 lbm [1270 kg]
Choke Manifold Identification
The choke manifold can be identified by its working pressure (WP) rating and service type. This
information can be on a metal plate, on a permanently attached metal ring, or on a dot that is
stamped on a noncritical area of the choke manifold. It is also typical to use colored bands
(painted or taped) on the flowhead for quick visual identification of flowhead pressure and
service type.
Safety
The following is a list of key safety considerations for choke manifolds:
When diverting flow, always open one valve before closing another. This practice prevents flow
interruption and pressure buildup upstream of the valves.
Never flow through the manifold if the chokes are not in place. Corrosive fluids and/or sand
particles can erode the threads in the choke boxes.
Do not use the adjustable choke to stop the flow, you can break the stem tip.
Always count the number of turns to open and close each valve, then back up the valves onequarter turn to make it easier to open and close valves and to prevent sticking.
Do not use steel hammers to tighten Weco connections. Brass or copper hammers must be used
to prevent sparks. These hammers must be in good condition to avoid injuries from brass or
copper chips that can break off during use.
Beware of trapped pressure--pressure can kill. Always bleed off pressure using the bleed off port
before changing a choke.
Stay upwind when taking fluid samples and wear safety goggles to prevent injury. Fluid can
contain dangerous effluents, such as H2S acid.
Maintenance
For information about choke manifold preparation and functional checks, see the recommended
steps in the "Field Operating Handbook (FOH) for Surface Well Testing."
For information about equipment maintenance, see the maintenance manuals for the choke
manifold and the "FOH for Surface Well Testing."
Summary
The principle functions of the choke manifold.

How to perform a typical choke manifold operation: switching the flow from the adjustable to
the fixed choke.
An important benefit of the adjustable choke is that it allows the fixed choke to be changed
without interrupting the fluid flow from the well.
Calibrated choke beans are used to control flow rate through the fixed choke box.
Self Test
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What is the role of a choke manifold?

Why is the choke manifold equipped with an adjustable choke and a fixed choke?
Why is it important to establish critical flow across the choke manifold?
What measurements are usually monitored at the choke manifold?
When a well is open and the effluent does not reach the surface, how can you determine
whether the well will produce?
6. During the cleanup phase, a well is flowing through the adjustable choke and the upstream
pressure is building up rapidly. What is the probable cause of the upstream build up? What
action should you take?
c) EMERGENCY SHUTDOWN
Introduction
The emergency shut down (ESD) is used when quick closure is necessary due to a pipe leak or
burst, equipment malfunction, fire, or similar emergency. The ESD system allows a flow line
valve to be safely closed
from a remote station or
from the ESD console.
The ESD system can be connected to the hydraulic flowhead valve or any other single-action,
fail-safe hydraulically activated valve, provided that the pressure required to open the valve does
not exceed the ESD limit of 6,000 psi hydraulic pressure.
In well testing operations, the ESD controls the hydraulically-operated flow line valve on the
flowhead; if required by the surface testing setup, it can also control an additional safety valve
(not shown) which is sometimes located upstream of the choke. Pressure is applied from the ESD
to open valves and released to close valves.
The ESD is push-button activated from ESD stations located at the separator, the heater/steam
exchanger, and the tank. An additional station is commonly positioned at an escape route. To
back up these stations, hi/lo-pressure pilots are located on the flowline upstream of the choke
manifold, upstream of heater/steam exchanger, and upstream of the separator. The hi-pressure
pilot initiates well closure when the pressure in the flow line rises above a high-level threshold
(line plugged), and the lo-pressure pilot initiates well closure when the pressure falls below a
low-level threshold (flow line rupture or leak).
The ESD is powered from air supplied from the rig. If this air supply fails, the ESD has an air
storage tank that can supply air to ESD stations and pressure pilot lines. This tank supplies air to
the air circuit lines, but not to the hydraulic pump that opens the flowhead valve. The quantity of
air required to operate the hydraulic pump is too great to be stored in the air tank. A check valve
is installed between the tank and the hydraulic pump to prevent any tank air from going to the
hydraulic pump. If you want to open the flowhead valve in this situation, you need to use the
manual pump at the ESD.
Objectives
Explain the purpose of the emergency shut down (ESD) system.

Explain the operating principles for the ESD.
Describe the setup of the ESD system used in your location.

Explain how the different parts of the ESD work.
Upon completion of the practical exercises for this package, you should be able to:
Rig up the ESD system with hi/lo-pilots and manually-operated buttons.

Function test the hydraulic actuator on the flowhead with the ESD.
Dismantle and reassemble the V4 interface valve and the hi/lo-pilots.
ESD Push-Button Stations
This sequence of drawings shows how the ESD is activated from its idle state (no pressure
applied) to its triggered state when the system is activated from an ESD station.
ESD idle
The ESD contains two circuits: hydraulic (oil) and pneumatic (air). These circuits are linked
together via the hydraulic-pneumatic V4 interface valve.
The hydraulic fluid flows from an air-driven hydraulic pump to the actuator on the surface
safety valve through the V4 valve. (A manual pump can replace the air-driven pump.) Because
the V4 valve is normally closed, the hydraulic fluid is bled off to the tank and there is no
pressure build up in the hose that goes to the actuator. The fail-safe flow line valve, mounted on
the flowhead (not shown), is closed when the ESD is idle.
ESD arming
Opening the air supply causes air to simultaneously flow to the hydraulic pump and to the V5
reset valve. This causes the hydraulic pump to supply oil to the V4 valve. When V5 is pulled, air
pressure activates the V4 valve and hydraulic oil is sent to the actuator. At the same time V5 is
pulled, the V7 by-pass valve is pushed to pressurize the pneumatic circuit. Pushing on V7
causes air pressure to flow to V5, allowing V5 to remain open when its handle is released.
ESD armed
When the V7 by-pass valve is released (V5 remains open) air flows through the V9 velocity
check valve that supplies air to the ESD stations and pilots. In order to prevent a small leak in
any of the ESD station or pilot lines from causing the valve on the flow line to close, potentially
causing a well shut down, air flows continuously through a small orifice in V9. The small orifice
in V9 is always open to compensate for small leaks; but if an emergency is triggered, air can be
vented through the check valve in V9.
ESD triggered
In an emergency, a push button located on the ESD console (not shown) or on one of the remote
ESD stations (ESD1, ESD2, etc.) is manually activated, releasing air from the lines. This causes
V5 and V4 to close. The air pressure drop activates the quick exhaust valve which cuts off air
pressure to V5. (The purpose of the quick exhaust valve is to close V5 without bleeding off the
entire system.) The drop in air pressure also closes V4, stopping the flow of hydraulic oil to the
actuator and venting oil from the actuator to the outside. The de-pressurizing of this system
closes the valve on the flow line.
Hi/Lo-Pilot System
The pressure pilot system operates on the same pressure principles as the ESD stations. The hiand lo-pilots are connected to the ESD by an air line and are mounted on the flow line. The pilot
system can be comprised of a hi-pilot, a low-pilot, or a combination of a hi- and a lo-pilot. Each
pilot is basically made up of two components: a spring and a piston. The piston is used to detect
pressure changes in the flow line. The spring is used to set the expected flow line pressure.
The following paragraphs describe how the hi- and lo-pilots behave in a normal state and how
they function when a pilot responds to an emergency shut down.
Hi-Pilot Normal Operation
In normal operating mode, the hi-pilot expects the pressure in the flow line to remain at or below
a preset pressure value which is set by adjusting the spring force. In this mode, the air pressure
between the hi-pilot and the V4 interface valve is retained, allowing hydraulic pressure from the
pump to keep the flow line valve open.
Hi-Pilot Shut Down Operation
When the flow line pressure rises above the preset spring value, air is bled off at the pilot, the V4
interface valve is triggered, venting the hydraulic pressure from the actuator and closing the
valve on the flow line.
Lo-Pilot Normal Operation
In normal operating mode, the lo-pilot expects the pressure in the flow line to remain at or above
a preset pressure value that is set by adjusting the spring force. In this mode, the air pressure
between the lo-pilot and the V4 interface valve is retained, allowing hydraulic pressure from the
pump to keep the flow line valve open.
Lo-Pilot Shut Down Operation
When the flow line pressure falls below the preset spring value, air is bled off at the pilot, the V4
interface valve is triggered, venting the hydraulic pressure from the actuator and closing the
valve on the flow line.
Hi- and Lo-Pilot Combination
When both a hi- and a lo-pilot are mounted on the flow line, the pressure can be restricted within
a preset range. Air pressure flows from the lo- to the hi-pilot and is retained between the pilots
and the V4 interface valve, allowing hydraulic pressure from the pump to keep the flow line
valve open. If the pressure rises above the preset value, air is bled off at the hi-pilot and if the
pressure falls below the preset value, air is bled off at the lo-pilot. In either case, the V4 interface
valve is triggered, venting the hydraulic pressure from the actuator and closing the valve on the
flow line.
The following animation illustrates the different elements of the ESD system and demonstrates
automatic and manual operations. It includes an interactive simulator to reinforce your
understanding of this system.
Emergency Shut down System Multimedia

Objective: To progressively illustrate the elements and interactively demonstrate the automatic
and manual operation of the emergency shut down (ESD) system
Comment: The ESD is designed to control the hydraulically activated flow line valve on the
flowhead. It allows manual remote closure of this valve in case the well needs to be shut off in an
emergency. The closure of the flow line valve can also be initiated automatically with pressure
pilots installed on the flow line. This system also allows the reopening of the flow line valve
after closure. The animation will show how each special valve works by using generic valves to
concentrate on the function of each part. Manual and automatic sequences are covered. The
operation of the oil pump, spare air tank, etc. are not covered in this animation. Please note that
there is a mistake in the velocity check section of the animation. The needle shown is actually
static and adjusted only during a shop check.
Mac
Read me!
PC
Read me!
Compressed size: 4.9 MB, Expanded (noncompressed) size:9.0 MB
Equipment
The ESD consists of a pneumatic control console which consists of the various switches and
controls used to pressurize the pneumatic (air) and hydraulic (oil) circuits, a pump, an hydraulic
tank, and an air reservoir. The control console is mounted on a skid that has storage space for
the remote ESD stations and three hose reels. One hose is a high-pressure hose for a shut down
valve actuator, and the other two are low-pressure hoses for connecting to the ESD stations or
the hi/lo-pilots. The console has 4 air outlets that can either be connected to the remote stations
or the hi/lo-pilots.
Description
The Emergency Shutdown System (ESD) controls the flowline valve actuator and an additional
surface safety valve located upstream of the choke. Additional push-button shutdown stations
can be located, for example, at the steam exchanger or heater, separator, gauge tank and burner
pedestals.
The ESD system can be complemented by high- or low-pressure pilots or by high- or low-level
alarms. The pilots initiate well closure when the pressure rises above a high-level threshold
(choke plugged) or falls below a low-level threshold (flowline leakage).
The ESD-BB system consists of an ESD control console skid that includes a pump, hydraulic
tank, air reservoir and three hose reels. The first hose reel contains 20 m of high-pressure hose
for a shutdown valve actuator. The other two reels each contain 90 m of low-pressure hose for
connecting the push-button stations.
The ESD-BB actuator system is designed for use with any single-action fail-safe actuator,
provided required hydraulic pressure does not exceed 6000 psi.
Specifications
None
Assembly number
P-579063
Project code
ESD-BB
Working pressure
6000-psi
maximum actuator pressure
Protection
Standard accessories
High-pressure hose
Low-pressure hose
Push-pulls
ESD stations
1 reel containing 20 m of 10,000-psi WP hose

2 reels, each containing 6 15-m lengths of 240-psi WP hose
12 x 3 8 in. 300-psi WP
1 x 3 8 in., 10,000-psi WP
4 each
Dimensions
Length
Width
Height
Weight
43.3 in. [1.10 m]

39.3 in. [1.00 m]
41.7 in. [1.06 m]
1012 lbm [460 kg]
Options
High-low pilots
Extra high-pressure
hose
See booklet M-075121

P-582666, 20-m high-pressure hose with push-pull for second
actuator
Safety
Because it improves safety, using an ESD system is recommended for all well test operations.
When the well head pressure exceeds 3,000 psi or whenever H2S is present, an ESD must be
used.
A minimum of two remote control stations shall be set up: one at the separator and one in an
area away from all pressurized equipment. These control stations are necessary to ensure the
well can be controlled from more than one place.
Be sure to open the air vessel inlet valve to ensure that the ESD is operational, even in the event
of air supply failure. Energy stored in the vessel supplies enough air for about 10 closures.
Maintenance
For information about equipment maintenance, see the maintenance manuals for the ESD and the
pilots.
Summary
The principle function of the ESD.

How the ESD is push-button activated from ESD stations at various locations, either inside or
outside of the surface testing setup.
The function of the hi/lo-pressure pilots in automating the ESD system and improving its overall
reliability.
How the parts that make up the ESD system respond when triggered by either a push-button or
a hi/lo-pressure pilot.
Self Test
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Which valve(s) does the ESD activate?

What are the fluids used in the ESD system?
Is it possible to use an ESD when H2S is present in the well effluent?
How is the ESD activated?
Where are the push-button stations usually located?
How does a low-pressure pilot work?
What is the role of the air vessel?
D) STEAM EXCHANGER
Introduction
Objectives
Equipment
Safety
Maintenance
Summary
Self Test
Introduction
The steam exchanger is an optional piece of surface testing equipment that may be required,
depending on the characteristics of the well effluent, when a well is being tested. This training
page describes the purpose of the steam exchanger, shows where it's located in relationship to
other surface testing equipment, examines how the steam exchanger works, and describes its
main components.
A steam exchanger is used to raise the temperature of the well effluent for the following reasons:
Hydrate Prevention
Water is often present in the well effluent along with oil and gas. Under certain flow conditions,
the temperature of the well effluent can drop significantly. This temperature drop can cause the
particles of water and some of the light hydrocarbons in the gas to solidify. The accumulation of
solid particles can make the valves along the flow path inoperative. If these solid particles are
not eliminated or prevented from forming, they can eventually block the flow line.
Natural gas hydrates have the appearance of hard snow and are formed at temperatures above
the normal freezing point of water when certain hydrocarbons are dissolved in water under low
temperature and high pressure conditions. High velocities, pressure pulsations, and agitation
accelerate this phenomena. H2S and CO2 promote the formation of hydrates.
Viscosity Reduction
If the effluent has a high viscosity, then its ability to flow through the pipe is impaired. Because
viscosity is temperature-dependent, using a steam exchanger to raise the effluent temperature
decreases its viscosity.
Emulsion Breaking
Under certain conditions, the oil and water in the effluent are miscible, creating an emulsion
that will not separate unless the temperature of the effluent is raised.
Foam Reduction
For certain types of crude oil, reducing the flow rate pressure causes some gas bubbles to
become encased in a thin film of oil, instead of being liberated from the oil. This results in the
dispersion of foam or froth throughout the oil, creating what is known as foaming oil.
Foaming greatly reduces the flow rate capacity of oil and gas separators and makes it difficult to
accurately measure the oil flow rate. These problems, combined with the potential loss of oil
and gas because of improper separation, emphasize the need for special equipment and
procedures to handle foaming oil. Heat is one of the main methods used to eliminate or reduce
foaming.
Increased Burner Efficiency

Reducing the oil viscosity improves the atomization of oil at the burner head.
Objectives
Explain the operating principles of the steam exchanger.

Draw a diagram of the steam exchanger circuits that the well effluent and the steam flow
through.
Write down a list of the safety rules to be observed when operating the steam exchanger.
Upon completion of the practical exercises for the steam exchanger, you should be able to:
Identify all the components of the steam exchanger by visual inspection.

Complete the steps required to prepare the steam exchanger to flow fluids through both coils.
Write down the steps required to pressure test the coils, then pressure test both coils.
Follow recommended safety procedures when operating a steam exchanger.
Divert the flow to bypass the steam exchanger.
The steam exchanger is a steam vessel with two coils through which the well fluid passes. A
choke assembly between the coils allows the well to be controlled at the steam exchanger instead
of at the choke manifold. An inlet manifold with three gate valves controls fluid flow and
provides a way to bypass the coils and choke. To maintain a preset temperature, the steam
flowing into the vessel is regulated by an automatic control valve (ACV) on the steam inlet. A
steam trap is mounted on the stream outlet line.
The steam vessel is protected by a safety relief valve. A flange on the steam vessel is available to
connect either an additional safety relief valve or a bursting disc. The steam exchanger is
insulated on the outside with glass wool and is covered with an aluminium jacket. Steam is
supplied to the vessel by a steam generator (usually rented from a third-party company). The
steam allows fluids to be heated to higher temperatures than could be obtained with water.
The parts of the steam exchanger are illustrated in the "Steam Exchanger" diagram and are
described below:
Temperature controller system
A controller continuously monitors the difference in temperature between the well effluent
leaving the steam exchanger and the temperature set on the controller. To maintain a stable
fluid temperature, the temperature controller produces an output air signal that is function of
this difference. This air signal is transmitted to an ACV that regulates steam intake.
Steam trap
The steam trap is mounted on the steam condensate outlet line of the steam vessel. Its main
functions are:
Maintain a constant pressure inside the vessel in order to maintain the set temperature.
The temperature of the steam is about 90o C during normal operation and rises to 170o
C when the steam exchanger is working at full capacity.
Eliminate steam condensate without letting the steam escape. Condensate should be
evacuated rapidly so the exchange surfaces inside the vessel remain completely
surrounded by steam and water does not accumulate on the exchange surfaces. This
reduces the heat exchange loss between the steam and the well effluent.
The "Steam Trap Operation" series of diagrams shows how the steam trap works:
Safety relief valve
The safety relief valve is located on top of the steam exchanger. When the steam pressure inside
the vessel rises above the working pressure (WP) of the vessel, the relief valve opens and bleeds
off the steam pressure, preventing the vessel from accidently bursting.
The outlet for the safety relief valve is connected to a vent line that's sized to handle the
steam flow plus the maximum flow rate of the effluent. This is a safety precaution that's
taken to ensure, in case the coil inside the vessel breaks, that the well effluent can be
liberated with the steam. Offshore the vent line goes overboard.
The safety relief valve incorporates a bellows seal that prevents steam from entering the
upper part of the valve that is exposed to the atmospheric pressure. The bellows covers an
area equal to the area of the valve seat, so the effect of any back pressure from the valve
outlet on the set pressure is eliminated. The set pressure is the pressure at which you want
the safety relief valve to open. The set pressure is adjusted by the force of a spring on a
sealing disc that is exposed to steam pressure.
Choke box
The choke box is designed to receive either a fixed or an adjustable choke. It is located between
the two coils in order to heat the fluid before it passes through the choke. When the fluid
arrives at the choke, it is preheated. This helps to prevent the formation of hydrates in the fluid;
or in the case of gas, it prevents freezing.
Equipment
The steam exchanger is available in 5000, 10,000, and 15,000 psi pressure ratings. The heating
capacity is expressed in Btu/hr (British thermal unit per hour). The wide range of steam
exchangers makes it possible to select a steam exchanger that can accommodate the required
well test without having to use equipment that is larger, more complicated, or more expensive
than the overall project requires.
STEAM HEAT
EXCHANGER
Description
The steam heat exchanger is used to raise the temperature of well effluent for hydrate prevention,
viscosity reduction and breakdown of emulsions.
The unit is skid mounted with a protective frame and consists of a steam vessel containing two
coils through which the well fluid passes. A choke assembly enables the well to be controlled at
the steam exchanger, rather than at the choke manifold, after the well fluid has passed through
the first coil section.
The working pressure of the coils is the same upstream and downstream of the choke.
An inlet manifold of three gate valves controls fluid flow and provides a bypass of coils and
choke.
The steam flow into the vessel is regulated by an automatic control valve on the steam inlet to
maintain a preset temperature. There is a steam trap on the steam outlet line.
The steam vessel is protected by a safety valve with a flange available for either an additional
safety valve or 6-in. bursting head.
The steam vessel is insulated with glass wool and is covered with an aluminum jacket.
Specifications
Assembly number
Project code
M-873488
M-873328
STX-BBS
STX-CCN
Det Norske Veritas
M-874456
STX-CCQ
Design codes
DNV Drill "N," DOE SI 289, API 6A, TEMA R

NACE MR 01-75, ASME VIII Div 1, ANSI
B31-3
Coil temperature rating -20 to 350F [-28 to 175C]
Working pressure
4900 psi
10,000 psi
15,000 psi
[338 bar]
[690 bar]
[1036 bar]
Test pressure
Valves
10,000 psi
15,000 psi
22,500 psi
[690 bar]
[1035 bar]
[1380 bar]
Coils
7350 psi
15,000 psi
22,500 psi
[500 bar]
[1035 bar]
[1380 bar]
Nominal value ID
3 1/8 in.
3 1/16 in.
3 1/16 in.
Choke size
1 1/2 in.
2 in.
2 in.
Choke bean series
D-58
D-72
ACME
Steam vessel
(230-psi working
pressure)
42 in. x 15 ft 42 in. x 15 ft 51 in. x 15 ft
4.3 MMBtu/hr (4970 lbf/hr steam at 120 psi and
Heating capacity
340F)
Relief valve size
6 in.
6 in.
6 in.
API 6A CLASSIFICATIONS
PSL2
PSL3
PSL3
level
DD (H2S)
EE (H2S, CO2) EE (H2S, CO2)
Manifold temperature
classification
P+U, -20 to 250F [-28 to 121C]
Connections
3-in. Fig. 1002 3-in. Fig. 1502 3-in. Fig. 2202
Inlet (WECO Union) F
F
F
Outlet (WECO Union) 3-in. Fig. 1002 3-in. Fig. 1502 3-in. Fig. 2202
M
M
M
Steam supply
3-in. Fig 206 inlet, 2-in. Fig. 206 outlet
DIMENSIONS
Height
Without relief valve
With relief valve
Width
Length
Weight
Empty
Full of water
Protection
Options
101 in. [2.62 m] 101 in. [2.62 m] 101 in. [2.62 m]

137 in. [3.49 m] 137 in. [3.49 m] 136 in. [3.47 m]
92 in. [2.34 m] 92 in. [2.34 m] 92 in. [2.34 m]
258 in. [6.55 m] 258 in. [6.55 m] 258 in. [6.55 m]
22,075 lbm
22,625 lbm
35,320 lbm
35,870 lbm
23,180 lbm
36,420 lbm
6-in. bursting head

M-839101
6-in. rupture disc, 250
M-839102
psi
6-in. safety valve
M-817489
This drawing shows an example of a steam heat exchanger. Specifications are provided for three
different models: STX-BBS, CCN, and CCQ.
Steam Exchanger Selection Guidelines
The principal criteria for selecting a steam exchanger are:
Pressure rating requirements

Heating capacity
Safety regulations (an indirect heater is not accepted in some locations)
Note: In some countries, a steam exchanger must be used because safety regulations
prohibit the use of indirect heaters. The steam exchanger is intrinsically safe in terms of
fire risk because it does not use a flame to heat the well effluent.
Additional considerations are:
A steam generator is needed for the steam exchanger.

Air supply for the temperature controller of the steam exchanger.
Safety
The following is a list of key safety considerations for steam exchangers:
Do not touch the steam vessel with bare hands when the steam exchanger is working.
After the job, flush the coils thoroughly with soft water and fill them with corrosion inhibitor
before storing the steam exchanger.
Never flow the well through the coils if a choke is not installed. Sand particles or corrosive fluids
can erode the threads in the choke box.
Do not use the gate valves on the steam exchanger as chokes.
Do not transport the steam exchanger when it is full of condensate water. The frame cannot
support this extra weight.
Before starting the steam exchanger, verify that the inlet and outlet valves for the coils are
open. If the coils are filled with liquid and the valves are closed, the thermal expansion that
results can generate enough pressure to burst the coils.
Maintenance
For information about the preparation and functional checks for the steam exchanger, see the
recommended steps in the "Field Operating Handbook (FOH) for Surface Well Testing."
For information about equipment maintenance, see the maintenance manuals for the steam
exchanger.
Summary
The purpose of a steam exchanger and five reasons to use it.

The general description of the steam exchanger.
The function of the parts of the steam exchanger.
Explained why the steam exchanger is intrinsically safer than the indirect heater.
Self Test
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Why is it sometimes necessary to heat up the well effluent?

What is the purpose of the choke assembly?
Why is the steam exchanger safer than the indirect heater?
How is the steam kept inside the vessel?
What precaution should be taken before starting the steam exchanger?
How is the ACV controlled that is mounted on the steam inlet line?
E) INDIRECT HEATER
Introduction
The indirect heater is an optional piece of surface testing equipment that may be required,
depending on the characteristics of the well effluent, when a well is being tested. This training
page describes the purpose of the indirect heater, shows where it's located in relationship to other
surface testing equipment, examines how the indirect heater works, and describes its main
components.
An indirect heater is used to raise the temperature of the well effluent for the following reasons:
Hydrate Prevention
Water is often present in the well effluent along with oil and gas. Under certain flow conditions,
the temperature of the well effluent can drop significantly. This temperature drop can cause the
particles of water and some of the light hydrocarbons in the gas to solidify. The accumulation of
solid particles can make the valves along the flow path inoperative. If these solid particles are
not eliminated or prevented from forming, they can eventually block the flow line.
Natural gas hydrates have the appearance of hard snow and are formed at temperatures above
the normal freezing point of water when certain hydrocarbons are dissolved in water under low
temperature and high pressure conditions. High velocities, pressure pulsations, and agitation
accelerate this phenomena. H2S and CO2 promote the formation of hydrates.
Viscosity Reduction
If the effluent has a high viscosity, then its ability to flow through the pipe is impaired. Because
viscosity is temperature-dependent, using an indirect heater to raise the effluent temperature
decreases its viscosity.
Emulsion Breaking
Under certain conditions the oil and water in the effluent are miscible, creating an emulsion that
will not separate unless the temperature of the effluent is raised.
Foam Reduction
For certain types of crude oil, reducing the flow rate pressure causes some gas bubbles to
become encased in a thin film of oil, instead of being liberated from the oil. This results in the
dispersion of foam or froth throughout the oil, creating what is known as foaming oil.
Foaming greatly reduces the flow rate capacity of oil and gas separators and makes it difficult to
accurately measure the oil flow rate. These problems, combined with the potential loss of oil
and gas because of improper separation, emphasize the need for special equipment and
procedures to handle foaming oil. Heat is one of the main methods used to eliminate or reduce
foaming.
Increased Burner Efficiency
Reducing the oil viscosity improves the atomization of oil at the burner head.
Objectives
Explain the operating principles of the indirect heater.

Explain how the temperature regulator for the indirect heater works.
Explain how the CMA flameout shutdown system for the indirect heater works.
Draw a diagram of the indirect heater circuits that the well effluent, propane, compressed air,
water, mercury, and diesel fluids flow through.
Write down a list of the safety rules to be observed when operating the indirect heater.
Upon completion of the practical exercises for the indirect heater, you should be able to:
Identify all the components of the indirect heater by visual inspection.
Complete the steps required to prepare the indirect heater to flow fluids through both coils.
Write down the steps required to pressure test the coils, then pressure test both coils.
Follow recommended safety procedures when operating an indirect heater.
Divert the flow to bypass the indirect heater.
The indirect heater shown in the "Indirect Heater" diagram consists of a nonpressurized water
vessel that contains two coils through which well fluid passes. The well fluid in the coils is
indirectly heated by the water, which is heated by a flame from a diesel burner. The diesel burner
is contained inside a firetube. This system causes the water to conduct heat to the coiled tubes,
warming up the effluent. There is no direct contact between the tubes carrying the fluid to be
heated and the flame that's used as a heat source. This system is intrinsically safer than a direct
heater in which the tubes containing the well effluent are in direct contact with the flame. A
common example of a direct heater is a domestic boiler.
After the well fluid passes through the first coil section, a choke assembly between the coils
allows the well to be controlled at the indirect heater instead of at the choke manifold. An inlet
manifold with three gate valves controls fluid flow and provides a way to bypass the coils and
choke. To maintain a preset temperature, the diesel flame is regulated by an automatic control
valve (ACV). A shut down valve cuts the diesel supply if the pilot light is extinguished. The
internal design of the vessel is such that convection currents prevent any localized heating of the
water because boiling would impair the performance and life of the indirect heater.
The parts of the indirect heater are shown in the "Indirect Heater" diagram and are described
below. Click on the graphic or scroll down for detailed information on each component.
Firetube
The firetube is shaped like a "U" tube. Combustion occurs on one side of the "U" and the
chimney is located on the other side. The firetube is mounted on a flange and inserted inside
the vessel. This configuration allows the firetube to be easily removed for repair or replacement.
It has brackets on the bottom or on the side (or both) to prevent it from touching the vessel.
Because the tube is immersed in the water, its temperature is approximately the same as the
water, even though the combustion temperature inside the tube may be greater than 165o C
(300o F).
If the tube touches the vessel, a hot spot will develop that can distort or melt the tube and the
vessel. To prevent this from occurring, a liner is located inside the firetube in the combustion
area. This protective device, made of a heat resistant metal, prevents the flame from striking the
tube wall, which could cause the tube to overheat and fail. In the event the fire does strike the
liner, it will eventually melt and have to be replaced. If the damaged liner is promptly replaced,
the fire tube will not be damaged.
Diesel burner
The burner of an indirect heater, located at the inlet of the firetube, is designed to produce a
long, narrow flame pattern so the flame will not touch the walls. It is centered in the firetube. It
is made up of a mixing chamber where air under pressure sprays the diesel into tiny droplets
before it burns. The amount of air passing through the flame arrestor (necessary for the diesel
combustion) can be adjusted with a flap. When the proper volume of diesel and volume of air
are mixed in the firetube, a blue flame results. The diesel is sent to the burner with an air driven
pump that typically sits on top of a diesel drum. The flow rate of the diesel supplied to the
burner is controlled by adjusting an air pressure regulator on the pumping unit.
Pilot burner
The pilot burner is similar to the main burner, but it is much smaller. It does not require
compressed air because it burns propane gas. To maintain a constant flame pattern, a pressure
regulator is fitted on the propane line to the pilot burner. A view glass allows the status (on/off)
of the pilot light to be checked.
Air ring
Located inside the firetube, the air ring sweeps out the firetube with fresh compressed air
before the pilot light is ignited. If any gas vapors are present inside the firetube when the pilot
light is ignited an accidental explosion could occur.
Stack
The stack or chimney is a piece of pipe that fits over the outlet end of the firetube. The chimney
dissipates the unused heat to the atmosphere. Its height varies from 2 to 6 meters, depending
on the length of pipe required to properly vent the smoke in the area where the heat exchanger
is located. It is equipped with a spark arrestor to prevent sparks from being released to the
atmosphere through the chimney.
Flame ignition system
This system consists of a high voltage coil and a spark plug to light the pilot. A push button is
used to create the spark that lights the pilot.
Temperature control system
A temperature controller senses the temperature of the water bath and signals the diesel valve
to open or close as required to hold the water temperature at the set point on the controller.
The temperature control system consists of a thermostatic valve and a temperature bulb. The
thermostatic valve is designed to maintain the temperature of the water bath at the desired
value. A temperature bulb immersed in the water activates the valve. When the burner is off,
the temperature bulb is cold and the valve is open. When the burner is lit, the water bath
temperature heats the bulb. The fluid inside the bulb and the valve chamber expands, exerting a
force on the valve stem and the spring that's proportional to the temperature. At a certain
temperature, the force of the expanded fluid is higher than the force of the return spring so the
valve closes, cutting off the diesel supply. This extinguishes the flame in the diesel burner. When
the burner flame goes out, the water bath and the bulb cool down. This heat loss causes the
fluid in the expansion chamber to contract and the valve opens by means of the return spring,
restoring the diesel supply to burner.
The temperature controller is set for a delayed response of the diesel valve. The delayed
response setup allows the diesel burner to burn continuously, and the intensity of the flame
varies in response to temperature changes. In contrast, when the temperature controller is set
for a quick response, the diesel burner burns at full rate when the diesel valve is fully open and
is completely extinguished when the diesel valve is fully closed. This on/off action increases the
likelihood of firetube burnout at full-rate. Consequently, the delayed response setup is desirable
because it stabilizes the firing rate and avoids full firing even for short periods.
The following paragraphs describe how the diesel valve's delayed response works.
If the temperature of the water begins to fall, the temperature controller reacts by opening the
diesel valve more, increasing the intensity of the flame in the diesel burner. It takes a few
minutes to heat the volume of water in the vessel to the set temperature. When the set
temperature is reached, the diesel valve does not return to its original position immediately.
This delay allows the water temperature to rise slightly above the set point.
If the temperature of the water begins to rise, the temperature controller reacts by closing the
diesel valve more, decreasing the intensity of the flame in the diesel burner. It takes a few
minutes to cool down the volume of water in the vessel to the set temperature. When the set
temperature is reached, the diesel valve does not return to its original position immediately.
This delay allows the water temperature to fall slightly below the set point.
The drawback to the delayed response system is that the temperature is not perfectly
constant. As described in the previous paragraphs, it cycles around the set temperature.
This variation around the set temperature can affect pressure readings at the separator.
Flameout shutdown
This safety system, known as the CMA control box, consists basically of a three-way switch that's
operated by the expansion of mercury when it is exposed to heat. The purpose of this system is
to shut off the diesel flow to the burner when the propane gas pilot goes out.
When the heater is started, a manual knob opens the propane inlet orifice, causing propane gas
to flow to the ACV and to the pilot simultaneously. This opens the ACV and allows the pilot to be
lit. Once the pilot is lit, the mercury in the sensor and capillary tube expands, pushing down the
stem inside the control box. In this position, the stem causes the propane inlet orifice to remain
open even when the manual reset knob is released. If the pilot flame goes out, the mercury will
cool down and contract, releasing the pressure on the stem and causing the stem to retract.
Under the action of the return spring, the propane inlet will close. Because the ACV is no longer
supplied with propane, it will close by means of the return spring. Consequently, there is no
danger of diesel being supplied to the main burner when the pilot is not lit.
Flame arrestor
The flame arrestor is mounted on the inside of the door that permits access to the burner. If a
flame tries to move to the outside of the tube, the flame arrestor will stop the flame. The flame
arrestor is made of a thin aluminium sheet wound in a spiral coil. The flame arrestor is also
designed to let air from the outside into the firetube, because the air is necessary for diesel
combustion. If the indirect heater was not equipped with a flame arrestor, a gas leak or the
presence of a flammable liquid outside the heater could be ignited by the flame and cause a
major fire or explosion.
Spark arrestor
Located on top of the chimney, the spark arrestor is made of a wire mesh. Sparks from the
diesel burner flame that travel up the chimney are stopped by the spark arrestor before they
can escape to the atmosphere.
Choke box
The choke box is designed to receive either a fixed or an adjustable choke. It is located between
the two coils in order to heat the fluid before it passes through the choke. When the fluid
arrives at the choke, it is preheated. This helps to prevent the formation of hydrates in the fluid;
or in the case of gas, it prevents freezing.
Equipment
INDIRECT HEATER
(IHT-BAF)
Description
The indirect heater is used to raise the temperature of well effluent for hydrate prevention,
viscosity reduction and breakdown of emulsions.
The unit is skid mounted with a protective frame and consists of a water vessel containing two
coils through which the well fluid passes. The water vessel is heated by a diesel burner and
remains at atmospheric pressure.
A choke assembly enables the well to be controlled at the heater, rather than at the choke
manifold, after the well fluid has passed through the first coil section.
The working pressure of the coils is the same upstream and downstream of the choke.
An inlet manifold of three gate valves controls fluid flow and provides a bypass of coils and
choke.
The diesel flame is regulated by an automatic control valve to maintain a preset temperature. A
shutdown valve cuts the diesel supply if the pilot light is extinguished.
Specifications
Assembly number
Project code
M-873329
IHT-BAF
Design codes
Coil temperature rating
Working pressure
Test pressure
Valves
Coils
Coil description
Nominal valve ID
Choke size
Choke bean series
Heating vessel
Heating capacity
Diesel supply required
Air supply required
Safety devices
Manifold temperature
classification
CONNECTIONS
Inlet
Outlet
Diesel inlet
DIMENSIONS
Height
Without chimney
With chimney
Width
Length
Weight
Empty
With pipe work set
Protection
API 6A, API 12K, NACE MR 01-75,

ANSI B3 1-3
-20 to 350F [-28 to 175C]
4900 psi [338 bar]
10,000 psi [690 bar]
7350 psi [507 bar]
4-in. XXH by 4-in. XXH
3 1/8 in.
1 1/2 in.
D-68
81 in. x 12 ft (2.3-psi working pressure)
2 MMBtu/hr
120 liter/hr at 70 psi [5 bar]
25 scf/min at 70 psi [5 bar]
Diesel shutdown valve, activated by pilot
light stoppage;
flame arrestor on burner air inlet
PSL2
DD (H2S)
P+U, -20 to 250F [-28 to 121C]

1/4-in. NPT
104 in. [2.64 m]

156 in. [3.98 m]
88 in. [2.25 m]
230 in. [5.85 m]
25,250 lbm [11,450 kg]
27,440 lbm [12,450 kg]
Options
Air-driven diesel fuel pump
M-801364
(PMP-C)
Positive choke bonnet
M-805110
assembly
Protective panels for frame
M-804203
The indirect heaters are available in 3000 and 5000 psi pressure ratings. The 3000 psi version is
heli-portable. The heating capacity expressed in Btu/hr (British thermal unit per hour) is also a
main characteristic of the indirect heaters. The wide range of indirect heaters makes it possible to
select an indirect heater that can accommodate the required well test without having to use
equipment that is larger, more complicated, or more expensive than the overall project requires.
This drawing shows an example of an indirect heater. Specifications are provided for this
drawing.
Indirect Heater Selection Guidelines
The principal criteria for selecting an indirect heater are:
Pressure rating requirements

Heating capacity
Safety regulations (an indirect heater is not accepted in some locations)
Available space (an indirect heater must be located in a safe area)
Additional considerations are:
Air supply for the diesel burner and sweep system of the indirect heater.
The indirect heater needs electricity for the ignition of the pilot light.
The indirect heater needs diesel supply and a diesel pump for the burner.
The indirect heater needs propane to supply the pilot light.
Water and corrosion inhibitors are needed to fill up the vessel of the indirect heater.
Safety
The following is a list of key safety considerations for indirect heaters:
A perfect understanding of the diesel, propane, and air circuits is a prerequisite to a successful
and safe job.
Before starting or restarting the indirect heater, sweep out the firetube with fresh compressed
air. In the event that gas or diesel vapors are present, this practice can avoid an accidental
explosion.
Do not touch the water vessel with bare hands when the indirect heater is working
Verify that the spark arrestor is installed on the chimney.
After the job, flush the coils thoroughly with soft water and fill them with corrosion inhibitor
before storage.
Never flow the well through the coils if a choke is not installed. Sand particles or corrosive fluids
can erode the threads in the choke box.
Do not use the gate valves on the indirect heater as chokes.
Do not transport the indirect heater when it is full of water. The frame cannot support this extra
weight.
Before starting the indirect heater, verify that the inlet and outlet valves of the coils are open. If
the coils are filled with liquid and the valves closed, the thermal expansion that results can
generate enough pressure to burst the coils.
Maintenance
For information about the preparation and functional checks for the indirect heater, see the
recommended steps in the "Field Operating Handbook (FOH) for Surface Well Testing."
For information about equipment maintenance, see the maintenance manuals for the indirect
heater.
Summary
The purpose of the indirect heater and five reasons to use it.
The general description of the indirect heater.
The function of the parts of the indirect heater.
How the temperature regulation and flameout systems work.
Self Test
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
List five reasons to raise the temperature of the well effluent.

Why is this heater called an indirect heater?
How is the temperature of the indirect heater regulated?
Briefly explain how the flameout shutdown system works.
What is the important thing to do prior starting or restarting the indirect heater?
E) SEPARATOR
Introduction
The "Surface Test Equipment" figure shows where the separator is located in relation to other
surface testing equipment. The separator is comprised of a pressurized vessel where fluids are
separated and a piping system that carries separated fluids out of the vessel. Its principle function
is to separate the well effluent leaving the choke manifold (or heat exchanger) into oil, gas, and
water components before sending the gas to the gas flare and the oil to either the tank or the oil
burner. Other important separator functions include the capability to meter effluent components
and take pressurized oil and gas samples.
Separators are classified by their shape and by the fluids they separate. They are either
horizontal, vertical, or spherical in shape. Shapes are further classified into two-phase
(gas/liquid) and three-phase (oil/water/gas) separators. The "Types of Separators" diagram shows
the basic types available. When testing a well, Schlumberger typically uses only three-phase
horizontal separators.
The following list summarizes a few of the advantages and disadvantages of the different
separator shapes:
Horizontal separators are normally more efficient at handling large amounts of gas.
Horizontal separators are the most economical for normal oil-gas separation, particularly where
there may be problems with emulsions, foam, or high gas-oil ratios.
A vertical separator takes up less space than a horizontal separator with the same capacity.
On a vertical separator, some of the controls may be difficult to access without ladders or access
platforms.
Spherical separators are the most efficient for containing pressure; however, they are not
widely used because of their limited liquid surge capability and because they are difficult to
fabricate.
Objectives
Explain the purpose of the separator.

List the components of the separator and describe their functions.
Explain how to adjust the retention time for the separator.
Explain why the separator should be run at a constant pressure and how to control this
pressure.
Describe the various types of separators and list their specifications.
Upon completion of the practical exercises for the Separator, you should be able to:
Perform a FIT and TRIM on a separator.

Read the gas flow recorder.
Read the oil flow recorders.
Direct the flow into the separator.
Bypass the flow from the separator.
Adjust the pressure in the separator.
Adjust the oil level in the separator.
Perform shrinkage measurements using the shrinkage tester.
The operating principles for the separator are covered in the following topics:
Separation Processes
Pressure and Level Controllers
Safety Devices
Metering Devices
Piping Systems
Separators rely on these processes to separate liquid (oil and water) from gas:
gravity and the difference in densities between oil, gas, and water.
mechanical devices in the separator that are used to improve the separation process.
altering the pressure and gas-liquid interface to further optimize separation.
Gravity and Density
In the separator, oil, gas, and water will naturally separate due to the effects of gravity and the
difference in density between effluent components. The denser effluent particles fall to the
bottom and the lighter particles rise to the top. Gas rises and liquid falls in the separator. The
separator improves this natural separation process by retaining the fluid long enough to slow
down its motion, allowing separation to occur.
About 95% of the liquid-gas separation inside the separator happens instantly. The relative
densities of gas and liquid (oil and water) are typically in the ratio of 1 to 20 so their separation is
quick, usually taking only a few seconds. However, some liquid will remain in the gas in the
form of a fine mist. This liquid must be separated from the gas with the aid of mechanical
devices for separation to be complete. The relative density of oil to water is typically in the ratio
of .75 to 1, so separation is a bit longer: one or two minutes.
Mechanical Separation Devices
To obtain good separation, speed up the separation process, and minimize retention time, the
separator is equipped with mechanical devices. The function of these mechanical devices is
explained here so you can understand the role they play in the separation process.
Deflector Plate
This plate is located in front of the inlet. It causes a rapid change in the
direction and velocity of the fluids, forcing the liquids to fall to the bottom
of the vessel. The deflector plate is responsible for the initial gross separation of liquid and gas.
Coalescing Plates
These plates are arranged longitudinally in an inverted V-shape in the

upper part of the separator. The liquid droplets in the gas hit the plates
and stick to them. As more gas passes through the plates, more droplets
coalesce to form bigger drops that fall to the bottom of the vessel.
Foam Breaker
This piece of equipment is made of wire mesh, like the mist extractor. It prevents oil particles in
the foam (comprised of oil and gas) from passing through the separator and being carried away
with the gas.
Mist Extractor
This piece of equipment is composed of a mass of

wire netting. Before leaving the separator, the gas
stream passes through the mist extractor, causing the
tiny oil droplets remaining in the gas to fall down.
Weir Plate
This plate, located at the bottom of the vessel, divides the separator into two compartments: oil
and water. Provided that the water level is controlled, it only permits oil to overflow into the oil
compartment.
Vortex Breakers
These breakers are located on the oil and water outlets.

Their function is to break the swirling (vortex) effect
that can occur when oil and water exit the separator
from their respective outlets. The vortex breakers
prevent any gas from being sucked away with the
liquids.
Pressure and Gas-Liquid Interface
To optimize separation, there are three main parameters that can be controlled:
the pressure inside the separator

the level of the gas-liquid interface
the temperature inside the separator
The goal is to achieve the best separation possible for a given effluent. Because variations in
these parameters can affect separation conditions, it's important to keep these parameters as
constant and stable as possible. Although the temperature inside the separator is almost equal to
the well effluent temperature and cannot be controlled (unless a heat exchanger is connected
upstream of the separator), the pressure and gas-liquid interface can be controlled to optimize oil
and gas recovery.
The "Separation Problems" table shows two examples of how the pressure, gas-liquid interface,
and temperature can be used to control separation problems.
Separation Problems
Problem
Liquid carryover
Causes
Action
High flow rate
Decrease flow rate
High liquid level
Lower oil/gas interface
Low operating pressure
Raise operating pressure or decrease flow rate
Reduce sensitivity of oil level controller

Wave action in separator
Increase pressure
Foaming
High viscosity
Poor oil-gas separation
Heat well effluent

Increase retention time
High separator pressure

Reduce pressure

This topic covers the controller systems and their associated equipment. The gas pressure
controller and the oil and water level controllers maintain constant separation conditions inside
the tank. To adjust the separator pressure and the water and oil flow rates, all the controllers use
automatic control valves (ACVs). The compressed air used to operate the controllers is filtered
through an air scrubber. The air pressure is reduced by using pressure regulators mounted
upstream of the controllers. Visual level indicators, called sight glasses, are used to monitor the
oil-gas and oil-water interfaces inside the separator.
Gas Pressure Controller
The internal separator pressure is provided by the gas that flows into the separator. The fluid
inflow varies depending on the flowing conditions of the well. To maintain a constant pressure in
the separator, the fluid outflow must be adjusted so it's as close as possible to the fluid inflow.
Simple Gas Pressure Controller
The most common method of controlling pressure is with a pressure controller that uses a control
valve to automatically react to any variation in separator pressure. When the pressure drops, the
controller closes the valve and when the pressure rises, the controller opens the valve. Once the
separator operating pressure is manually set at the pressure controller, the pressure in the vessel
is maintained close to the selected value.
For safety purposes, this control valve is normally open. If for any reason the air pressure supply
to the valve is cut, the vessel will not be over pressurized.
The separator pressure is applied directly to the Bourdon tube inside the pressure controller as
shown in the "Gas Pressure Controller" figure. A change in the separator pressure deforms the
Bourdon tube. This deformation moves the flapper covering the nozzle away from or closer to
the nozzle, causing it to leak air. The air leak is used by the pressure controller to open or close
the control valve that regulates the pressure in the separator.
Complex Gas Pressure Controller
The "Gas Pressure Controller" figure above shows a simple model of a gas pressure controller. In
this simple system, the valve is either wide open or closed, causing the separator pressure to
oscillate between a minimum and maximum pressure value.
The actual gas pressure controller mounted on the separator is more complex. In contrast to the
simple model, the actual gas pressure controller allows the desired working pressure to be set and
utilizes proportional band control to adjust the valve stroke, ensuring smooth regulation of the
separator pressure.
For the complex system shown in the "Gas Pressure Controller - Proportional Action" diagram,
the desired pressure is set by adjusting the set point lever. Adjusting this lever moves the nozzle
either closer or farther away from the flapper to establish the set point pressure. Pressure from
the separator is applied directly to the Bourdon tube. The "Gas Pressure Controller - Proportional
Action" diagram shows the gas pressure control system in a state of equilibrium with the
separator pressure stable.
The following lists describe what happens to the system shown in the "Gas Pressure Controller Proportional Action" diagram when the separator pressure rises and falls.
When the separator pressure decreases, the set pressure is maintained by
The Bourdon tube moves the flapper toward the nozzle, closing the gap between the nozzle and
the flapper.
Because chamber A is continuously supplied with air through orifice B, the reduction in the size
of the air passage between the nozzle and the flapper causes the air pressure in chamber A of
the relay to build up.
The pressure build up in chamber A pushes diaphragms C and D upward, causing supply valve E
to open.
Air supply pressure enters chamber F and flows to the automatic control valve (ACV), causing it
to throttle closer to its seat and reducing the flow of gas from separator thereby increasing its
pressure.
Pressure in chamber F increases until diaphragms C and D are pushed back to their original
positions, causing valve E to close and returning the system to a state of equilibrium.
At the same time that air flows to the ACV, it also flows through the proportional band valve to
the bellows G. This air pressure causes the flapper to move away from the nozzle which stops
the build up of pressure in chamber A and restores the system to a state of equilibrium.
As a result, the pressure on the ACV valve is increased (causing it to throttle closer to its
seat) and the separator pressure is restored to its set pressure.
When the separator pressure increases, the set pressure is maintained by
The Bourdon tube moves the flapper away from the nozzle, widening the gap between the
nozzle and the flapper.
This causes the air pressure in chamber A of the relay to decrease.
The pressure drop in chamber A and the action of the spring H causes diaphragms C and D to
move down.
Air from the ACV starts to bleed off to the atmosphere through chamber I. This reduction in
pressure causes the ACV valve to open under the action of its spring.
At the same time that air flows from the ACV to the atmosphere, the air pressure in bellows G
decreases, causing the flapper to move closer to the nozzle. This action will cause the pressure
in chamber A to increase enough to close the passage between chambers F and I.
As a result, the pressure on the ACV is decreased (causing it to throttle away from its
seat) and the separator pressure is restored to its set pressure.
Proportional Band Valve
As shown in the "Gas Pressure Controller - Proportional Action" diagram, the pressure going
from relay chamber F to the ACV also goes to the proportional band three-way valve. The orifice
inlet for this valve is adjustable. This allows the amount of air pressure sent to bellows G (the
proportional band bellows) to vary. This variation changes the clearance between the flapper and
nozzle.
The proportional band is independent of the set point pressure, but dependent on the Bourdon
tube pressure rating. The proportional band setting is expressed as a percentage, based on the
Bourdon tube pressure rating, as described in the following examples. This percentage can vary
between 0 and 100%. For example, when the proportional band for the Fisher 4150 pressure
controller (shown in the "Gas Pressure Controller - Proportional Action" diagram) is fully closed,
it corresponds to a proportional band setting of approximately 3%.
The following examples show how a narrow (5%) and a wide setting (50%) of the proportional
band changes how the system reacts to a variation in pressure.
The pressure controller is equipped with a Bourdon tube with a pressure rating of 1000 psi.
The set point for the separator pressure is 400 psi.
If the proportional band is set at 50% of the Bourdon tube rating of 1000 psi, this means that the
ACV will be fully closed when the separator pressure reaches 150 psi and fully open when the
separator pressure reaches 650 psi. At this wide setting, the system is not very sensitive to small
pressure variations. It will take a large pressure variation of 250 psi on either side of the
separator set point of 400 psi to either close or open the valve.
50% of 1000 psi = 500 psi
500 psi / 2 = 250 psi
400 + 250 = 650 psi
400 - 250 = 150 psi
In contrast, if the proportional band is set at 5% of the Bourdon tube rating of 1000 psi, the ACV
will be fully closed when the separator pressure reaches 375 psi and fully open when the
separator pressure reaches 425 psi. At this narrow setting, the system is sensitive to small
pressure variations. The system will either close or open the valve for a relatively small pressure
variation of 25 psi on either side of the separator set point of 400 psi.
5% of 1000 psi = 50 psi
50 psi / 2 = 25 psi
400 + 25 = 425 psi
400 - 25 = 375 psi
The following animation of a gas pressure controller demonstrates the operation of the gas ACV
and its controller. The effect of the proportional band valve on the ACV will also be shown.
Gas Automatic Control Valve Multimedia

Objective: To describe the operation of the valve and controller
To demonstrate the effects of the proportional band valve
Comment: The gas pressure controller and the oil and water level controllers maintain constant
separation conditions inside the tank. To adjust the separator pressure and the water and oil flow
rates, all the controllers use automatic control valves (ACV), the gas automatic control valve
(GACV) maintains the constant gas pressure.
The animation demonstrates how GACV components react to pressure setting changes and how
the proportional band valve adjusts the hysteresis.
Steady state GACV interaction will be covered in the next version of this animation.
For related topics, see the Liquid Control Valve and the Gas Flow Recorder animations.
Mac
Read me!
PC
Read me!
Compressed size: 5.5 MB, Expanded (noncompressed) size: 8.9 MB
Hints for Setting the Separator Pressure
When setting the separator pressure at the gas pressure controller, consider the following points:
The pressure rating of the safety relief valve in relation to the separator's maximum working
pressure.
The critical flow conditions at the choke manifold.
The minimum pressure needed to run the oil out of the separator to either a tank or a burner or
to run the oil and water meters.
Oil Level Controller
The level of the liquid-gas interface inside the separator should be kept constant to maintain
steady separation conditions. A variation in this level changes the volume of gas and liquid in the
separator, which in turn affects the speed and the retention time of the two fluids. The initial set
point for the liquid-gas level depends on the gas-oil ratio (GOR) of the well effluent.
If the GOR is high, more volume in the separator needs to be reserved for gas so a low oil level is
required.
If the GOR is low, more volume in the separator needs to be reserved for the oil, so a high oil
level is required.
To cover different GORs, from the oil level controller, the oil level can be adjusted between two
values: plus or minus 6 in. of the center line of the separator. As a guideline, the level is initially
fixed at the center line and further level adjustments are made based on the GOR.
Simple Oil Level Controller

Oil level controllers commonly employ a plunger attached to a controller to
open or close a control valve that regulates the oil level. This controller
actuates one of the two regulation valves on the oil outlet: a large and a
small diameter valve fitted in parallel. This system permits regulation of very
low to very high oil flow rates, limited only by the maximum capacity of the
separator.
When liquid in the separator rises, the plunger moves up causing the
torque tube to twist slightly to the right. a rod welded inside the torque
tube transmits the rotation of the torque tube to the flapper, causing it to
move closer to the nozzle that opens the automatic control valve
(ACV). Similarly, when the liquid in the separator falls, the plunger
moves down. The weight of the plunger causes the torque tube to twist
slightly to the left. The rod transmits the torque tube rotation to the
flapper, causing it to move away from the nozzle, closing the ACV.
Another way to understand how the torque tube system works is to
compare it to a spring. The force on the spring is replaced by the torque
on the tube and the linear displacement of the spring is replaced by the
angular displacement of the tube.
When the oil level changes, according to the principle of Archimedes, the
plunger is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid as
shown in the "Oil Level Controller" and "Torque Tube" figures. The
movement of the plunger is converted, through a torque tube assembly,
causing the flapper to move away from or closer to the nozzle. In turn, the air
leak from the nozzle opens or closes the control valve on the separator oil
outlet.
For safety purposes, the control valves on the oil outlet are normally closed.
If for any reason the air pressure supply to these valves is cut, this problem
should be detected fast enough to prevent oil from backing up into the
separator. Oil buildup in the separator can cause oil to outflow into the gas
line where it eventually reaches the flare and pollutes the environment.
Conversely, if the control valves on the oil outlet were open, oil could build
up in the tank, causing similar problems.
Complex Oil Level Controller
The "Oil Level Controller" figure above shows a simple model of an oil
level controller. In this simple system, the valve is either wide open or
closed, causing the separator oil level to constantly fluctuate between a
minimum and a maximum level.
The actual oil level controller mounted on the separator is more

complex. In contrast to the simple model, the actual oil level controller
allows the desired oil level to be set and utilizes a proportional band
control to adjust the valve stroke, ensuring smooth regulation of the
separator oil level.
For the complex system shown in the "Oil Level Controller - Proportional Action" diagram, the
desired liquid level is set by adjusting the set point lever. Adjusting this lever moves the nozzle,
mounted on the Bourdon tube, closer or farther away from the flapper. This set point lever allows
the desired level of liquid to be set (providing that the oil level is between the top and the bottom
of the plunger). The diagram shows the oil level controller in a state of equilibrium: the oil level
is set in the middle of the plunger and the inlet flow is equal to the outlet flow.
The following lists describe what happens to the system shown in the "Oil Level Controller Proportional Action" diagram when the inlet flow is greater than and less than the outlet flow.
When the inlet flow is greater than the outlet flow, the level of oil in the separator increases:
The buoyant force of the liquid increases, lifting the plunger up. The flapper, connected to the
plunger by the torque tube, moves toward the nozzle.
This displacement of the plunger moves the flapper up, closing the gap between the flapper and
the nozzle and reducing the air passage. Because chamber A is constantly supplied with air
through orifice B, the reduction in this air passage increases the pressure in chamber A.
The pressure build up in chamber A pushes diaphragms C and D down, opening the supply valve
E.
Air supply pressure enters chamber F and flows to the automatic control valve (ACV) causing it
to throttle away from its seat (opening the ACV). This action increases the oil outflow and causes
the oil level to fall.
At the same time that the air flows to the ACV, it also flows through the proportional band valve
to the Bourdon tube. This air pressure causes the nozzle on the Bourdon tube to move away
from the flapper. This action stops the pressure buildup in chamber A and restores the system
to a state of equilibrium.
As a result, the pressure on the ACV is increased (causing it to throttle away from its
seat) and the separator oil level is restored to its set level.
When the inlet flow is less than the outlet flow, the level of oil in the separator decreases:
The flapper moves away from the nozzle, widening the gap between the nozzle and the flapper.
This causes the air pressure in chamber A of the relay to decrease.
The pressure drop in chamber A and the action of the spring G move diaphragms C and D up.
Air from the automatic control valve starts to bleed off to the atmosphere through chamber I.
This reduction in pressure causes the ACV to close under the action of its spring.
At the same time that air flows from the ACV to the atmosphere, the air pressure passing
through proportional band valve to the Bourdon tube decreases, causing the nozzle on the
Bourdon tube to move closer to the flapper. This action causes the pressure in chamber A to
increase enough to close the passage between chambers F and I.
As a result, the pressure on the ACV is decreased (causing it to throttle closer to its seat)
and the oil level is restored to its set level.
Proportional Band Valve
As shown in the "Displacement-Type Controller" figure, the pressure from relay chamber F
flows to the automatic control valve and also flows to the proportional band three-way valve.
The orifice of this valve is adjustable so the amount of air pressure or "feedback" to the Bourdon
tube can be set as desired.
This figure represents a displacement type controller, one that does

not float on top of the liquid, but floats in the liquid and is displaced
(moves up and down) as the liquid level changes. As shown in the
diagram, to control the liquid level the liquid must be between
points A and B. If the liquid level is below A or above B, the
controller will not be able to control the liquid level.
The proportional band setting is expressed as a percentage, based on
the length of the plunger, as described in the following examples.
This percentage can vary from 0 to 100%. For example, if the
proportional band is set at 100%, the liquid level would have to
move from A to B or B to A to fully stroke the valve. In contrast, if the proportional band is set
at 25%, the level of liquid would have to move 25% of the distance between A and B to fully
stroke the valve.
Another way this relationship is expressed is based on the length of the level change that will
cause the valve to fully stroke. For example, if the level change that causes a full stroke of the
ACV is 8 in. and the float is 16 in. long, the proportional band is set at 50% (50% proportional
band).
The following animation of an oil level controller demonstrates the operation of the oil ACV and
its controller. The effect of the proportional band valve on the ACV will also be shown.
Liquid Control Valve Multimedia

Objective: To demonstrate the operation of the valve and controller
To demonstrate the effect of the proportional band valve
Comment: The level of the liquid-gas interface inside the separator should be kept constant to
maintain steady separation conditions. A variation in this level changes the volume of gas and
liquid in the separator, which in turn affects the speed and the retention time of the two fluids.
The liquid control valve (LCV) is the equipment responsible for keeping this steady separation
condition.
This animation will demonstrate how the LCV components (LCV, Bourdon tube, plunger, level
setting, proportional band controller, and the liquid valve) interact with each other.
The steady state condition will be covered in the next version of this animation.
For related topics, see the Gas Automatic Control Valve and the Gas Flow Recorder animations.
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Water Level Controller

The interface level between water and oil in
the separator should be kept constant to
prevent the water from passing over the weir
plate and flowing into the oil compartment.
This is accomplished with a float connected to
a water level controller that acts on a valve
fitted to the water outlet.
The level of water is controlled with a float that floats in water but sinks in oil. The movement of
the float is transmitted through a tube to a flapper that moves away from or closer to the nozzle,
causing it to leak air. The air leak from the nozzle is used to open or close a control valve on the
separator water outlet.
Automatic Control Valves
The automatic control valves (ACV) for the oil, gas, and water controllers are designed to
regulate the rate of flow in a pipe by varying its cross-sectional area in response to an air leak
signal received from a controller.
The "Automatic Flow Control Valves" figure shows the two different types (normally open and
normally closed) of control valves used in a separator.
Sight Glass
The sight glass is a visual level indicator. On the separator there's an oil sight glass to monitor
the oil-gas interface and a water sight glass to monitor the oil-water interface. The levels inside
the separator can be seen through the glass.
This device is made of transparent glass housed in a steel chamber to withstand the pressure
inside the separator. In the event the glass breaks, the safety glass is equipped with safety valves
that prevent fluids inside the separator from escaping. The safety valve works using a ball that
automatically seals off the tank from the sight glass using the pressure differential between the
tank and the atmosphere. After a broken glass is changed, the ball needs to be pushed back in its
groove so it can seal off the separator from the sight glass, in case another failure occurs. Use the
stem tip to push the ball back by moving the handle about one quarter turn. Once the ball is in
position, turn the handle back to return the stem to its original position.
Air Scrubber
The air used to operate the oil, gas, and water controllers is provided by an air compressor. This
air from the compressor is first filtered using an air scrubber. The air scrubber is simply a vertical
pot where the impurities and water settle. After the air is filtered, it is sent to pressure regulators
where the air pressure is reduced to a level that's acceptable for the instruments.

Safety Devices
In case a malfunction causes the separator pressure to rise to a dangerous level, these devices
provide an emergency vent to the atmosphere. To prevent this type of failure, the separator is
designed with two weak points--a safety relief valve and a rupture disc--that are activated in case
of overpressure. For the safety valve to operate properly, it needs a needle valve and a check
valve.
Safety Relief Valve
The safety relief valve is located on top of the separator. Its outlet is connected to the gas outlet
line, downstream of the automatic control valve (ACV). When the safety relief valve is opened,
gas is bled off to the flare. Depending on client requirements and local regulations, the outlet for
the safety relief valve is sometimes connected to a separate vent line.
The safety valve incorporates a bellows seal that prevents separator fluid discharge from entering
the upper part of the valve that's exposed to the atmospheric pressure. The bellows has an
effective area equal to the area of the valve seat so the effect of any back pressure from the valve
outlet on set pressure is eliminated.
The set pressure is the pressure at which you want the safety relief valve to open. The set
pressure is adjusted by the force of a spring on a sealing disc that is exposed to separator
pressure.
The set pressure is normally set at 90% of the nominal (600 psi, 720 psi, or 1440 psi) separator
working pressure (WP). Due to temperature influence and calibration tolerances, it cannot be
guaranteed that the safety relief valve will open at exactly 90% of WP. When setting the
operating pressure, it's safe to assume that the valve could open within a range of 85% to 95% of
the WP. Consequently, the operating pressure in the separator should be kept at or below 80% of
WP to prevent accidental opening of the safety valve.
For example, for a 1440 psi WP separator, the set point is 90% of WP (1296 psi), and the
operating range for the valve is between 85% of WP (1224 psi) and 95% of WP (1368 psi). For
this separator, the operating pressure should be set at or below 80% of WP (1152 psi).
Check Valve
The check valve is located downstream of the safety relief valve. It is a free-swinging flapper
valve that prevents back pressure in the gas outlet line from reaching the safety relief valve
outlet, where it could possibly affect the opening of the safety relief valve.
Needle Valve
The needle valve, connected between the safety relief valve and the check valve, ensures that any
back pressure on the safety relief valve outlet is discharged to the atmosphere. It should be small
in size and must be checked often to make sure it's clear. The needle valve is kept open during
operations to detect leaks in the check valve and prevent leaks from exerting back pressure on
the safety relief valve. In the event the safety relief valve opens, the needle valve limits the size
of the leak, making it easy to control. If H2S is present, a line must be connected to the needle
valve to vent the gas away from personnel.
Rupture Disc
The main disadvantage of the configuration shown in the "Safety Devices" diagram is if for any
reason the gas line to the flare is blocked, the safety relief valve will not be able to discharge the
overpressure. For this reason, and to prevent any other malfunction of the safety relief valve, the
separator is equipped with an additional safety device called the rupture disc. The rupture disc
operates on a different principle than the safety relief valve. It's made of a fine, convex metal
diaphragm designed to rupture at a very specific pressure. The diaphragm is completely torn
apart when ruptured, leaving a large hole through which gas and liquid can escape. The disc must
be replaced when ruptured, but the safety relief valve can be opened and closed repeatedly.
The disc is normally set to break at 110% of the nominal (600 psi, 720 psi or 1440 psi) separator
working pressure (WP). Due to temperature influence and calibration tolerances, it cannot be
guaranteed that the rupture disc will burst at exactly 110% of WP. It is safe to assume that the
disc could burst within a range of 105% to 115% of the WP. Using this range of values helps
ensure, in case of an emergency, that the safety valve will always operate before the disc
ruptures.
Safety Devices
Metering Devices
This topic looks at the meters used to measure flow rates for oil, gas, and water as they leave the
separator. To measure low to high oil flow rates, a positive displacement meter and a vortex
meter attached to the oil outlet line are used. The gas flow rate is measured using an orifice
meter, a type of differential pressure meter, attached to the gas outlet. Water flow rates are
measured using a positive displacement meter, identical to the positive displacement meter used
to measure oil, that's attached to the water outlet. The shrinkage factor, measured using a
shrinkage tester, represents a correction factor used in oil volume computations. Gas scrubbers
filter the gas that's used to operate the differential pressure recorder.
Oil Meters
The oil outlet is fitted with two parallel meters, making it possible to cover a broad range of flow
rates. A single meter cannot accurately cover the entire range (low to high) of flow rates. Oil
meters are used one at a time and the choice depends on the flow rate. Low and medium flow
rates are measured with a positive displacement meter, and high flow rates are measured with a
vortex meter.
The positive displacement meter measures the liquid passing through it by separating the liquid
into segments and counting the segments. Liquid entering the meter strikes the bridge and is
deflected downward, hitting the blades and turning the rotor in the right direction. The seals on
the bridge prevent the liquid from returning to the inlet side. The rotor movement is transferred
to a register (readout device) with magnetic coupling.
Separators used for testing are usually equipped with a 2-in. diameter positive displacement
meter that can measure a flow rate from 100 to 2200 barrels per day.
The ball vortex meter consists of a body with an offset chamber and a rotor that are mounted
transversely to the flow stream. When liquid flows through the meter, a vortex is created in the
offset chamber. The rotational velocity of the liquid vortex is proportional to the rate of flow.
The rotor movement is transferred to a register (readout device) with magnetic coupling.
Separators used for testing can be equipped with a 2- or 3-in. diameter vortex meter. For this
type of meter, the flow rate depends not only on the size but also on the type of bearings used as
shown in the "Vortex Meters and Flow Rates" table.
Vortex Meters and Flow Rates
Meter Type
Rating with ball bearings in barrels

per/day
Rating with sleeve bearings in

barrels/day
2-in. vortex
meter
850 to 6800 barrels/day
1700 to 8500 barrels/day
3-in. vortex
meter
2000 to 17,000 barrels/day
3400 to 22,000 barrels/day
The oil meters located upstream from the automatic control valves operate under pressure, so the
volume of oil measured is greater than if compared to standard conditions (atmospheric pressure
and 60o F). Oil passing the counter may be hot, which also increases the volume measured. After
cooling, the real volume of oil will be less. This is because the oil leaving the separator still
contains dissolved gas that will escape when the pressure drops. A first correction for this loss of
volume must be applied and a second correction is applied for temperature changes.
Water Meter
The water outlet is fitted with a 2-in. diameter positive displacement meter that is identical to the
positive displacement meter used to measure the oil flow rate.
Gas Meter
Before leaving the separator, the gas flow rate is measured using a type of differential pressure
meter called an orifice meter. A calibrated orifice inserted in the gas stream creates a small
pressure drop across the orifice plate. The pressure upstream and downstream of the orifice plate
is used along with the gas temperature and density to calculate the gas flow rate.
At the beginning of a test, the gas flow rate is unknown. During the test, the gas flow rate may
change; therefore, different sizes of orifice plates are used. The correct diameter of orifice plate
is selected by trial and error, so it's important to have an apparatus that allows the orifice plate to
be changed without interrupting the gas flow. The orifice gas meter is designed for this purpose.
Replacing the Orifice in a Gas Differential Meter - Step 1
The following animation describes the safe change of the orifice plate in the Daniel orifice meter.
Gas Orifice Plate Meter Multimedia

Objective: To learn how to safely change the orifice plate in the gas orifice plate meter while it
is under pressure
Comment: The Daniel orifice meter measures the gas flow at the separator using the differential
pressure across an orifice. This animation describes the step-by-step process of how to remove,
change and install the orifice plate.
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To obtain accurate measurements, the flow of gas must be streamlined before it reaches the
meter. An adequate length of straight pipe and straightening vanes (bundle of straight tubes fitted
inside the pipe) are positioned before the meter to reduce the disturbances created by the elbows
in the gas line.
To record the differential pressure, a measuring instrument called a differential pressure recorder
is used. The high pressure side of the recorder is connected on the upstream side of the orifice
and the low pressure side is connected on the downstream side. In this way, the differential
pressure can be measured. The movement of the recorder is transferred to a pen that records the
differential pressure on a chart. The same chart is used to record the static pressure, measured
downstream of the orifice plate. In addition, another pen is used to record the gas temperature.
The "Differential Pressure Recorder Process" diagram includes steps that show how the
differential pressure recorder works.
The following animation of a gas pressure recorder depicts how separator pressure changes and
selection of orifices affect the pressure readings.
Gas Flow Recorder Multimedia

Objective: To understand the response of the recorder with separator pressure changes and the
selection of orifices
Comment: The gas flow recorder (GFR) is one of the instruments attached to the separator. It
will record the temperature and pressure in the output line and differential gas pressure across the
Daniel meter.
With the help of this recorder, we can select the correct orifice for the Daniel meter to cope with
the current flow.
For related topics, see the Liquid Control Valve and the Gas Automatic Control Valve
animations.
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Compressed size: 4.5 MB Mac or 7.0 MB PC,

Expanded (noncompressed) size: 7.1 MB Mac or 11.8 MB PC
Gas Scrubbers
The gas used to operate the differential pressure recorder is provided by the separator gas line.
This gas is first filtered, on both the high and low pressure lines, using bottom gas scrubbers.
These gas scrubbers are vertical pots where impurities, oil, and emulsion settle. Before the gas
reaches the recorder, it is filtered again by the top gas scrubber. The top scrubbers act as a buffer
between the gas and the recorder. In case the gas contains H2S or CO2 (sour gas), the top
scrubbers can be filled with hydraulic oil or diesel to prevent direct contact between the gas and
the recorder.
Shrinkage Tester
The shrinkage tester, usually attached to the oil sight glass of the separator, is used to estimate
the shrinkage factor in the field. The shrinkage factor is a correction factor used in the oil volume
computations. It represents the amount of dissolved gas in the oil that will be freed when the
pressure drops from the separator pressure to the atmospheric pressure.
The shrinkage tester consists of a bottle equipped with a graduated sight glass. Oil and gas will
flow to the tester until the oil level reaches "0" on the vernier, corresponding to a set volume
(Vo). The tester is then isolated from the separator and the bottle pressure is bled off to the
atmosphere slowly to prevent oil from being released with the gas. This allows gas to be freed
from the oil, so usually after 20 minutes, a new level can be read on the vernier. This new level
corresponds to a new volume (V) of oil. The shrinkage factor read on the vernier is simply the
V:Vo ratio, expressed as a percentage.
The following animation of a shrinkage tester illustrates the function of the valves and proper
operating sequence and measurement procedures. It includes an interactive simulator to reinforce
your understanding of this system.
Shrinkage Tester Multimedia

Objective: To understand the function of the valves of a shrinkage tester and learn the correct
operating sequence and measurement procedures
Comment: Well fluid in the separator is normally under pressure and its volume will change as
soon as the dissolved gas disappears under atmospheric conditions. This multimedia will
demonstrate how to operate the shrinkage tester that is normally attached to the separator. Valves
need to be operated in a certain sequence to obtain the correct reading. The animation will be
followed by a shrinkage tester simulator in which the students will be asked to click the valve
open/close in the correct sequence.
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Metering Devices
Piping Systems
This topic describes the functions of the other equipment that's attached to the separator piping
system: valves, a bypass manifold, and tapping points.
Valves
The "Separator Layout with Bypass" drawing shows a typical separator piping layout plus the
manual ball valves used to isolate the parts of the piping not in use.
Bypass Manifold
The bypass manifold between the separator inlet and the oil and gas outlets permits effluent to be
diverted to the burners or gas flare without passing through the separator. The bypass manifold is
used when the effluent doesn't need to be separated; for example, at the beginning of a test when
the well is first opened.
There's also a bypass line for the separator oil meter that's used when the oil flow rate does not
need to be measured.
Tapping Points
The oil and gas lines are equipped with tapping points and isolating valves, allowing fluid
samples to be taken. Tapping points on oil, water, and gas lines can be used to connect pressure
and temperature recorders. The separator is equipped with hammer wing unions for quick
connection and disconnection of pipe work.
Piping Systems
Equipment
Schlumberger has developed a wide range of separators that differ in size, modularity,
portability, and temperature rating which are available in working pressure ratings of 600, 720
and 1440 psi. All are H2S resistant and each has special features:
The 600 psi is designed to be light, easily lifted, even by a small crane or an helicopter. Because
of its lower working pressure, the metal is thinner so the overall vessel remains light.
The 720 psi is designed to handle high flow rates of oil, because its extended length provides a
long retention time.
The 1440 psi version is by far the most commonly used separator. Due to its high working
pressure, it can handle higher flow rates of gas. The drawback is the higher overall weight for
this separator.
These drawings show examples of several types of separators and their characteristics. For each
drawing, specifications are provided
Description
The three-phase test separator allows separation, metering and sampling of all phases of well
effluent. The horizontal test separator is capable of handling most types of fluid found in todays
exploration wells, such as gas, gas condensate, light oil, heavy oil, foaming oil and H2S-bearing
fluid.
The separator unit is skid mounted with an integral inlet and bypass manifold. The skid contains
an orifice meter for measuring gas flow rate, a positive displacement meter and a vortex meter
for measuring oil flow rate, and a positive displacement meter for measuring water flow rate.
The separator pressure is maintained at a preset level by an automatic control valve on the gas
outlet. The liquid level is maintained by an automatic control valve on the oil outlet. The liquid
level within the separator can be monitored through sight glasses.
The vessel is protected from overpressure by both a relief valve and a rupture disc system. The
outlet from the relief valve can be vented to the gas outlet or to an independent line. A second
relief valve can replace the rupture disc, if required.
A separator-mounted shrinkage tester is available to measure the oil volume change from
separator conditions to atmospheric pressure and temperature.
Sampling points for taking pressurized oil and gas samples are standard on each separator.
Specifications
Assembly number
P-873485
P-579035
Project code
SEP-SKO
SEP-SKP
Det Norske Veritas
None
Design codes
NACE MR 01-75
NACE MR 01-75
ASME VIII Div 1
ASME VIII Div 1
DNV Drill 'N,' DOE SI 289 DNV Drill 'N,' DOE SI 289
Working pressure
1480 psi [102 bar] at

100F
1480 psi [102 bar] at

100F
1350 psi [93 bar] at 200F 1350 psi [93 bar] at 200F
Working temperature
-20 to 200F [-28 to 93C] 32 to 200F [0 to 93C]
Service
H2S
H2S
Separator vessel
42 in. x 10 ft
42 in. x 10 ft
Relief valve setting
1440 psi [100 bar]
1440 psi [100 bar]
2-in. rupture disc setting 1600 psi [112 bar]
1600 psi [112 bar]
Protection
coating
coating
Load factor
6.6 psi
6.6 psi
Nominal capacity
Gas Low liquid level
60 MMscf/D [1.7 MMm3 /D] at 1440 psi
High liquid level
25 MMscf/D [0.71 MMm3 /D] at 1440 psi
Liquid High level
14,400 BLPD [2289 m3 /D] at 1-min retention
Low level
6650 BLPD [1057 m3 /D] at 1-min retention
CONNECTIONS
Inlet (WECO Union)
3-in. Fig. 602 F
3-in. Fig. 602 F
Gas
3-in. Fig. 602 M
3-in. Fig. 602 M
Oil/water
2-in. Fig. 602 M
2-in. Fig. 602 M
Sampling points
1/2-in. NPT F
1/2-in. NPT F
95 in. [2.42 m]
95 in. [2.42 m]
With relief valve
103 in. [2.62 m]
103 in. [2.62 m]
Width
87 in. [2.21 m]
87 in. [2.21 m]
Length
224 in. [5.68 m]
224 in. [5.68 m]
28,260 lbm [12,800 kg]
28,260 lbm [12,800 kg]
Outlets (WECO Union)
DIMENSIONS
Height
Weight
Empty
With piping set
30,900 lbm [14,000 kg]
30,900 lbm [14,000 kg]
Shrinkage tester (SKTAB/AC)
P-579040
M-808721
Shrinkage tester (SKTD/C)
P-579041
M-806275
Low gas flow skid
P-579082
P-579083
Options
Water circuit control set P-579064
M-872886
Protective side panels
M-801718
M-801718
Description
The heliportable separator package allows well testing to take place in areas where access is too
difficult for conventional test equipment. The three-phase test separator allows separation,
metering and sampling of all phases of well effluent.
The separator assembly is mounted on two skids that are connected together on site. The first
skid contains the separator vessel. The second consists of an inlet manifold and metering
instruments, including an orifice meter for measuring gas flow rate, a positive displacement
meter and a vortex meter for measuring oil flow rate, and a positive displacement meter for
measuring water flow rate.
The vessel is protected from overpressure by both a relief valve and a rupture disc system.
A separator-mounted shrinkage tester is available to measure the oil volume change from
separator conditions to atmospheric pressure and temperature.
Sampling points for taking pressurized oil and gas samples are standard on each separator.
Specifications
Assembly number
K-874015
Project code
SSEP-HFE
ABS
Design codes
NACE MR 01-75, ASME VIII Div 1
Working pressure
600 psi [41.4 bar]
Working temperature
32 to 200F [0 to
93C]
Service
H2S
Separator vessel
36 in. x 10 ft
600 psi [41.4 bar]
2-in. rupture disc

setting
660 psi 45.5 bar]
Nominal capacity at 600 psi

28 MMscf/D [0.79 MMm3 /D]
High liquid level
10.8 MMscf/D [0.25 MMm3 /D]
Liquid High level
10,500 BLPD [1670 m3 /D] at 1-min retention
Low level
2600 BLPD [415 m3 /D] at 1-min retention
Load factor
5 psi
CONNECTIONS
Inlet
Gas Outlet
Oil/water outlets
Sampling points
1/2-in. NPT F
DIMENSIONS
VESSEL SKID
CONTROL/MEASUREMENT
SKID
Height
67 in. [1.70 m]
67 in. [1.70 m]
Width
44 in. [1.10 m]
52 in. [1.30 m]
Length
158 in. [4.00 m]
154 in. [3.90 m]
Weight
4,000 lbm [1800 kg]
3,800 lbm [1700 kg]
Protection
Option
Shrinkage tester (SKT-A) M-874520
Description
The three-phase test separator allows separation, metering and sampling of all phases of well
effluent. The horizontal test separator is capable of handling most types of fluid found in todays
exploration wells, such as gas, gas condensate, light oil, heavy oil, foaming oil and H2S-bearing
fluid.
The separator unit is skid mounted with an integral inlet and bypass manifold. The skid contains
an orifice meter for measuring gas flow rate, a positive displacement meter and a vortex meter
for measuring oil flow rate, and a positive displacement meter for measuring water flow rate.
The vessel is protected from overpressure by both a relief valve and a rupture disc system. The
outlet from the relief valve can be vented to the gas outlet or to an independent line. A separatormounted shrinkage tester is available to measure the oil volume change from separator
conditions to atmospheric pressure and temperature.
Sampling points for the taking of pressurized oil and gas samples are standard on each separator.
Specifications
Assembly number
K837655
K-579042
Project code
SEP-SGF
SEP-SGM
None
None
Design codes
NACE MR 01-75
NACE MR 01-75
ASME VIII Div 1
ASME VIII Div 1
Working pressure
Working temperature
32 to 200F [0 to 93C]
32 to 200F [0 to 93C]
Service
H2S
H2S
Separator vessel
36 in. x 10 ft
42 in. x 15 ft
720 psi [50 bar]
720 psi [50 bar]
3-in. rupture disc setting 790 psi [54.5 bar]
790 psi [54.5 bar]
Nominal capacity
25 MMscf/D [0.71 MMm3 41 MMscf/D [1/16 MMm3

/D]
/D]
High liquid level
13 MMscf/D [0.37 MMm3 18 MMscf/D [0.51 MMm3

/D]
/D]
Liquid High level
10,000 BLPD [1600 m3 /D] 23,800 BLPD [3783 m3 /D]
Low level
5000 BLPD [800 m3 /D]

at 1-min retention time
10,500 BLPD [1669 m3 /D]

at 1-min retention time
Load factor 1
0 psi
6.6 psi
3-in. Fig. 602 F
3-in. Fig. 602 F
Gas
3-in. Fig. 602 M
3-in. Fig. 602 M
Oil/water
2-in. Fig. 602 M
2-in. Fig. 602 M
Sampling points
1/2-in. NPT F
1/2-in. NPT F
CONNECTIONS
Inlet (WECO Union)
Outlets (WECO Union)
DIMENSIONS
Height
93 in. [2.35 m]
95 in. [2.42 m]
With relief valve
100 in. [2.55 m]
103 in. [2.62 m]
Width
72 in. [1.82 m]
87 in. [2.24 m]
Length
205 in. [5.21m]
2260 in. [6.60 m]
Empty
16,500 lbm [7500 kg]
32,680 lbm [14,800 kg]
With piping set
19,150 lbm [8700 kg]
35,320 lbm [16,000 kg]
Protection
coating
coating
Shrinkage tester (SKTAB/AC)
M-808721
M-808721
Shrinkage tester (SKTD/C)
M-806275
M-806275
Low gas flow skid
P-579083
P-579083
Weight
Options
Water circuit control set M-874445
M-839169
Protective side panels
M-839175
M-839170
Separator Selection
Guidelines
The principal criteria for selecting a separator are:
Project requirements related to working pressure, emulsion, foam, and cost considerations.
The recommended retention time for fluid inside the vessel is greater than one minute. If the
flow rate is high, a larger separator is needed to achieve the recommended retention time.
Some jobs may require more than one separator to meet the recommended retention time.
Weight restrictions can be dictated by crane lift capacity at the well site or access to the well
site; for example, only heli-portable separators can be used on some offshore rigs.
A differential pressure cell is needed for gas rate calculation.

A shrinkage tester is needed if one is not already fitted on the separator.
Check connection (cross-over) requirements. Connections need to be compatible with manifolds
and piping on rig lines.
A compressed air supply is needed for the level controllers.
Separator Identification
The separator can be identified by its working pressure (WP) rating, temperature rating, and its
size. This information is stamped on a metal plate. It is also common to use colored bands
(painted or taped) on the separator for quick visual identification.
Safety
The following is a list of key safety considerations for separators:
After every job, the separator must be thoroughly cleaned to prevent corrosion from well
effluents.
To prevent accidental closure of rig air supply valves during a test, lock open and label air supply
valves to separator instruments.
To ensure proper operation of the pressure safety valve, make sure the swing valve is sealed
tight before starting a test.
To detect any leak that could adversely affect the operation of the safety relief valve, keep the
needle valve open. The needle valve is located between the safety relief valve and the swing
valve.
In all operating conditions, it's recommended that compressed air be supplied to separator
instruments. In the event that compressed air is not available, sweet separator gas may be used,
but never H2S gas. This is because some of the gas is vented to the atmosphere through the
controllers.
Make sure the lifting eyes on the separator frame are in perfect shape and don't show sign of
corrosion, especially at the weldings.
During transportation, remove the floats used to control liquid levels to prevent them from
falling into the vessel.
Check the expiration date of the official certification test of the separator. Like all pressure
vessels, the separator requires periodic recertification.
Maintenance
For information about separator preparation and functional checks, see the recommended steps in
the "Field Operating Handbook (FOH) for Surface Well Testing."
For information about equipment maintenance, see the maintenance manuals for the separator
and the "FOH for Surface Well Testing."
Summary
The main functions of a separator.

The different processes for achieving the separation between oil, gas and water.
The main parameters that can be controlled and adjusted to optimize the separation.
Using the shrinkage tester to get an accurate shrinkage factor.
Self Test
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
What are the main functions of a separator?

What processes does the separator use to separate oil, gas, and water?
Why should a separator be run at a constant pressure?
How is the separator pressure controlled?
What type of ACV is mounted on the separator gas line? Why?
What is the shrinkage measurement used for?
How is the separator protected against overpressure?
F) GAUGE TANK
Introduction
Objectives
Equipment
Safety
Maintenance
Summary
Self Test
Introduction
The "Surface Test Equipment" figure shows where the gauge tank is located in relationship to the
other surface testing equipment. On the upstream side, the gauge tank is connected to the
separator by the separator oil line. On the downstream side, it precedes the pump used to empty
the tank and the burners that burn off gas and oil. The gauge tank is unpressurized, unlike its
counterpart the surge tank which is pressurized. The gauge is never used when H2S is present;
the surge tank is used instead.
The functions of the gauge tank are listed below:
Storing liquids when pressure is low

When oil leaves the separator under low pressure, oil burners do not operate properly. To
remedy this problem, oil is stored in the tank where a pump is used to drive it to the burners
under sufficient pressure.
Storing liquids when large samples are required

It is unrealistic to take large samples of oil from a pressurized vessel, like the separator. For this
reason, the gauge tank is used to store oil before it is sampled. From the tank, dead (degassed)
oil can easily be transferred to sample drums.
Metering liquids when flow rate is low

Sometimes oil flow rates are so low that they do not register on the oil meter at the separator.
When it's impossible to measure the flow rate at the separator, the gauge tank is used to
measure the flow rate. The oil flow rate at the gauge tank is calculated by measuring the volume
of oil that accumulates in the tank over a defined period of time.
Calculating the volume correction factor at the tank to calibrate oil meters
The oil flow meter at the separator is not 100% correct. When oil leaves the separator, it still
contains some gas. In addition, the meter may not be correctly calibrated. By comparing the
volume reading at the oil meter with the actual volume measured at the tank, a correction
factor can be obtained. This correction factor, referred to as the "meter combined shrinkage"
factor, reflects two adjustments:
Meter factor.
This is a calibration measurement that reflects the meter's inaccuracy.
Shrinkage factor.
The difference in the oil volume read at the separator and the volume measured at the tank is
also due to the loss of gas when the oil is exposed to the atmospheric pressure in the tank. This
loss of volume is called the shrinkage factor. The pure shrinkage factor is measured at the
separator using a shrinkage tester.
Objectives
Explain the purpose of the gauge tank.

Describe its applications and limitations.
Identify and explain how the main components of the gauge tank work.
Upon completion of the practical exercises for the Gauge Tank, you should be able to:
Disassemble one of the flame arrestors to see how it operates.

While emptying one tank compartment using a transfer pump, fill up the other compartment.
Direct flow from one compartment to the other.
Check the condition of the grounding strap and safety seam.
Review FIT and TRIM procedures for the gauge tank.
This topic lists the main components of the gauge tank and describes how the tank is used to
calibrate meters. Click on the graphic or scroll down for detailed information on each
component.
Gauge Tank Components

Safety Seams
They are located on the roof of the gauge tank and are made of plates riveted together. If the
tank is accidentally overpressurized, the rivets will break and the roof of the tank will lift to
relieve the pressure.
Sight Glasses
These are transparent plastic tubes, located on one side of the tank, that monitor the liquid
levels in the tank. A graduated scale on the sight glass permits level readings and calculations of
the change in volume.
Gauging Ports
Located on the roof of the tank, these ports allow liquid levels in the tank compartments to be
manually monitored with a simple measuring stick when sight glasses are out of order.
Liquid Levels
The liquid levels located at the bottom of the tank allow you to see the amount of water and
sediment in the tank. High amounts of sediment are undesirable.
Gas Vent Lines
The tank is fitted with two gas exhaust lines: one per compartment. These lines allow gas in the
oil to escape from the tank. Gas vent lines are made up of a piping system of flexible plastic
hoses that vent gas far away from the work area at the well site or overboard on an offshore rig.
Flame Arrestors
The job of these safety devices, mounted on the gas vent lines, is to stop a fire from propagating
inside the tank. They are equipped with steel wool to ensure that no oil droplets are carried
away with the gas.
Butterfly Valves
The inlet and outlet manifold of the tank are equipped with butterfly valves. These valves are
used to fill or empty the tank.
Inspection Hatch
Each compartment in the tank has a removable panel, allowing the inside of the tank to be
inspected and cleaned.
Grounding Strap
The gauge tank is grounded with a grounding strap, allowing static electricity to be discharged,
so flashes can be avoided. The build up of static charges of electricity may be caused by the
friction from flowing fluids. Onshore, the strap is connected to an iron stake driven into the
ground. Offshore, it's connected to a spot on the rig that's free of paint or grease.
Fire Fighting Ports
The tank is fitted with two ports (not shown) that are designed to connect to the rig's fire
fighting equipment. In case of a fire, these ports are used to inject CO2 foam or Halon inside the
tank.
Calibration of Meters
Technical and economic considerations related to the development of a new reservoir may
depend on the accuracy of oil flow rates. Incorrect flow rates could cause the client to make
incorrect decisions about the well, which could have very expensive implications.
The meters on the oil flow line operate under pressure. Gas bubbles in the oil cause the oil meter
to register volume readings that are altered by the presence of the gas. To correct the volume
reading at the oil meter, a correction factor is derived by comparing the volume reading at the oil
meter with the volume measurement obtained at the tank. The volume correction factor is also
referred to as the "meter combined shrinkage" factor.
The following steps are needed to accurately and safely use the gauge tank to calculate the
volume correction factor:
1. Read the initial level of oil in the tank.
2. Divert the oil flow to the tank and simultaneously take a meter reading at the oil flow line and
record the time.
3. Verify that the level of oil in the tank is rising. (This tells you that oil from the separator was
diverted and is flowing properly.)
4. Verify that there is no pressure build up in the tank.
5. Check frequently at the gas vent line outlets for liquid or foam carryover. To avoid carryover, do
not allow more than 80% of a tank compartment to be filled.
6. Divert the oil flow back to the burners and simultaneously take a meter reading at the oil flow
line and record the time.
7. Before taking the final tank reading, wait until all the gas has escaped from the oil.
The volume correction factor is simply the ratio between the volume obtained in the tank and the
volume registered by the meter.
Note: At the time the final tank reading is taken, the tank temperature is also recorded. A
correction for temperature (temperature coefficient) is applied in order to report flow rates at
standard conditions: 14.65 psi (atmospheric) and 60oF.
The following animation will help you understand the procedures for obtaining a correction
factor to change oil volumes at separator conditions to volumes at stock tank conditions.
Liquid Meter Reading with Tank Correction Multimedia

Objective: To understand the procedure for obtaining a factor for correcting oil volumes from
separator conditions to stock tank conditions
Comment: None
Mac
Read me!
PC
Read me!
Equipment
Gauge tanks are available in 50-, 100- and 200-barrel capacities. Of these, the 100-barrel version
is the most common. The range of gauge tanks available makes it possible to select a gauge tank
that accommodates the required well test while not being larger, more complicated or more
expensive than the overall project demands.
The figure on the right shows a generic gauge tank and lists the specifications for the three
available sizes.
SKID MOUNTED
GAUGE TANK (FGTSA/B/C)
Description
The nonpressurized gauge tank is used to measure low flow rates or calibrate inferential or
positive displacement meters. It has two compartments, one of which can be emptied by the
transfer pump while the other compartment is being filled. Sight glasses with a scale permit
calculation of the change in volume based on the physical dimensions of the gauge tank.
Safety features include flame arrestors on each vent of the gauge tank and a thief hatch in case
the vessel is accidentally overpressurized.
A grounding strap is attached to each gauge tank to prevent buildup of static charges.
The gauge tank is never used when H2S gas is present in the effluent because gas released from
the gauge tank is vented to the atmosphere and may endanger personnel.
Specifications
Certification
Assembly number
Project code
Capacity
Service
Working pressure
Working
temperature
Compartments
Safety devices
Load factor
2-in. rupture disc
setting
Protection
None
M-806271
FGTS-A
50 bbl [8 m3]
Standard
Atmospheric
M-807480
FGTS-B
100 bbl [16 m3]
M-872892
FGTS-C
200 bbl [32 m3]
32 to 200F [0 to 93C]
2
2 flame arrestors and bypass
grounding device
shearing roof set at 0.5 psi
12 psi
14 psi
1600 psi [112 1600 psi [112
bar]
bar]
10 psi
CONNECTIONS
Inlet
2-in. LP Fig. 602 WECO Union
Outlet
DIMENSIONS
Length
Width
120 in. [3.05 m] 199 in. [5.05 m] 346 in. [8.80 m]

87 in. [2.21 m] 87 in. [2.21 m] 87 in. [2.21 m]
Height
Weight (Empty)
96 in. [2.40 m] 96 in. [2.40 m] 96 in. [2.40 m]

4400 lbm [2000 10,000 lbm [4536 18,000 lbm [8165
kg]
kg]
kg]
Gauge Tank Selection Guidelines
The principal criteria for selecting a gauge tank are:
If the project requirements specify that a surge tank is required, a gauge tank is usually not
needed.
Storage requirements for some jobs may require more than one gauge tank.
The service type required (operating environment) does not allow the use of a gauge tank when
H2S is present..
Extensions (flexible plastic hoses) for the gas vent lines are required.
High oil flow rates can cause excessive pressure that will burst the safety seams on the tank.
Safety
The following is a list of key safety considerations for gauge tanks:
The gauge tank is never used when H2S is expected to be in the well effluent. The gas from the
gauge tank is vented to the atmosphere, so any H2S in the gas could endanger personnel.
Before diverting the separator oil to the gauge tank, you must check the ability of the gas vent
lines to discharge the full volume of gas liberated when the pressure drops from separator to
atmospheric pressure. Refer to the charts in the Tank Operations chapter of the "FOH for
Surface Well Testing."
When using the gauging ports, check the gas vent lines to make sure a significant amount of gas
is not being vented. If a significant amount of gas is being vented, measure the liquid levels later
or wear a protective mask. When measuring liquid levels through gauging ports, it's always a
good practice to wear a mask.
When diverting the oil to the tank, always limit the flow rate to avoid filling the tank too rapidly.
In case of high flow rates, someone should constantly monitor liquid levels and be ready to
divert the flow back to the burners to prevent overflow.
Prior to conducting any repair inside of the tank, it must be properly steam cleaned and
degassed. The person repairing the tank must be in constant contact with a person on the
outside of the tank.
Transport the gauge tank when it's empty; even a partially full tank has a much higher weight
than an empty tank.
Do not lift the gauge tank by the top eyes, the stress on the tank walls will destroy the roof
safety seam. To lift the tank, use the anchor shoes on the skid that are designed for this
purpose.
Maintenance
For information about tank preparation and functional checks, see the recommended steps in the
"Field Operating Handbook (FOH) for Surface Well Testing."
For information about equipment maintenance, see the maintenance manual for the gauge tank
Summary
The functions of the gauge tank.
Why and how the gauge tank is used to calibrate the meters.
The main components of the gauge tank.
The key safety points to observe when using a gauge tank.
Self Test
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Why is the gauge tank not used when H2S is present in the well effluent?
What are the two main uses of the gauge tank?
How is it possible to inspect the inside of the tank?
What is the purpose of the safety seams?
What must you check before passing the separator oil flow to the gauge tank? Why?
6. G) SURGE TANK
Introduction
The "Surface Test Equipment" figure shows where the surge tank is located in relationship to the
other surface testing equipment. On the upstream side, the surge tank is connected to the
separator by the separator oil line. On the downstream side, it precedes the pump used to empty
the tank and the burners that burn off gas and oil. Unlike the gauge tank, the surge tank is a
pressurized vessel. It is always used, instead of the gauge tank, when H2S is present in the well
effluent. The surge tank is H2S resistant. The gas leaving the surge tank is burned off, instead of
being vented to the atmosphere.
The surge tank's functions are listed below:
Low pressure separator
The surge tank was originally designed to work as a low-pressure separator, providing a
secondary stage of separation. It looks like a separator and, like the separator, it's pressurized
and equipped with a pressure regulation system and a safety relief valve. Although the surge
tank is still used as a secondary separator, today its primary use is identical to the gauge tank-volume measurements for calibrating oil meters.
Storing liquids when pressure is low

When oil leaves the separator under low pressure, oil burners do not operate properly. To
remedy this problem, oil is stored in the tank where a pump is used to drive it to the burners
under sufficient pressure.
Storing liquids when large samples are required

It is unrealistic to take large samples of oil from a pressurized vessel, like the separator. For this
reason, the surge tank is used to store oil before it is sampled. From the tank, dead (degassed)
oil can easily be transferred to sample drums.
Metering liquids when flow rate is low

Sometimes oil flow rates are so low that they do not register on the oil meter at the separator.
When it's impossible to measure the flow rate at the separator, the surge tank can be used to
measure the flow rate. The oil flow rate at the surge tank is calculated by measuring the volume
of oil that accumulates in the tank over a defined period of time.
Calculating the volume correction factor at the tank to calibrate oil meters
The oil flow meter at the separator is not 100% correct. When oil leaves the separator, it still
contains some gas. In addition, the meter may not be correctly calibrated. By comparing the
volume reading at the oil meter with the actual volume measured at the tank, a correction
factor can be obtained. This correction factor, referred to as the "meter combined shrinkage"
factor, reflects two adjustments:
Meter factor
This is a calibration measurement that reflects the meter's inaccuracy.
Shrinkage factor
The difference in the oil volume read at the separator and the volume measured at the tank is
also due to the loss of gas when the oil is exposed to the atmospheric pressure in the tank. This
loss of volume is called the shrinkage factor. The pure shrinkage factor is measured at the
separator using a shrinkage tester.
Objectives
Explain the purpose of the surge tank.

Describe its applications and limitations.
Identify and explain how the main components of the surge tank work.
Upon completion of the practical exercises for the Surge Tank, you should be able to:
Empty the tank using a transfer pump.

Check the condition of the grounding strap.
Review FIT and TRIM procedures for the surge tank.
This topic lists the main components of the surge tank and describes how the tank is used to
calibrate meters. Click on the graphic or scroll down for detailed information on each
component.
Surge Tank Components

Safety Relief Valve
This valve is located on top of the surge tank. It's the same type of valve as the safety relief valve
used on the separator. The safety relief valve opens in case the pressure in the tank exceeds the
tank's working pressure--50 or 150 psi depending on the version of the surge tank. The outlet on
the safety relief valve is either connected to a separate vent line (recommended) or connected
to the gas vent line on the surge tank that goes to the gas flare, depending on client
requirements and local regulations.
The safety relief valve incorporates a bellows seal that prevents surge tank fluid
discharge from entering the upper part of the valve that's exposed to the atmospheric
pressure. The bellows has an effective area equal to the area of the valve seat so the effect
of any back pressure from the valve outlet on set pressure is eliminated.
The set pressure is the pressure at which you want the safety relief valve to open. The set
pressure is adjusted by the force of a spring on a sealing disc that is exposed to surge tank
pressure.
Sight Glass
The sight glass is a visual level indicator. A graduated scale permits level changes to be recorded
and volume changes to be calculated. The sight glass is made of transparent glass housed in a
steel chamber to resist the pressure inside the tank. In the event the glass ruptures, the safety
glass is equipped with safety valves that prevent fluids inside the surge tank from escaping.
The safety valve works using a ball that automatically seals off the tank from the sight glass
using the pressure differential between the tank and the atmosphere. After a broken glass is
changed, the ball needs to be pushed back in its groove so it can seal off the surge tank from the
sight glass, in case another failure occurs. Use the stem tip to push the ball back by moving the
handle about one quarter turn. Once the ball is in position, turn the handle back to return the
stem to its original position.
Alarm Level System

This system has a low and a high level alarm system. A horn sounds if the liquid in the tank
reaches the low or the high level. Whenever an alarm sounds, the liquid levels are adjusted
manually. So safe operation of the surge tank requires constant supervision of liquid levels. To
be able to run in fully automatic mode, this alarm system must be connected to the ESD or to a
pump.
Gas Vent Line
The surge tank is fitted with a gas vent or exhaust line that allows the gas in the oil to escape
from the tank. (Gas is sent to the gas flare where it is burned off.) The gas vent line for the surge
tank must be independent from the separator gas line. If they were connected, pressure from
the separator gas line could create back-pressure on the surge tank that's higher than the tank's
working pressure.
Flame Arrestor
The job of this optional safety device, mounted on the gas vent line as close as possible to the
surge tank gas outlet, is to stop a fire from propagating inside the tank. It is equipped with steel
wool to stop a flame and to ensure that no oil droplets are carried away with the gas.
Butterfly Valves
The inlet and outlet manifold of the tank are equipped with butterfly valves. These valves are
used to fill or empty the tank.
Grounding Strap
The surge tank is grounded with a grounding strap, allowing static electricity to be discharged,
so flashes can be avoided. The build up of static charges of electricity may be caused by the
friction from flowing fluids. Onshore, the strap is connected to an iron stake driven into the
ground. Offshore, it's connected to a spot on the rig that's free of paint or grease.
Automatic Control Valve
The ACV in the gas vent line is used to maintain and
regulate a positive pressure inside the surge tank. This
pressure is needed when using the surge tank as a second
stage separator and, depending on the pump used, may be
necessary to prime the pump when emptying the tank. The
ACV regulates the gas rate by varying the diameter of the
gas vent line in response to a signal received from a
controller. The controller reacts to any variation in the
surge tank pressure. When the pressure rises, the controller
opens the valve and when the pressure drops, the
controller closes the valve. Once the surge tank pressure is
manually set at the pressure controller, the operating
pressure in the vessel is maintained close to the set value.
For safety purposes, the ACV is normally open. If for any
reason the air pressure supply to the valve is cut, the vessel
will not be overpressurized. For a complete descripton of
the system, see the gas pressure controller in the Separator
Training page.
Nonreturn Valve
This valve is fitted on the gas vent line. It is mounted downstream of the automatic control
valve. It is closed when there's no pressure in the surge tank. The nonreturn valve prevents any
back-pressure from entering the tank, causing the pressure inside the tank to increase above the
maximum working pressure.
Calibration of Meters
Technical and economic considerations related to the development of a new reservoir may
depend on the accuracy of oil flow rates. Incorrect flow rates could cause the client to make
incorrect decisions about the well, which could have very expensive implications.
The meters on the oil flow line operate under pressure. Gas bubbles in the oil cause the oil meter
to register volume readings that are altered by the presence of the gas. To correct the volume
reading at the oil meter, a correction factor is derived by comparing the volume reading at the oil
meter with the volume measurement obtained at the tank. The volume correction factor is also
referred to as the "meter combined shrinkage" factor.
The following steps are needed to accurately and safely use the surge tank to calculate the
volume correction factor:
1. Read the initial level of oil in the tank.

2. Divert the oil flow to the tank and simultaneously take a meter reading at the oil flow line and
record the time.
3. Verify that the level of oil in the tank is rising. (This tells you that oil from the separator was
diverted and is flowing properly.)
4. Verify that there is no pressure build up in the tank.
5. Check frequently at the gas vent line outlets for liquid or foam carryover. To avoid carryover, do
not allow more than 80% of a tank compartment to be filled.
6. Divert the oil flow back to the burners and simultaneously take a meter reading at the oil flow
line and record the time.
7. Before taking the final tank reading, wait until all the gas has escaped from the oil.
The volume correction factor is simply the ratio between the volume obtained in the tank and the
volume registered by the meter.
Note: At the time the final tank reading is taken, the tank temperature is also recorded. A
correction for temperature (temperature coefficient) is applied in order to report flow rates at
standard conditions: 14.65 psi (atmospheric) and 60oF.
The following animation will help you understand the procedures for obtaining a correction
factor to change oil volumes at separator conditions to volumes at stock tank conditions.
Liquid Meter Reading with Tank Correction Multimedia

Objective: To understand the procedure for obtaining a factor for correcting oil volumes from
separator conditions to stock tank conditions
Comment: None
Equipment
Surge tanks are available in 80- and 100-barrel capacity, although the 80-barrel version is the
most common. The 80-barrel version has one compartment and a working pressure of 50 psi.
The 100-barrel version has two compartments and a working pressure of 150 psi. The range of
surge tanks available makes it possible to select a surge tank that accommodates the required
well tests while not being larger, more complicated or expensive than the overall project
demands.
Description
Originally designed as a secondary
stage of separation, the vertical surge
tank now serves an additional
function, replacing the gauge tank
where H2S is present in the effluent.
The pressurized surge tank is used to
measure flow rates. It has a single or
double compartment with an
automatic pressure control valve on
the gas outlet line to maintain a
constant backpressure. The change in
volume can be monitored through the
sight glasses since the physical
dimensions of the tank are known.
Safety features include a relief valve
in case of accidental overpressuring.
A grounding strap is attached to
prevent buildup of static charges.
High- and low-level alarms sound
liquid level warnings.
An additional gas line along the
burner boom is recommended to vent
the surge tank gas line separately
from the separator gas line.
Specifications
Assembly number
Project code
Capacity
Compartments
Working pressure
Load factor (in use)
Gas flow rate
Design codes
Service
Working temperature
Safety devices
Protection
M-839644
P-872885
VST-B
VST-D
80 bbl [12.9 m3]
100 bbl [15.9 m3]
1
2
50 psi [34 bar]
150 psi [103 bar]
23 psi
20 psi
4.76 MMscf/D
13 MMscf/D
Det Norske Veritas
DNV Drill "N," DOE SI 289, NA CE MR01-75
H2S
-20 to 200F [-28 to 98C]
Pressure relief valve
High- and low-level alarms
Grounding device
High-low pressure pilot (optional)
Inert gas injection (optional)
Pneumatic level controller (optional)
CONNECTIONS
Oil inlet
Oil outlet
Gas outlet
Relief valve output
Drain outlet

DIMENSIONS
Height
Length
Width
Weight
19 ft 9 in. [6 m]
7 ft 11 in. [2.4 m]
7 ft 11 in. [2.4 m]
13,250 lbm [6100 kg]
24 ft 3 in. [7.4 m]
7 ft 11 in. [2.4 m]
8 ft 6 in. [2.6 m]
24,765 lbm [11,400 kg]
The figure to the right shows a generic surge tank and lists the specifications for the two
available sizes.
Surge Tank Selection Guidelines
The principal criteria for selecting a surge tank are:
If the project requirements specify that a gauge tank is required, a surge tank is usually not
needed.
The service type required (operating environment) requires the use of a surge tank when H2S is
present.
The surge tank needs less deck space than the gauge tank.
The surge tank needs an air supply for the valve controller.
Whether the surge tank will be used as a second stage separator.
An additional gas vent line is required for the safety relief valve.
A surge tank with two compartments may be required.
Safety
Whenever H2S is expected to be in the well effluent, a surge tank must be used instead of a
gauge tank.
Before diverting the separator oil to the surge tank, you must check the ability of the gas vent
line to discharge the full volume of gas liberated without creating a back pressure greater than
the maximum pressure rating of the vessel.
Refer to the charts in the Tank Operations chapter of the "FOH for Surface Well
Testing."
When diverting the oil to the tank, always limit the flow rate to avoid filling the tank too rapidly.
In case of high flow rates, someone should constantly monitor liquid levels and be ready to
divert flow back to the burners to prevent overflow.
Prior to conducting any repair inside the tank, it must be steam cleaned and degassed. The
person repairing the tank must be in constant contact with a person on the outside of the tank.
Transport the surge tank when it is empty; even a partially full tank has a much higher weight
than an empty tank.
The exhaust for the safety relief valve must be connected to a 4-in. pipe landing that must be
located downstream and far away from the working area.
Transporting the surge tank is a hazardous operation. The following animation will help you
understand the different steps involved in this operation.
Erecting a Vertical Surge Tank Multimedia

Objective: To explain how to safely transport, erect and position the tank for use or storage
Comment: This animation covers the preparation, transportation and installation of the surge
tank from the Schlumberger location to the wellsite. A special focus is placed on safety, lifting
and handling practices.
Mac
Read me!
PC
Read me!
Maintenance
For information about tank preparation and functional checks, see the recommended steps in the
"Field Operating Handbook (FOH) for Surface Well Testing."
For information about equipment maintenance, see the maintenance manual for the surge tank
Summary
The main applications of the surge tank.
Why and how the surge tank is used to calibrate the meters.
The main components of the surge tank.
The key safety points to observe when using a surge tank.
Self Test
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Give three reasons for using a surge tank.

How is the volume of oil contained in the surge tank calculated?
What is the purpose of the ACV mounted on the gas line outlet?
How is it possible to prevent back-pressure from entering the surge tank?
Why is it important to prevent back-pressure from entering the surge tank?
What was the original purpose of the surge tank?
I)
TRANSFER PUMPS
Introduction
Objectives
Equipment
Safety
Maintenance
Summary
Self Test
Introduction
The "Surface Test Equipment" figure shows where the transfer pump is located in relationship to
the other surface testing equipment.
On the upstream side, the transfer pump is connected to the oil outlet line of either the surge or
gauge tank. On the downstream side, it is connected to the burner oil line.
The most common application of the transfer pump is to empty the tank and send the oil to the
burner under sufficient pressure to ensure efficient burning. The transfer pump can also be used
to send oil from a tank to a pipe line, another tank, or to a tanker. On rare occasions, it can even
be used to reinject oil into the reservoir. Pumps are driven with electric or diesel engines.
There are many different types of oil transfer pumps that can be used for well testing operations.
It is beyond the scope of this training page to discuss each type. Instead, a description of the
operating principles is provided for the most common pumps used: the positive displacement
pump and the centrifugal pump.
Objectives
Explain the main purpose of the transfer pump.

Describe the operating principles for the two types of pumps covered in this training page.
Explain the purpose of a safety relief valve and describe how a typical safety relief valve works.
Draw a fluid circuit schematic for a pump equipped with a bypass valve and explain the purpose
of the bypass valve.
List four safety rules that should be observed when working with electrically driven transfer
pumps.
Upon completion of the practical exercises for the transfer pumps, you should be able to:
Identify the type of transfer pumps available in your location.

Disassemble the pump section and explain the function of each component.
Change the set pressure of the safety relief valve that's presented in this training page.
Reassemble the pump section and perform a FIT check.
There are many different types and models of pumps. However, most pumps can either be
broadly classified as positive displacement or centrifugal, depending on the action used to move
the liquid to a higher pressure level.
Positive Displacement Pumps
Positive displacement pumps employ a moving piston and either a plunger (reciprocating pump),
diaphragm (diaphragm pump), or rotor (rotary pump) to move a fixed volume of liquid per
revolution of the pump. From these different categories of positive displacement pumps, only the
rotor type, which is widely used in testing operations, is discussed here.
Rotary Pumps
Rotary pumps are positive displacement pumps that operate by turning a rotating member inside
a housing in such a way that the rotation moves the oil through the transfer pump.
The "Gear Type Transfer Pump" and "Screw Type Transfer Pump" schematics show two
different types of rotary pumps used in the oilfield.
Gear Type Transfer Pump
An electric or diesel engine drives the rotor that

drives the idler shown in the "Gear Type Transfer
Pump" drawing. The rotor gears and the idler gears
closely intermesh taking fluid from the suction port
of the pump and force it out the discharge port in a
continuous stream.
Screw Type Transfer Pump
The pump shown in the "Screw Type Transfer Pump" diagram is usually called a screw pump.
Although the geometry of its pumping elements may seem complex, its operating principle is
simple. The rotor and rubber stator are the key components. The rotor is a single, external helix
with a round cross-section that's machined from high strength steel.
The rubber stator is a double internal helix molded of a tough, abrasion-resistant elastomer,
permanently bonded in an alloy steel tube. As the rotor turns in the stator, oil is conveyed from
the pump's suction port to its discharge port. A continuous seal between the rotor and the stator
helices keeps the fluid moving steadily, at a fixed flow rate proportional to the pump's rotational
speed. This pump should always be filled with fluid before it's run.
The pump shown in the "Screw Type Pump with Bypass Valve" diagram is fitted with a bypass
line. A valve is mounted at the intersection of the bypass line and the discharge line. Before
starting the pump, the discharge line is closed and the valve turned so that the fluid can only
circulate through the pump. This ensures the pump is full of fluid before its started. When the
pump is full, the bypass valve is rotated a quarter turn, opening the pump to the discharge line
and closing the bypass line. Just before the pump is stopped, the valve is turned back to its
original position so fluid can circulate through the pump. This practice ensures that the pump is
filled with fluid before the next operation or prior to storage.
Safety Relief Valve
As these two types of pumps rotate, liquid is delivered to the discharge side of the pump. If the
discharge line is blocked or closed, pressure builds up until the motor stalls, a pump part breaks,
or the discharge line bursts. To avoid these problems, pumps are equipped with a safety relief
valve that prevents pressure buildup.
The "Relief Valve" is an illustration of a typical safety

relief valve mounted on the gear type transfer
pump.
The spring holds the poppet against the seat in the
valve body with a force that's determined by the
spring size and how much the spring is compressed
by the adjusting screw. When the force exerted by
the liquid against the poppet exceeds the force
exerted by the spring, the poppet moves and liquid
starts to flow through the relief valve, returning to
the suction side of the pump.
The "Port Arrangement for the Relief

Valve" drawing shows how the relief
valve is connected to the pump.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Some advantages of rotary pumps are:
They are relatively inexpensive.

They function well over a wide range of flow rate capacities, net positive suction head (NPSH),
and oil viscosities.
They are well adapted to handling viscous fluids.
They are self priming.
Some disadvantages of rotary pumps are:
The close clearances and rubbing contact between moving parts in the pump limit the choice of
construction materials.
These pumps are suitable for oil but not water because close clearances between moving parts
require the liquid to have lubricating value.
Centrifugal Pumps
A centrifugal pump contains a central rotating wheel called an impeller that uses centrifugal
force to impart high velocity to the liquid, and then converts most of this velocity to pressure.
This type of pump can discharge fluid at high pressure and operates at relatively high rotation
speeds (3600 rpm).
Centrifugal pumps can be of radial flow construction, axial flow construction, or some
combination of the two. The flow in axial flow pumps is parallel to the pump shaft axis, and in
radial flow pumps, the flow enters the center of the wheel and is propelled radially to the outside.
Radial Flow Pump
The "Radial Flow Pump" drawing shows a cut-view of a radial flow pump.
The pump shown in the "Typical Centrifugal Pump" drawing is equipped with a ball valve
mounted on a bypass line. The centrifugal pump requires a lot of power to start the electric
motor. If all the fluid is diverted to the pump, the pump will require even more power to start.
The ball valve allows some of the flow to be diverted, making it easier to start the pump and
preventing pump overload. When the motor reaches normal speed, the bypass valve can be
gradually closed to divert the entire flow through the pump. The ball valve can also be used to
control and adjust the flow rate by diverting some of the flow.
Depending on the flow rate capacity of the centrifugal pump, the configuration of the piping and
valves mounted on the pump differs from pump to pump. Some flow pumps, for example, may
be equipped with a control valve and/or a check valve.
To control and adjust the flow rate, the discharge line for some centrifugal pumps is fitted with a
control valve. This valve can either be operated manually or automatically.
For some centrifugal pumps, a check valve is mounted on the discharge line (downstream of the
control valve) to prevent fluid from returning to the pump.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Some advantages of centrifugal pumps are:
It has a simple construction and quiet operation.

It has small space requirements relative to its flow rate capacity.
No close clearances between moving parts, so it can handle fluids containing small, solid
particles.
Low maintenance requirements make it more dependable.
Some disadvantages of centrifugal pumps are:
They cannot produce as high a discharge pressure as reciprocating pumps.

Efficiency is a function of flow rate and pressure. Pumps are designed for a specific flow rate and
pressure, when the flow rate and pressure are actually less than the pump is designed to handle,
the pump is less efficient.
When compared to reciprocating pumps, centrifugal pumps are less efficient.
High electric power is required to operate the pump.
Requires a higher NPSH than positive displacement pumps.
Pump Piping and Installation Details

Suction Piping
It is essential that the suction port of the transfer pump be flooded. A transfer pump should never
be run without fluid. The net positive suction head (NPSH) recommended by the manufacturer
must be applied. To provide this NPSH and ensure that the suction port is flooded at all times, it
is necessary that:
The storage tank supplying the pump should be at sufficient elevation above the fluid entry of
the pump.
If a surge tank is used, it can be pressurized to provide sufficient NPSH.
The suction piping should be of sufficient size to minimize friction losses in the pipe between the
tank and the pump. The suction pipe should be as large as or preferably larger than the size of
the pump suction inlet.
Long radius elbows are recommended to eliminate sharp turns. In addition, the suction piping
should be flushed out and cleaned prior to starting the pump.
Discharge Piping
Like the suction piping, the discharge piping should be of sufficient size to minimize friction
losses in the pipe in order for the pump to supply the required discharge pressure.
Equipment
Transfer pumps are usually described by their maximum flow rate capacity and discharge
pressure. At Schlumberger, the typical transfer pumps are 2000 B/D, 4000 B/D, 5000 B/D or
10,000 B/D capacities. Some models can be driven either by an electric motor or a diesel engine,
sometimes referred to as a pump primer. The choice of the pump primer depends on the safety
regulations. The range of pumps available makes it possible to select a transfer pump that
accommodates the required well tests while not being larger, more complicated, or more
expensive than the overall project demands.
These drawings show examples of several types of transfer pumps and their characteristics. For
each drawing, specifications are provided.
Description
The transfer pump is used to empty one compartment of a tank while the other is filling. The
effluent can be pumped directly tothe burner or reinjected into an existing flowline
The unit consists of an electrically driven gear pump with an explosion-proof motor and starter.
The skid-mounted pump has protective panels and a box for electrical cable storage. A safety
relief valve on the pump discharge is sest at 250 psi.
A diesel-powered pump is also available for use in safe areas. The exhaust is fitted with a flame
arrestor.
Specifications
Assembly
number
M-816551
M-872831
M-837654
Project code
PMP-ECB
PMP-FAA
PMP-TCB
Certification
None
DNV type
approval
None
Capacity at 250 2000 BOPD

psi
[318 m3/D]
2000 BOPD
[318 m3/D]
2000 BOPD
[318 m3/D]
Service
Standard
Standard
Standard
Operating
temperature
32 to 200F
32 to 200F
32 to 200F
Motor
11-kW electric
11-kW electric
15-hp air-cooled
440 V/60 Hz
440 V/60 Hz
diesel engine
380 V/50 Hz
380 V/50 Hz
Explosion
proofing
EExd II B T4
EExd II B T4
Cable
30 m of 4 x 6 mm2 30 m of 4 x 6 mm2 30 m of 4 x 6 mm2
Transmission
Direct drive
Direct drive
Gear/clutch
Usage
Zone 1
Zone 1
Safe area only
Protection
Marine
anticorrosion
Marine
anticorrosion
Marine
anticorrosion
None
coating
coating
coating
3-in. LP Fig. 206
3 -in. LP Fig. 206
3 -in. LP Fig. 206
WECO Union
WECO Union
WECO Union
2-in. LP Fig. 206
2-in. LP Fig. 206
2-in. LP Fig. 206
WECO Union
WECO Union
WECO Union
Height
34 in. [0.86 m]
34 in. [0.86 m]
37 in. [0.93 m]
Length
52 in. [1.30 m]
52 in. [1.30 m]
59 in. [1.50 m]
Width
27 in. [0.68 m]
27 in. [0.68 m]
28 in. [0.72 m]
Weight
950 lbm [430 kg] 1060 lbm [480 kg] 930 lbm [420 kg]
Connections
Inlet
Outlet
Dimensions
Description
The high flow rate transfer pump is designed to empty one compartment of a tank while the other
is being filled or to reinject effluent into a flowline.
At high flow rates or under high flowline pressure, a 180-hp electric transfer pump can be used.
The pump is rated at 10,000 BOPD at a nominal pressure of 410 psi.
The skid-mounted pump unit comes with an integral bypass manifold and pneumatic oil control
valve.
The pump is rated for H2S service. With its explosion-proof motor and starter, the pump is
suitable for Zone 1 use.
Specifications
Det Norske Veritas
Design codes
DNV Drill "N," DOE SI 289
Assembly number
M-816514
Project code
PMP-EFE
Service
H2S (to NACE MR 01-75)
Capacity
10,000 BOPD at 410 psi
Maximum working pressure
720 psi
Working temperature
-20 to 200F
Motor
180 hp [130 kW]

440 V/60 Hz
380 V/50 Hz
Starter
Star-Delta
Explosion proofing
EExd, II BT4
Protection
Connections
Inlet
Outlet
Dimensions
Height
3-in. LP Fig. 602

WECO Union
3-in. LP Fig. 602
WECO Union
92 in. [2.34 m]
Length
Width
Weight
81 in. [2.05 m]
58 in. [1.47 m]
6512 lbm [2954 kg]
Transfer Pump
The transfer pump is used to empty one compartment of a tank while the other is filling. The
effluent can be pumped directly tothe burner or reinjected into an existing flowline.
The unit consists of an electrically driven screw pump with an explosion-proof motor and starter.
The skid-mounted pump has a protective top anel and an integral bypass manifold. A safety
relief valve on the pump discharge is set at 300 psi.
A diesel-powered pump is also availableforuse in safe areas where an electrical supply is
unavailable. The exhaust is fitted with a flame arrestor.
Specifications
Certification
None
None
Assembly
M-835701
M-837657
number
Project code
PMP-EDC
PMP-TDC
Capacity
4000 BOPD
[636 m3/D] at 300 psi
4000 BOPD
[636 m3/D] at 300 psi
Service
Standard
Standard
Motor
35-kW electric
440 V/60 Hz
380 V/50 H
52-hp air-cooled diesel

engine
Inertial starter
Explosion
proofing
EEX-d II B T4
None
Cable
30 m of 4 x 25 mm2
30 m of 4 x 25 mm2
Transmission
Antistatic belt
Hydraulic
Usage
Zone 1
Safe area only
Protection
coating
coating
3-in. LP Fig. 206

WECO Union
3-in. LP Fig. 602
WECO Union
3-in. LP Fig. 206

WECO Union
3-in. LP Fig. 602
WECO Union
56 in. [1.42 m]
132 in. [3.35 m]
33 in. [0.85 m]
3000 lbm [1350 kg]
60 in. [1.53 m]
146 in. [3.70 m]
33 in. [0.85 m]
4400 lbm [2000 kg]
Connections
Inlet
Outlet
Dimensions
Height
Length
Width
Weight
Transfer Pump Selection Guidelines
The principal criteria for selecting a transfer pump are:
The pumping capacity (2000 B/D, 4000 B/D, 5000 B/D, or 10,000 B/D) required.
The discharge pressure required.
Safety regulations dictate the use of an electric or diesel driven pump.
Three-phase electric supply is required for electric pumps. (The 10,000 B/D pump requires a
high starting current (200 A) that some rigs cannot supply.)
The availability of electricity or diesel at the wellsite.
The 10,000 B/D pump needs a heavy and expensive electric cable.
If power is not available from the rig, a generator is needed.
Safety
The following is a list of some general safety considerations to observe when using transfer
pumps. Its important to be aware that each type of pump has its own specific safety points.
Please refer to the proper maintenance manuals.
Pumps must only be operated by experienced personnel.

To prevent electrical shocks, the electrical starting box should always be closed when switching
the pump on or off.
Electric pumps must be correctly grounded.
Electric cables, plugs, and sockets must be in good condition.
Because electric pumps require a lot of power, the power supply to the pump must be equipped
with a circuit breaker.
Rotate the pump shaft by hand to ensure it turns freely.
If the operating voltage of the pump is changed, verify that the pump is rotating in the right
direction.
When the pump is rotating, never try make any adjustments or repair; turn off the pump first.
Verify that the suction valve is open before starting the pump. Running the pump without fluid
will destroy the pump.
When starting the pump, make sure it turns in the correct direction. The correct direction is
usually indicated by an arrow stamped on the pump.
To ensure that the suction is flooded at all times, set the tank supplying the pump at sufficient
elevation above the inlet of the pump.
Use pressure gauges mounted on suction and discharge lines to quickly verify that the pump is
working properly.
Right after starting the pump, bleed off the air or vapors that could be trapped in the pump.
If the pump does not deliver fluid at the discharge port within 30 seconds, stop the pump and
verify step-by-step the recommended starting procedure.
Verify that the suction and discharge pressures are within the pressure range specified by the
manufacturer. Don't apply pressure that's higher than that required for efficient operation.
Maintenance
For information about pump preparation, functional checks, and equipment maintenance, see the
maintenance manuals for the pumps and the "Field Operating Handbook (FOH) Vol II."
Summary
In this training page, we have discussed the following points:
The most common application of the transfer pump.

The two broad categories of transfer pumps used in well testing operations.
The two different types of rotary pumps (gear type and screw type) described in this training
page.
The importance of flooding the suction port of the transfer pump before running the pump.
The key safety points concerning the pumps.
Self Test
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What is the purpose of a transfer pump in a well testing setup?

What types of transfer pumps are used in well testing?
How do you decide which pump to use for a particular job? What factors should you consider?
What is the NPSH?
Why are the positive displacement pumps equipped with a safety relief valve?
J) OIL AND GAS MANIFOLD
Introduction
Objectives
Equipment
Safety
Maintenance
Summary
Self Test
Introduction
The "Surface Test Equipment" figure shows where the oil and gas manifolds are located in
relationship to the other surface testing equipment. The purpose of these manifolds is to divert
the flow of oil and gas from the separator to other pieces of equipment.
Gas from the separator flows through the gas manifold (connected to the separator gas line) and
is directed to one of two gas flares.
For a more detailed diagram of the gas manifold connections, click on the gas manifold in the
"Surface Test Equipment" drawing.
The oil manifold (connected to the separator oil line) links the separator to the tank, the transfer
pump, and the burners. It allows oil leaving the separator to be diverted to the tank or the
burners, or sent directly to a production line.
For a more detailed diagram of the oil manifold connections, click on the oil manifold in the
"Surface Test Equipment" drawing.
Objectives
Explain the purpose of the oil and gas manifolds.

Draw the oil manifold connections between the separator, tank, transfer pump, and burners.
Draw the gas manifold connections to the burners.
Upon completion of the practical exercises for the oil and gas manifolds, you should be able to:
Remove the ball valve from an oil or gas manifold and disassemble it.
Verify the condition of the sealing surfaces on the ball valve.
Reassemble the ball valve and install it on the manifold.
Review FIT and TRIM procedures for oil and gas manifolds.
Oil Manifold
The oil manifold shown in the "Oil Manifold Flow Paths" diagram is composed of an
arrangement of piping, five ball valves, and wing union connections. This arrangement makes it
possible to divert the oil without interrupting the flow. The possible flow paths that the oil from
the separator can take are described in the following paragraphs.
When the oil is sent from the separator to the left burner, valves V2 and V3 are open; and valves
V1, V4, and V5 are closed.
When the oil is sent from the separator to the right burner, valves V2 and V5 are open; and
valves V1, V3, and V4 are closed.
When the oil from the separator is sent to the tank, valve V1 is open; and valves V2, V3, V4, and
V5 are closed.
When it is necessary to empty the tank and send the oil to one of the burners, the position of
the valves differs depending on whether a single or double compartment tank is used.
o If a double compartment tank is used, one compartment can be filled while the other is
emptied. The valve settings are:
Valves V1 and V4 are open, and either V3 or V5 is open.
Valve V2 is closed, and either V3 or V5 is closed.
o If a single compartment tank is used, the tank is emptied when the well is shut in. The
valve settings are:
Valve V4 is open, and either V3 or V5 is open.
Valves V1 and V2 are closed, and either V3 or V5 is closed.
Note: When one outlet of the oil manifold is not used, it is usually sealed with a plug.
Gas Manifold
The gas manifold in the "Gas Manifold Flow Paths" drawing shows how the gas manifold is
connected to the separator gas line and to the burner flare lines. The gas manifold is made up of
two ball valves that permit the gas leaving the separator to be diverted to either one burner or the
other, depending on the wind direction.
Equipment
There is only one type of oil manifold. Its flexible configuration of valves and ports makes it
possible to accommodate various well testing setups. If the setup requires fewer ports, the unused
ports can be plugged. If more ports are required, a second oil manifold can be connected to the
first.
Description
Oil from the separator is routed to the gauge tank or directly to the burner through the oil
manifold. Oil from the tank is also pumped to the burner by way of the manifold.
The oil manifold is skid mounted and usually consists of five 2-in. ball valves. The gas manifold
directs the gas from the separator to the gas flare. The gas manifold is skid mounted and consists
of two 3-in. ball valves.
Specifications
Certifying
authority
Det Norske Veritas
Det Norske Veritas
Design codes
NACE MR 01 75
NACE MR 01 75
Assembly number M-810537

Project Code
MFD-ACA
Working pressure
At 100F
1480 psi [102 bar]
At 200F
1350 psi [93 bar]
M-810538
MFD-ADA
1480 psi [102 bar]
1350 psi [93 bar]
Working
temperature
-20 to 200F [-28 to

93C]
-20 to 200F [-28 to

93C]
Nominal size
2 in. [51 mm]
3 in. [76 mm]
3-in. Fig. 602

WECO Union
3 -in. Fig. 602

WECO Union
Connections
Dimensions
58 x 28 x 15 in.
38 x 15 x 16 in.
[1.47 x 0.71 x 0.38 m] [0.95 x 0.38 x 0.16 m]
Weight
473 lbm [215 kg]
286 lbm [130 kg]
Protection
coating
coating
There is only one type of gas manifold. Typically, only one gas manifold is required, but
depending on the complexity of the equipment setup, more than one gas manifold may be used.
A layout with two separators is an example of a complex setup where two gas manifold might be
needed.
The oil manifold is equipped with 5 ball valves (2 in.), and the gas manifold is equipped with 2
ball valves (3 in.).
The figure on the right shows an oil manifold and a gas manifold and lists their specifications.
Safety
The following is a list of key safety considerations for oil and gas manifolds:
All valves should be labeled to indicate flow paths (e.g., from separator to starboard burner) to
avoid diverting the flow in the wrong direction.
When diverting flow, always open one valve before closing another. This practice prevents flow
interruption and pressure buildup upstream of the valves.
Use the handles provided with the manifolds to open and close the ball valves.
To avoid damaging the ball valve, when opening or closing these valves do not use cheaters.
Maintenance
For information about oil and gas manifold preparation and functional checks, see the
recommended steps in the "Field Operating Handbook (FOH) Vol. II."
For information about equipment maintenance, see the maintenance manuals for the oil and gas
manifolds.
Summary
The function of the oil and gas manifolds.

The relationship between the flow paths of the oil and the position of the valves.
Key safety points for the oil and gas manifolds.
Self Test
1.
2.
3.
4.
Draw a standard well test setup showing the different elements connected to the oil manifold.
What is the pressure rating of the oil manifold? Why?
What type of valve is usually mounted on the oil and gas manifolds?
What is the purpose of the gas manifold?
K) BURNERS AND BOOM
Introduction
Objectives
Equipment
Safety
Maintenance
Summary
Self Test
Introduction
When testing a well in a remote location, a principal concern is how to dispose of the oil
produced at the surface. Onshore, the oil is usually burned in a burning pit. Offshore, prior the
availability of burners, the only alternative was to store the oil in tanks or tankers, which was
costly and limited the duration of tests to a few hundred barrels.This significantly restricted the
information that could be obtained through well testing.
In the late 1960s, Flopetrol (now Schlumberger Testing) introduced the first flaring system to
safely and efficiently burn oil, making offshore testing economical.
Today, different types of burners are available to dispose of oil, foams, and oil-base muds. They
are usually comprised of one or more burning heads that are mounted on a boom to keep them at
a safe distance from the rig.
The "Surface Test Equipment" figure shows where the oil burner and the gas flare are located in
relationship to the other surface testing equipment. The gas flare is connected to the separator by
the separator gas line. The oil burner is connected to the separator, the tank, and the pump by an
oil manifold.
Objectives
Explain the purpose of an oil burner.

Describe the operating principles of an oil burner.
With the help of the "FOH for Surface Well Testing," write the rig-up procedures for a burner
boom.
Upon completion of the practical exercises for the burners, you should be able to:
Identify the function of all the items on the burner assembly.

Remove and disassemble one oil atomizer from the burner. Check the condition of the seals and
reassemble the oil atomizer.
Disassemble one water nozzle. Check it for debris, then clean and reassemble the water nozzle.
Disassemble the swivel joint for maintenance and reassemble it.
Disassemble the air line check valve for maintenance and reassemble it.
Review FIT and TRIM procedures for burners and booms.
Function test the ignition system following exactly the steps outlined in the FIT and TRIM
procedures.
To efficiently combust well effluent without producing unburned particles and smoke, the well
effluent must be reduced to very fine droplets. This process, called atomization, is achieved by:
Using the energy resulting from the pressure of the well effluent
Supplying additional energy (air pressure) to enhance the process.
This mechanical and pneumatic process takes place in the atomizer.

Atomizer
The atomizer is the heart of the burner system. It consists of a chamber where the oil and air are
combined before the mixture is ignited by a pilot light. The oil enters the atomizer chamber, hits
the cone of the swirl assembly and passes through the slanted slots. The slanted slots of the swirl
assembly induce a swirling motion in the oil flow before it passes through the oil nozzle where it
is sheared into finely atomized droplets.
As the oil passes through the oil nozzle, compressed air provides the energy required for further
atomization. Compressed air leaves the air nozzle in a rotary motion at a velocity close to the
speed of sound. Air striking the oil jet breaks the fluid into even smaller droplets.
When the mixture of oil and air is ignited, the flame produced is rich and under-oxygenated.
Water sprayed into the flame brings more oxygen and avoids the formation of carbon black. The
flame burns clear and yellow (no unburned oil falls out). The water injected into the flame also
reduces heat radiation.
Efficient burning is a critical process and varying air, water, and oil pressures and flow rates are
usually necessary so the flame does not produce excessive black smoke (too rich in oil) or
excessive white smoke (too rich in water). The size of the air and oil nozzles also plays a major
role in the burning process. Detailed information is available in the "Field Operating Handbook
(FOH) for Surface Well Testing."
The following paragraphs detail the main components of an oil burner and give a description of a
mud burner and a boom.
Oil Burner
The different parts of an oil burner are shown in the "Typical Three-Head Burner" diagram and
are described below. Click on the graphic or scroll down for detailed information on each
component.
Hearth
The hearth is a cylindrical tube located in front of the atomizer. It guides the air drawn at the
back of the burner into the vortex created at the atomizer outlet and stabilizes the flame. The
hearth is most efficient when the burner is properly oriented in the wind.
Water ring with nozzles
The water ring consists of a circular tube mounted around the hearth. It is fitted with nozzles to
spray water in the flame as shown in the "Water Nozzle" diagram. A fine spray is mandatory
because big water droplets cause improper combustion and therefore pollution. The amount of
water and the water pressure are also important factors to consider in order to achieve proper
combustion. A maximum water-to-oil ratio of 50% and a pressure between 150 and 240 psi are
recommended. Different sizes of of water nozzles (3 mm and 4.5 mm) are available to match the
required water flow rate and pressure.
Gas pilot light

Located below the atomizer, the gas pilot system consists of a small propane burner and a spark
plug as illustrated in "Gas Pilot Light" diagram. The burner is lit by sending high voltage to the
spark plug from a remote control box.
Swivel joint
The swivel joint, as shown in the "Swivel Joint" figure, acts as a pivot support for the whole
burner. It allows the burner to be positioned up to 75 degrees on either side of the horizontal
axis Oil, water, and air enter in the swivel joint before going to the burner heads.
Oil and air check valves

A check valve is mounted on the oil line upstream of the atomizers to prevent air passing from
the atomizer into the oil line. A typical situation in which this might occur is during the start up
procedure for the burners because air is sent to the atomizers before the oil is sent.
Similarly, a check valve is mounted on the air line upstream from the atomizers to prevent the
oil flow from entering into the air line. It is possible that this might happen if the air compressor
that supplies the burners fails during burning operations.
Valves
On the typical three-head burner, two heads out of three are equipped with ball valves mounted
on the air and oil lines. These ball valves make it possible to select the number of heads that will
optimize burning for a given oil flow rate. The other head cannot be isolated or closed for two
reasons. First, it prevents the air and oil lines from overpressurizing in case the other heads are
closed; and second, the minimum number of heads required for burning is one.
Supporting frame
This device supports the atomizer, cylindrical hearth, piping, swivel joint, and the pilot light
system.
Rotation system
The supporting frame is mounted on a rotation system, actuated by a cable and a hand winch
located at the foot of the boom. This system allows the position of the burner heads to be
varied as necessary, depending on the wind direction. An optional pneumatic rotation system is
also available; it allows the position of the heads to be controlled from a remote station.
Mud Burner
The mud burner was developed as a economical solution to dispose of oil-base mud during
drilling operations. The mud burner is derived from the oil burner and also uses atomizers. It
allows oil-base mud to be burned without polluting the environment. The mud burner can also be
used to burn high viscosity oils.
The mud burner is comprised of three combustion heads fitted on a supporting frame. The upper
head burns a mixture of mud (or high viscosity oil) and diesel. The fine droplets of diesel mixed
with the mud (or high viscosity oil) promote efficient combustion. The two lower heads burn
diesel and create a flame curtain in which any possible fallout from the upper head is burned off.
The lower heads can be modified to burn gas instead of diesel, if necessary. To ensure
continuous ignition, the upper head is fit with two pilot lights. The water injection rings around
the heads spray water droplets into the flame, improving combustion by adding more oxygen. A
drip pan is installed under the heads to collect the hydrocarbon liquids that may have condensed.
The "Mud Burner" drawing shows a typical mud burner with air, water, oil (or mud), and diesel
lines. The 1 in. diesel line is used to supply diesel fuel that is mixed with the mud or the high
viscosity oil. The 2 in. diesel line supplies the lower heads of the mud burner. The oil, air, and
water lines are similar to the ones in a standard burner.
As is true for the standard burner, pressure and flow rate of the different fluids as well as the size
of the different nozzles play a major role in achieving efficient combustion. Detailed information
about pressures, flow rates, and nozzle sizes for mud burners is available in the "BurnersBooms" chapter of the "Field Operating Handbook (FOH) Vol. II," and in the mud burner
maintenance manual.
Boom
To reduce heat radiation and the risk of fire, the burner is mounted on a boom to keep it away
from the rig. The boom is usually made up of two lightweight sections, which give it a length of
60 ft. The length of the boom can be extended to 85 ft by adding an intermediate section. The
structural design of the boom permits access to the burner.
The boom contains the necessary piping to supply the burner with air, water, oil, and propane; it
also includes the gas flare pipe. The water line is fit with a filter, preventing debris from
plugging the water nozzles. The boom is mounted on the rig with a rotating base plate and guy
lines. Horizontal guy lines allow the boom to be oriented and vertical guy lines fixed to the
structure of the rig (king post) support the boom. The rotating base plate allows horizontal and
vertical movements to facilitate the orientation of the boom. The boom axis should be placed
slightly above the horizontal axis so oil left in the boom piping after flaring operations does not
fall into the sea. This is also important when booms are installed on floating rigs. In order to burn
safely with changing winds, two booms are usually installed on opposite sides of a drilling rig.
An optional water screen placed on the boom, between the burner and the rig, can be used to
reduce heat radiation.
Equipment
Burners can be classified in two main categories: oil burners and mud burners. Oil burners are
usually described by their number of combustion heads which determines the maximum oil flow
rate they can burn. The oil burners have one, three, or four heads. Mud burners are equipped with
three heads. All burners, except the one head model, exist in two versions: standard and H2S
service.
These drawings show examples of several types of burners and their characteristics.
Description
The Spitfire oil burner is a high-capacity, lightweight, compact burner designed for installation
on production platforms or test barges. The use of several interchangeable burning kits makes it
possible to dispose of effluent under a wide range of flow rates.
Oil from the separator or tank is forced through the atomizer head and combined with
compressed air, emerging in tiny droplets. These droplets are ignited by a gas pilot light and
form a rich underoxygenated flame. A cylindrical hearth channels air from behind the flame to
stabilize it.
A water injection ring with 16 water nozzles sprays water into the flame about 16 ft. from the
burner head. The water evaporates rapidly and reacts with the flame to prevent the production of
carbon black, thereby minimizing fallout. The water also reduces radiant heat.
A swivel joint supports the burner and allows the head to turn 75 degrees to either side of the
boom axis.
Specifications
Certification
Assembly number
None
M-808872
Project code
Service
Number of heads
Maximum effluent flow
Operating at 200 psi
BRN-ADA
Standard
1
Minimum effluent flow

Air supply
Maximum water supply
Ignition supply
Protection
100 BOPD
350 ft3/min [9.91 m3/min] at 100 psi
8000 B/D [1275 m3/d] at 75 to 230 psi
110-V AC, 50/60 Hz
CONNECTIONS
Effluent
Water
Air
Propane for gas pilot

1/2-in. LP
DIMENSIONS
Width
Length
Height
Weight
37 in. [0.96 m]
41 in. [1.05 m]
75 in. [1.90 m]
660 lbm [300 kg]
Optional accessories
Pneumatic rotation kit
Seawater filter
Diesel pilot light kit
Atomizerkits
500 to 1200 BOPD
1000 to 4000 BOPD
4000 t0 6000 BOPD
4200 BOPD [668 m3/d]

5500 BOPD [875 m3/d]
6000 BOPD [955 m3/d]
M-808907
M-801519
M-801656
M-804056
M-804056
M-804057
Description
The Seadragon oil burner cleanly disposes of oil produced during offshore well tests to avoid
storage or pollution problems.
Oil from the separator or tank is forced through the atomizer head and combined with
compressed air, emerging in tiny droplets. These droplets are ignited by a gas pilot light to form
a rich underoxygenated flame. A cylindrical hearth channels air from behind the flame to
stabilize it.
Water injection rings, each with 16 water nozzles, spray water into the flame about six feet from
the burner head. The water rapidly evaporates and reacts with the flame to prevent the production
of carbon black, thus minimizing fallout. The water also reduces radiant heat.
A swivel joint supports the burner and allows the head to turn 75 degrees to either side of the
boom axis.
The Seadragon burner is available with 3, 4 or 6 heads to suit the amount of effluent requiring
disposal.
Specifications (BRN-ABC/ACA)
Certification
Assembly number
Project code
Service
Protection
None
None
M-812172
M-803895
BRN-ABC
BRN-ACA
Standard
Standard
DIMENSIONS
Width
Length
Height
Weight
65 in. [1.65 m]
49 in. [1.25 m]
71 in. [1.80 m]
1660 lbm [750 kg]
65 in. [1.65 m]
49 in. [1.25 m]
71 in. [1.80 m]
1875 lbm [850 kg]
CHARACTERISTICS
Maximum effluent
flow
7500 BOPD [1192
10,000 BOPD [1590
3
Operating at 200 psi m /D]
m3/D]
Operating at 350 psi 10,000 BOPD [1590 13,300 BOPD [2115
Operating at 465 psi m3/D]
m3/D]
12,000 BOPD [1908 16,000 BOPD [2544
m3/D]
m3/D]
Minimum effluent
100 BOPD per head
flow
Air supply
350 ft3/min [9.91 m3/min] at 100 psi
Maximum water
18,000 BWPD [2862 m3/D] at 75 to 230 psi
supply
Ignition supply
110-V AC, 50/60 Hz
CONNECTIONS
Effluent
Water
Air
3-in. LP Fig. 206 Union

1/2-in. LP
Options
Pneumatic rotation
M-807718
kit
Seawater filter
M-801519
Diesel pilot light kit M-807359
Specifications (BRN-HBC/HCA)
Certification
Assembly number
Project code
Service
Protection
Maintenance manual
Det Norske Veritas

Det Norske Veritas
M-810075
M-834851
BRN-HBC
BRN-HCA
H2S
H2S
M-075019
DIMENSIONS
Width
Length
Height
Weight
65 in. [1.65 m]
49 in. [1.25 m]
71 in. [1.80 m]
1660 lbm [750 kg]
65 in. [1.65 m]
49 in. [1.25 m]
71 in. [1.80 m]
1875 lbm [850 kg]
CHARACTERISTICS
Maximum effluent
flow
7500 BOPD [1192
10,000 BOPD [1590
m3/D]
Operating at 350 psi 10,000 BOPD [1590 13,300 BOPD [2115
m3/D]
12,000 BOPD [1908 16,000 BOPD [2544
m3/D]
m3/D]
Minimum effluent
100 BOPD per head
flow
Air supply
350 ft3/min [9.91 m3/min] at 100 psi
Maximum water
18,000 BWPD [2862 m3/D] at 75 to 230 psi
supply
Ignition supply
110-V AC, 50/60 Hz
CONNECTIONS
Effluent
Water
Air

1/2-in. LP
Options
Pneumatic rotation
M-807718
kit
Seawater filter
M-801519
Diesel pilot light kit M-807359
Description
The Invert Oil Mud Burner was primarily designed for disposing of invert oil muds offshore. It
has also been used for disposing of emulsions from polluted beaches and for burning highviscosity oils.
The top head burns a mixture of mud and diesel oil, while the lower two heads burn diesel oil
and provide a flame to vaporize any drop-out from the top head. The lower heads can also be
modified to burn gas if it is more readily available.
The volumetric ratio between diesel and mud depends on the amount of water contained in the
mud. Generally, a 1-to-3 ratio permits efficient burning.
The Mud Burner heads have two pilot lights to ensure continued ignition.
The water injection rings around the heads enable fine water droplets to penetrate the flame,
modifying combustion to eliminate black smoke. Water injection also reduces radiated heat.
A swivel joint supports the burner unit and allows the heads to move 60 degrees to either side of
the boom axis.
Specifications
Certification
Assembly number
Project code
Service
Protection
CHARACTERISTICS
Upper head
Maximum effluent flow
Operating pressure
Diesel flow rate
Diesel injection pressure
Lower heads
Diesel flow rate
Operating pressure
Air supply
Maximum water supply
Diesel pilots
Ignition supply
Det Norske Veritas

None
M-872176
M-808206
BRN-HEA
BRN-AEA
H2S
Standard
5000 BOPD [795 m3/D]

150 to 600 psi
To suit mud characteristics
10% higher than effluent
1000 to 1500 BOPD [159 to 283 m3/D]
70 to 150 psi
350 ft3/min [9.91 m3/min] at 100 psi
18,000 BPD [2862 m3/d] at 75 to 230 psi
28 gal/hr [127 liter/hr] at 100 to 200 psi
110-V AC, 50/60 Hz
CONNECTIONS
Effluent
Water
Air
Diesel, upper head
Diesel, lower head

DIMENSIONS
Width
Length
66 in. [1.65 m]
49 in. [1.25 m]
Height
Weight
78 in. [1.98 m]
1800 lbm [810 kg]
Burner Selection Guidelines
The principal criteria for selecting a burner are:
The type of effluent to burn.

The maximum expected flow rate to determine the required number of heads.
The service type required (standard service or H2S service).
Additional considerations for selecting a burner are:
Air compressors required to supply compressed air to the atomizers.

The burners need propane for pilot lights.
The burners need electricity for the ignition of the pilot lights.
The burners need water for proper burning. Water is also needed for the water screen to reduce
heat radiation.
Boom Selection Guidelines
The boom is available in two different lengths, 60 and 85 ft, and in two different temperature
ratings, -4F (-4 to 200F) and 32F (32 to 200F). It is designed for use on fixed installations,
semisubmersibles, and drillships in winds of up to 160 km/h [100 mph].
These drawings show examples of different booms and their characteristics.
Description
The U-160 burner boom is designed for Schlumberger burners such as the Green Dragon*,
Seadragon* and Mud Burner. It is designed for use on fixed installations, semisubmersibles and
drillships, in winds of up to 160 km/hr [100 mph]. Its unique 'U' shape allows easy, safe access to
burner heads and boom pipe work.
The U-160 is modular and is available in 60- and 85-ft lengths. It must be used in conjunction
with turntable assembly M-813480.
The boom comes equipped with pipe work for an oil line, water line (including filter), air line
(including check valve), gas flare and pilot light supply line.
Additional equipment available includes a water-wall kit to reduce radiant heat, a second gas
flare, diesel oil pipe work for the mud burner, burner head rotation kits and pilot light kits for the
gas flares.
* Mark of Schlumberger
Specifications
Certifying
authority
Design codes
Assembly number
Project code
Service
Working
temperature
Structure
Det Norske Veritas

DOE SI 289, NACE MR 01 75
M-839416 P-578222 M-839415
UBM-BA UBM-D UBM-CA
General
H2S
General
-4 to
200F
-4 to
200F
P-578223
UBM-E
H2S
-4 to 200F -4 to 200F
32 to 200F -4 to 200F
Pipe work
Length
Weight
Protection
32 to
-4 to
200F
200F
60 ft [18 60 ft [18 85 gt [25.7 85 gt [25.7
m]
m]
m]
m]
8140 lbm [3740 kg] 11,252 lbm [5170 kg]
Wind speed limitation versus ice thickness

Case
Boom
No.
length
flares
Semisub
C
60 ft
1
D
60 ft
2
G
85 ft
1
H
85 ft
2
Fixed installation
A
60 ft
1
B
60 ft
2
E
85 ft
1
F
85 ft
2
Above 5-cm ice thickness, the boom must be swung in and secured.
Assumptions: 4-headed burner, oil and water lines full, 3 men near
burner head
The U-160 boom was designed for use within the following
performance parameters:
Semisubmersible
Drillship
5 degrees, 9-sec
7.5 degrees, 12Rolling
period
sec period
Pitching
5 degrees, 9-sec
5 degrees, 12-
Heaving
period
0.5 g
sec period
1.0 g
Applicable forces (newtons)

No. Ice Wind F1L F1W
F2
F3 F4L F4W F5
flares (cm) (km/hr)
Semisub
1
0
160
71755 41129 144011 8522 0 44963 7532
1
3
125 113355 84543 219110 19496 0 42375 7061
1
5
0
144952 141824 261553 32225 0
343 78
Fixed
2
0
160
61390 23977 123407 6914 0 49867 7796
installation 2
3
120
91957 56673 175009 15112 0 43238 6629
2
5
100 123858 90104 227554 24458 0 35579 5168
Semisub
2
0
160
81758 42031 158574 10022 0 50004 7737
2
3
100 123064 92124 224053 21879 0 30499 4462
2
5
0
163291 146560 283393 35402 0 1059 412
Assumptions: 4-headed burner, oil and water lines full, 3 men near burner head
Abbreviations L = Leeward
W = Windward
Minimum guy line angle 24 degrees
24 degrees
Minimum rigging distances Y 6.7 m
Z 6.3 m
Applicable forces (newtons)

No. Ice Wind F1L F1W
F2
F3 F4L F4W F5
flares (cm) (km/hr)
Semisub
1
0
160 101401 44355 180825 6306 0 62106 6619
1
3
115 149130 101548 260063 15151 0 49749 5227
1
5
55 185630 160790 314744 24203 0 13710 1216
Fixed
2
0
160
89044 21212 155730 5158 0 68225 6659
installation 2
3
120 126849 62978 215374 11788 0 59222 5609
2
5
100 162614 101038 270046 18446 0 48317 4187
Semisub
2
0
160 115983 43885 198693 7482 0 68411 6570
2
3
100 165134 108216 272674 17044 0 41767 3677
2
5
0
206499 175470 330239 26733 0 2834 598
Assumptions: 4-headed burner, oil and water lines full, 3 men near burner head
Abbreviations L = Leeward
W = Windward
Minimum guy line angle 32 degrees
23 degrees
35 degrees
25 degrees
Minimum rigging distances Y 9.4 m
Z 9.9 m
The principal criteria for selecting a boom are:
The heat radiation concern. Heat radiation from a burner mounted on an 85 ft boom is
approximately half the heat radiation from a burner mounted on a 60 ft boom.
The working temperature.
Additional considerations for selecting a boom are:
Suitable supports (king posts) required to attach the boom. Usually they are fitted to the rig but
Schlumberger can provide king posts.
Vertical and horizontal guy lines needed.
Base plate welded to the deck of the rig.
Safety
The following is a list of key safety considerations for burners and booms:
Obtain a rig work permit before performing maintenance or starting burning operations on the
rig.
Advise the customer before you start burning to ensure that no other activity on the rig will
conflict with burning operations.
Do not light the burner if a helicopter is approaching the platform.
The burners are very sensitive to the direction of the wind. Check for wind direction, steadiness,
and strength.
A crew of firemen must be ready at all times during the burning operation.
When working on the burner boom, always wear a life vest.
When somebody goes out on the burner boom, the stand-by boat, the barge master, and one
testing crew member must be informed.
Securing yourself with a safety line to the boom structure is a personal decision. If the boom
falls, being attached to it may be a safety disadvantage.
Do not go out on the boom while burning is in progress.
Protect propane bottles and diesel drums from heat radiation by shielding them behind a rig
structure or covering them with wet rags.
To help control excessive heat radiation, ensure the sprinkler system for the rig or around the
booms is working.
The recommended procedures for installing booms must be strictly observed. They are detailed
in the "FOH for Surface Well Testing" and in the following animations "Burner Boom
Preparation" and "Burner Boom Installation."
Burner Boom Preparation Multimedia

Objective: To understand the preparation and installation of 60 and 85 ft burner booms
Comment: This animation is the first part of the Burner Boom animation. Burner boom
installation requires good coordination and communication between the supply boat crew, rig
crew (crane operator), our crew, and the stand-by boat crew.
All safety rules are covered. Installation of the king post is explained, but the location selection is
not covered in this animation.
Mac
Read me!
PC
Read me!
Burner Boom Installation Multimedia

Objective: To understand the installation of 60 and 85 ft burner booms
Comment: After the king post is installed, the burner boom is ready to be lifted from the supply
boat and installed on the rig. Once again all common safety, lifting, and handling practices are
emphasized.
Mac
Read me!
PC
Read me!
Compressed size: 3.6 MB, Expanded (noncompressed) size:6 MB
Maintenance
For information about boom installation, burner preparation, and functional checks, see the
recommended steps in the "FOH for Surface Well Testing."
For information about equipment maintenance, see the "FOH Vol. II" and the maintenance
manuals.
Summary
The atomizer and its operating principles.

The separate functions of the main components of the oil burner.
The mud burner.
The boom.
The key safety points that you should be aware of when working around burners and booms.
The preparation and installation of burners and booms.
Self Test
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
How did the oil burner make offshore well testing practical?
What is the role of compressed air in the atomization process?
What is the purpose of the hearth that's mounted around the atomizer?
What is the purpose of the slanted slots in the swirl assembly?
Why is diesel mixed with the oil-base mud in the upper head of a mud burner?
How is the boom attached to a rig?
K) PIPING
Introduction
Objectives
Principles
Equipment
Safety
Maintenance
Summary
Self Test
Introduction
A well testing layout is made of several pieces of surface testing equipment linked together with
pipes and hoses that provide the path for the well effluent. The "Surface Test Equipment"
drawing shows the different pieces of equipment and the piping that connects them. These piping
connections can consist of rigid piping, articulated piping, or flexible hoses. The ability to
combine these different types of piping in different ways makes it possible to handle any type of
well testing layout.
Rigid piping, made of straight pipes and elbows, is used when no movement is needed between
surface testing equipment. Articulated piping or flexible hoses are used when a relative
movement between two elements is necessary. A typical place where articulated piping is used is
the line connecting the flowhead to the choke manifold. Flexible hoses allow the flowhead to be
moved up and down when setting the packer or manipulating tools downhole.
All the elements of a well testing layout--the piping and the surface testing equipment--are
attached together with wing union connections called Weco unions.
Objectives
Upon completion of this training page, you should be able to:
List the main categories of piping used in a well testing setup.

Explain how the working pressure for a pipe with union connections is defined.
List the colors used in the Schlumberger working pressure color code and their associated
working pressures.
Upon completion of the practical exercises for the piping, you should be able to:
Draw a standard well testing layout and specify the type of piping used to connect the different
elements.
Piping Designation
A pipe is defined by its nominal size (approximate diameter) and the type of wing union attached
to the pipe. A 3 in. nominal diameter pipe equipped with a type 602 wing union is usually
referred to as a 3 in., 602 pipe. The nominal size does not correspond exactly to the external or
internal diameter of the pipe, instead it represents either 3 or 4 internal diameters depending on
the thickness of the metal wall. Detailed explanations of pipe diameters are covered in the "Well
Test Piping" chapter of the "Field Operating Handbook (FOH) for Surface Well Testing." Wing
unions are classified by a figure that indicates the cold working pressure (CWP), as described in
the next topic.
Color Code and Pressure Rating
Piping exists in a wide range of pressure ratings. It is very important to use piping that can
handle the expected pressures for a given job. To facilitate piping identification and avoid
confusion, Schlumberger defines its own piping identification system using a color code scheme
that is based on the pressure rating of wing union connections.
The following table summarizes the main color codes used at Schlumberger
Piping Color Codes and Pressure Ratings
Color Code
Figure
CWP
WP (Schlumberger)
yellow
602
6000 psi
3000 psi
red
1002
10,000 psi
5000 psi
black
1502
15,000 psi
10,000 psi
white
2202
20,000 psi
15,000 psi
The wing union connections are classified by a figure that indicates the cold working pressure
(CWP) and the sealing method. The CWP is the maximum pressure at which the manufacturer
guarantees the union not to leak. Expressed in psi, the CWP is easily calculated by multiplying
either the first (e.g., 602) or the two first digits (e.g., 1002) of the figure by 1000. The last two
digits (e.g., 02) refer to the sealing method. For the figures listed in the "Piping Color Codes and
Pressure Ratings" table, the sealing method consists of a lip-type seal ring and a metal-to-metal
seal.
The far right column of the table indicates the working pressure for wing union connections (e.g.,
602, 1002, 1502, and 2202) approved by Schlumberger for well test applications. This pressure
refers to the wing union and must not be confused with the working pressure of the pipe. The
pipe on which the union is welded or screwed has a different pressure rating.
To determine the pressure rating for a whole piece of piping, both the pipe and wing union
working pressures (WP) must be compared. The lower WP is chosen as the working pressure for
the entire piece.
The following example is based on a 3 in. size pipe equipped with a 3 in., 602 wing union.
The WP for 3 in. pipe is 2553 psi (This is taken from a table in the "FOH for Surface Well
Testing.")
The WP for the 3 in., 602 pipe is 3000 psi.
Therefore, the WP of the whole pipe is 2553 psi.
This example applies only to new pipe. Wear and corrosion make it necessary to inspect piping
regularly and down rate the pressure rating accordingly. Therefore, color coding is meaningful
only if regular pipe inspections are performed and color coding updated. The "Well Test Piping"
chapter in the "FOH for Surface Well Testing" details how to calculate the pressure rating for
corroded piping.
NOTE: When using Figure 2202, be aware that different companies use different inside diameter
(ID) measurements for the same figure. At Schlumberger, we only use Weco Figure 2202 3 in.
for 15 kpsi WP. It has an ID of 3 in., whereas other company's Figure 2202 3 in. do not have a 3
in. ID. (e.g., Anson Figure 2202 3 in. has a 2.5 in. ID.)
Equipment
Piping is classified into three categories:
Rigid piping
Articulated piping
Flexible hoses
Rigid Piping
Rigid piping consists of straight pipes of different lengths (1, 2, and 5 meters are the most
common lengths) and elbows (typically 90 degrees).
Some advantages of rigid piping are:
Good resistance to abrasion

Not expensive
Almost maintenance free
Available in different lengths
Some disadvantages of rigid piping are:
Low resistance to temperature unless fitted with expensive high temperature seals
Each pipe requires a seal
Weight
Articulated Piping
Articulated piping consists of 90 degrees elbows connected with swivel joints that allow rotation
in one, two, or three planes.
Some advantages of articulated piping are:
Easy rig up
Can be configured in an unlimited variety of ways to suit
practically any surface testing layout
Some disadvantages of articulated piping are:
Large number of seals

When bearings fail, it is time consuming to change them
Flexible Hoses
Flexible hoses are made of rubber or polymer protected by a flexible metallic carcass such as
Coflexip.
Some advantages of flexible hoses are:
Flexibility
Various lengths
Virtually maintenance free
Resistant to corrosive fluids (Coflexip)
Very reliable
Some disadvantages of flexible hoses are:
Low resistance to high temperature (Coflexip)

Expensive (Coflexip)
Heavy. A crane is needed for the installation (Coflexip)
Repair done only by specialists (Coflexip)
Fragile when not protected with a metallic carcass
Piping Selection Guidelines
The principal criteria for selecting the type of piping are:

Working pressure
The working pressure of the piping is dictated by the "Schlumberger Pressure Operations
Guidelines" which state:
"When the stream pressure is reduced in stages, each section of the surface testing equipment
shall be selected either to withstand the maximum expected shut-in wellhead pressure, or the
different piping sections shall be protected by a suitable pressure relieving device triggered at
the maximum working pressure of the individual sections."
Flow rate
The size or diameter of the piping depends on the maximum expected flow rate. The most
common sizes of piping used are 2 in. and 3 in. diameters, and 4 in. diameter piping is
sometimes chosen for high gas rate tests.
Detailed informations on pipe sizes and flow velocities is available from these sources:
the "FOH Vol. I," a software program developed by the Early Production Facilities (EPF)
group in Schlumberger, and the API Recommended Procedures 14 E (API RP 14 E).
Relative movement and layout of the well test equipment
Because of pressure loss and erosion in the pipes, it is best to keep piping routes as straight as
possible. However, this is not always possible. To facilitate the connection between some pieces
of equipment, the piping layout must combine rigid piping, articulated piping, and flexible hoses.
Additional piping selection criteria include:

Service type
All the rigid piping used should be of H2S service type with welded wing unions connections.
Rubber hoses and articulated piping must be selected in accordance to the service type required
(H2S or non-H2S).
Piping Racks and Baskets
To prevent unwanted accidents, it is highly recommended to use certified racks and baskets
which have been especially designed for storing and transporting piping.
Safety
The following is a list of key safety considerations for piping:
When high flow rates are expected, firmly anchor the flow lines to the rig structure or to the
ground.
Hoses must be attached to heavy pieces of equipment because they can swing under pressure.
Never try to loosen or tighten connections under pressure.
Do not use steel hammers to tighten wing union connections. Brass or copper hammers must be
used to prevent sparks. They must be in good working condition to avoid injuries from metal
chips that can break off of these hammers.
After every job, the piping must be thoroughly cleaned to prevent corrosion from well fluids.
Before storage, the piping connections must be greased and covered with greased adhesive
tape.
Rigid piping must be repainted when necessary to prevent rust corrosion.
Thickness measurements on rigid and articulated piping will help to detect corrosion and
erosion and to avoid failures resulting from these problems.
In desert locations, do not put grease on the threads. The sand sticks to the grease and prevents
proper connections.
Coflexip hoses must be chosen in accordance to the temperature, pressure, and fluid type
expected. Refer to the manufacturer's specifications.
Maximum working temperature versus exposure time limits and minimum bending radius
specifications must be respected for Coflexip hoses.
For Coflexip hoses, accurate records of pressure and temperature exposure versus time must be
maintained.
Each individual piece of piping must be labelled with its working pressure and service type
stamped on a permanently attached metal band.
Piping falls under the scope of the Schlumberger Wireline and Testing Pressure Operations
Guidelines.
Maintenance
The basic maintenance of the piping before and after every job consists of:
A visual inspection to check for wear and corrosion of the pipe and the connections.
The seals of the connections must be verified and changed when damaged.
Threads and sealing surfaces must be cleaned with a wire brush or fine emery cloth.
Swivel joints of articulated piping must be checked for leaks. Bearings must be greased or
changed when necessary.
Hoses must be maintained as per the manufacturer's recommendations.
A regular maintenance (Q-check) once a year consists of:
All the points listed above.

X-ray or ultrasonic inspection of the metal thickness for articulated and rigid piping must be
done especially when submitted to high fluid velocities and sand production.
After inspection, the piping must undergo a hydrostatic test at test pressure.
Color code piping according to the results of inspection and testing. (The piping color may need
to be changed if working pressure is down-rated as a result of inspection and testing.)
Summary
The different types of piping in used by Schlumberger.

How the pressure rating for rigid piping is calculated.
The purpose of the Schlumberger color code and the pressures associated with the colors.
The guidelines for selecting piping.
Some key safety points about piping.
Self Test
1.
2.
3.
4.
Why is articulated piping or flexible hoses used between the flowhead and the choke manifold?
What is the purpose of the Schlumberger piping color code?
How is the piping for a surface testing layout selected?
What is important to check regularly on rigid and articulated piping? Why is it important to
check this?
5. How are piping elements connected?
6. How is the seal made for a figure 1002 connection?
SUBSURFACE SAFETY SYSTEM

DST
Downhole Testing and Drill Stem Testing
Downhole Testing - Concepts

Downhole Testing - Equipment
Downhole Testing - Opening the Well
Downhole Testing - End of Test
Types of DSTs
Well Location and Configuration
Testing in Openhole
Testing in Cased Hole
Downhole Testing
Downhole tests are conducted either in open or cased

hole; but the primary functions are identical:
Target zone isolation

Flow control
Fluid conveyance
Bottomhole data acquisition
Downhole Testing and Drill Stem Testing

Drill stem testing (DST) is a 70-year-old technique employed by the oil companies to check the
potential of a zone to produce as soon as it had been drilled through.
As the drill bit encounters hydrocarbon bearing rocks, traces of hydrocarbons may be detected in
the drill cuttings returning to surface.
The drilling process would then be interrupted, the well conditioned and the drill string pulled
out of the hole.
At surface, the drill bit would be replaced by a compression packer and tester valve - the DST
tools.
The DST tools and drill pipe are run back to the bottom of the hole to perform the drill stem test
(DST).
It is called a drill stem test as most of the drill string that was used to drill the hole was used
during testing.
Today, for safety considerations, drill pipe connections are generally considered to offer
insufficient sealing protection against live hydrocarbons. The drill pipe is most of the time
replaced by proper production tubing which uses pressure tight threaded premium connections.
Therefore the DST technique has shifted more toward a temporary completion, but the name
DST has lived on.
A completion string is the pipe string normally used to produce the well through and bringing the
well effluents to surface.
In 1926, Johnston Testers, which later became part of Schlumberger through various
acquisitions, was already a major player in this business.
The downhole test string is one of the key elements in the well-test package and experience
shows that it is a safe, proven and reliable method of investigating the reservoir. Test objectives,
logistics and cost play a very important part in deciding the type of downhole equipment to be
used during a well test. The downhole test string is an efficient means of temporarily completing
the well while maintaining maximum flexibility. Test tools currently available allow a wide
range of string designs to choose the optimum string either for conventional DST or in
conjunction with a production-type test string.
Test objectives are normally well defined, however Schlumberger test tools allow a large amount
of flexibility, if well-test programs have to be modified in order for these objectives to be met.
This is the key point of a test string: the tool's various functions permit test sequences to be
changed even with the tools downhole, while still maintaining maximum well control.
Use of one or more downhole control valves ensures the well can be secured if problems occur.
In addition, this can be done with the minimum of pipe
manipulation or pressure adjustment. In fact, current
strings can incorporate fail safe systems which, if
problems do arise, will automatically shut in the well.
This well control will be where it is most effective, i.e., as
close to the reservoir as string design allows ; this is in
addition to usual surface and subsurface safety systems.
Downhole Testing - Concepts

Concepts
Pf : Formation pressure
Ph : Hydrostatic annulus pressure exerted by the drilling mud (or completion fluid)
Pc : Cushion pressure exerted by the fluid placed in the tubing prior to "opening" the tester valve
Pc < Pf < Ph
Downhole testing is affected by three pressures:
Formation pressure (Pf)

The formation pressure is the pressure of the hydrocarbon bearing reservoir to be tested. As
long as the well is not flowing, this pressure is present across the entire reservoir, from its outer
boundaries all the way to the wellbore.
When the well is produced, the pressure in the wellbore will fall below the original formation
pressure due to pressure losses caused by fluid movement in the formation porous media and
through the formation well interface.
Hydrostatic pressure (Ph)

The hydrostatic pressure is exerted by the column of fluid in the annulus. This fluid (drilling mud
or completion fluid) occupies the entire wellbore prior to running the downhole test string.
During the drilling phase of the well, the mud density is normally adjusted to ensure that Ph > Pf
in order to control the formation pressure.
Cushion pressure (Pc)
The cushion pressure is exerted by the column of fluid in the

tubing. Pc is tuned by either adjusting the height to which the
tubing is filled or by filling the tubing with a lighter fluid such
as water / diesel or in some occasions nitrogen gas in order to
have Pc < Pf and enable the well to flow when the tester valve
is opened.
Downhole Testing - Equipment

Equipment
Packer isolates annulus from formation pressure

Safety joint
Jars
Gauge carrier
Tester valve
o Isolates cushion from annulus while running in the hole (RIH)
o Controls well flow (on/off)
o Shuts the well in close to the formation to reduce wellbore storage
Reversing valves enable cushion to be placed in the Tubing and hydrocarbon fluids to be reverse
circulated out at the end of the test.
The packer provides a seal and isolates Ph from Pf.

A tester valve (located above the packer in the DST string) performs the following main
functions:
o Provide a method of well-control near the formation.
o Shut the well in downhole to minimize wellbore storage effects.
o Isolates Pc from Ph while running in the hole.
o Provides a seal for pressure testing the tubing string above the tester valve.
After the packer is set and sealed, the test valve can then be opened and hydrocarbons can be
produced to surface. This will only occur if Pc < Ph.
A reverse circulation valve provides a means of removing produced hydrocarbons from the drill
pipe or tubing before pulling the DST string out of the hole. During a test, hydrocarbons may be
produced. This fluid must be circulated out before pulling out of the hole. For redundancy, two
reversing valves are normally run in the DST string. Some types can be opened and can also be
reclosed. These types can be used to spot cushion fluids and hydrochloric acid for perforation
clean-up treatments.
Pressure and temperature recorders are run to record or monitor bottomhole pressure and
temperature versus time. Many different types are available, including mechanical and
electronic, and at least two are normally run in the string. These gauges can be run in gauge
carriers or placed inside tubing, drillpipe or drill collars for protection.
Additional tools may also be run to enhance string efficiency, safety and versatility. The
following are some of the available tools:
A bypass to minimize swab and surges effects, and equalize pressure across the packer at the
end of a test.
Hydraulic jars are run in almost every DST string. If the packer or anchor is stuck, the jars can
then be activated. This is done by picking the string up into an overpull. After the delay time, the
jar will provide a large upward shock to help free the tool string from the well. This process can
be repeated until the tool string is free.
The safety joint is a tool that by pipe manipulation allows the upper part of the string (above the
packer) to be recovered if the packer of the anchor becomes stuck and the jar has lost its
performance.
Overpressure safety valves prevent the casing in the well from being over pressurized above its
design limits.
Slip joints compensate for temperature expansion and contraction of the tubing in the well
during the testing phase.
Tubing conveyed perforators (TCP) perforate the casing with large size guns and test the well in
a SINGLE trip into the hole.
This technique also enables long perforated intervals to be perforated UNDERBALANCED in a
single run, whereas wireline conveyed guns would require many descents.
Downhole Testing - Opening the Well

Opening the Well
Pf > Pc: the well will flow

Cleanup
o Cushion fluid
o Rathole fluid
o Formation fluid
Main flow
This is by far the most delicate part of an exploration well test because there is little prior
knowledge of well behavior and fluid nature.
As the test valve is opened, the reservoir pressure is able to overcome the cushion pressure. The
well starts to flow.
During the initial phase of the test, the rat hole fluids, and later the drilling fluids that have
invaded the formation in the vicinity of the wellbore, flow to surface.
This is known as the cleanup period.
On occasions, the well may have difficulties unloading the heavier invasion fluid that has entered
the formation during the drilling process. In this case, it may require nitrogen lifting. This is
performed by inserting a continuous small diameter (1 1/4 in. to 1 3/4 in.) tubing, known as the
coiled tubing (CT), into the test string to a predetermined depth. N2is pumped from surface down
the CT. The N2 exiting into the test tubing lightens up the fluid column to enable the well to
flow. Once lighter hydrocarbons occupy most of the length of the test string, the hydrostatic head
will fall below flowing reservoir pressure and the well will flow naturally. The coiled tubing can
be reeled out of the hole.
Dowell provides coiled tubing services.
The cleanup is completed when the well effluent at surface changes to reservoir fluid which does
not contain leftover mud particles or cuttings.
The main flow period may then proceed for the planned duration during which downhole
pressure measurements and surface flow rates are recorded.
At the end of the flow period the tester valve is closed. Formation pressure builds up against the
valve while downhole pressure measurement continues.
Downhole shut in against a tester valve is preferred to shutting in against a surface flow control
device as it minimizes the well volume to be recompressed (reduced wellbore storage). The
reduced volume to be compressed is a major time saving advantage. It could save up to several
days rig time.
The pressure build up curve obtained is free of wellbore effects and simpler to analyze and
formations with a dual porosity can also be detected.
Downhole Testing - End of Test

End of Test
Open reverse circulating valve

"Reverse" out hydrocarbon tubing contents
Close reversing valves
Open tester valve
Pump in test string to "kill" tested interval
Unseat packer
Pull out of hole (POOH)
At the end of the test, before the packer is unseated, the hydrocarbons left inside the drillpipe or
tubing string above the closed tester valve have to be "reverse circulated out."
This operation is required for safety and environmental reasons to avoid pulling out and
disassembling a test string that contains flammable hydrocarbons which would spill onto the rig
floor or catch fire.
This is achieved by opening a reversing valve which allows annulus fluid to be pumped into the
drillpipe or tubing string and flushes the hydrocarbons to surface where it can be safely disposed.
The test string is now free of any hydrocarbons and can be pulled out of the hole (POOH) safely.
Types of DSTs
DSTs
DSTs can be broadly classified by well type, type of zonal isolation required, location and
deviation.
These conditions will initially dictate the basic type of tool string required. Well test objectives
will influence the selection of individual tools and the final string design.
Well Type
The first parameter is that of well type, which is either openhole, cased hole or barefoot.
Openhole test: Openhole testing tends to be cheaper because costs for casing and cementing are
not incurred. Two of the main problems are those of hole geometry and condition. Hole
geometry will ideally be in gauge, with no irregularities and thus packer sealing potential is
greatly improved.
Openhole sections also limit the application of pressure on the annulus; therefore, the multiflow
evaluator (MFE) string is the only string that can be run in openhole.
Openhole tests are generally limited to a few hours for fear of well bore unstability problems
which may cause the DST string to become stuck.
Two types of packers are available for openhole DSTs:
Compression packers
Inflatable packers
Cased hole test: A well with casing cemented in place has the advantage of a known diameter
and shape, thus improving packer seal capability, and will greatly improve the chance of a
successful test.
In cased hole, the test duration can be considerably longer (less chance of sticking), and test
design can be more flexible.
Deviated holes are more easily tested if they have been cased. Both MFE and pressure controlled
tester (PCT) strings are used in cased hole. Wells with leaking casing almost always preclude the
possibility of using pressure-operated tools.
Barefoot test: The barefoot test is used when an openhole section below the casing shoe is to be
tested, the test tools are placed in the casing and a cased hole packer is set in the casing section
above the casing shoe.
This technique is common on production wells where the zone to be tested is above the targeted
production zone and when it must be tested first.
Both MFE and PCT strings can be used for barefoot tests.
Zonal Isolation
In both openhole and cased hole testing, the relationships between depth of the packer, the
formation to be tested and the total depth of the well are important.
If the formation is far off bottom or above another producing zone, the lower part of the well can
be separated from the formation intended to be tested.
This is done either by an inflate openhole tool string or by a retrievable packer and bridge plugs
in cased hole.
Well Location and Configuration
The location of the well and the type of drilling rig used are also considerations in string design.
These can fall into three general categories of rigs:
Land
In a land well the tool string is fixed in relation to the rig (at the packer depth), and thus the
string design can be relatively simple. Both MFE and PCT systems can be used on land.
Offshore fixed (jack-up)

Offshore wells drilled from a fixed rig (a jackup or production platform) can basically the same
conditions as on a land rig although openhole testing is seldom done offshore due to a higher
drilling cost and thus a higher risk.
However, the offshore environment requires extra downhole/subsurface safety valves for well
safety. Although both MFE and PCT strings can be used, the PCT system is recommended
because it incorporates more safety features.
Offshore floater (semisubmersible rigs and drill ships)

The testing of wells from a semisubmersible rig or drillship involves a range of equipment
including slip joints, downhole safety valves sub surface safety valves and a subsurface
disconnecting system (EZ tree).
Since the rig is moving in relation to the zone to be tested, the string is fixed at two points - one
at the packer and the other at the BOP stack which is located at the sea bed. Slip joints are
included in the string to accommodate the string expansion and contraction due to the various
changes in the temperature in the drill pipe or tubing string.
The Pressure Controlled Tester Valve (PCTV) string is ideal for offshore floating rigs; once the
packer is set, no pipe manipulation at all is required until the packer is to be pulled loose again.
The MFE strings is not recommended for floater testing since the rig movement (heave) would
interfere with the reciprocating actions required to operate the downhole tools.
Straight/Deviated
Deviated wells are drilled from a single production site to drain a larger volume of the reservoir.
This minimizes land occupancy onshore and avoids multiple satellite platforms offshore.
Deviated wells or holes with multiple doglegs present difficulties in pipe manipulation.
Reciprocating tools that rely on string weight can be difficult to operate. In deviated holes,
minimum pipe manipulation should be attempted, and thus the PCT strings are more suitable
than the MFE string.
Testing in Openhole
To confirm a doubtful core

Were not able to run the repeat formation tester
(RFT) due to well conditions
What is Expected?
Obtain a representative formation sample

Good estimation of the flowing and static bottom hole
pressure
Testing in openhole can be done as a very first investigation of the reservoir parameters. This
could be done with logging tools which are faster and more efficient than using DST tools. But
due to hole geometry, it may not be possible to use these logging tools. Therefore the use of DST
tools could be a good alternative. The place where we select a packer seat is above the zone of
interest. Therefore we have to select a good formation give us a good packer seal.
The following are some advantages of an openhole test:
The well does not need to be cased. (The client could decide, based on the results of the test, if
it is economically justified to invest in the operation of running casing and cementing this casing
in this well.)
Provides a quick way to estimate the formation pressure and types of fluid in this formation.
A fluid sample is normally retrieved from the sample chamber which is built into the tool string.
The disadvantage of an openhole DST is due to the fact that the well is not cased, which could
give an unstable wellbore. Therefore there is always a chance that the well could cave-in and the
tool string could become undesirably stuck.
It is very important to observe the following points when performing an openhole DST.
The drilling mud needs to be in good condition.

The place where the packer seat is selected needs to be a good formation and in gauge hole
which can support the packer and the differential pressure.
The duration of the entire test has to be kept to a minimum to avoid mud settling and the
wellbore caving-in.
These are the main reasons that an openhole DST is no longer very popular. Due to the higher
risks involved, most clients limits openhole DSTs to land
operations.
Testing in Cased Hole
Precise evaluation of reservoir parameters

Determine reservoir barriers and limits
Interference tests
Perforation under drawdown
What is Expected?
Precise and complete reservoir analysis

Allows good sampling facilities
Allows maximum flow and injection rates
High equipment safety standard
Testing in casing has become more popular over the years. The test design and the test program
can be more flexible. One of the main advantages of a cased hole DST is that there is no
limitation on the duration of the test. There is no chance of the well caving-in. Casing is placed
and cemented in place before the testing phase of the well.
The following are some additional advantages of the cased hole DST:
A precise evaluation of the reservoir parameters. We can first do a cleanup flow. This will
remove cushion fluids, drilling mud left below the packer, perforating debris, cementing debris
and formation debris from the wellbore.
A determination of the reservoir limits and barriers. This can be done in a long duration test.
Interference tests. These tests could be done to check whether this well and a nearby well have
communication through the reservoir. Also the test could last for a longer duration of time.
Underbalance perforating TCP is very often used in conjunction with DST tools and could be
time saving.
We expect the following from a cased hole DST:
Precise and complete analysis of the reservoir tested. This can only be achieved if the well has
been cleaned properly and the well can be produced for a longer period of time.
To allow good sampling conditions the well needs to be cleaned properly. Samples containing
dirt and debris cannot be analyzed properly using PVT. Sampling can be done using sampling
tools on wireline or a sampling tool can be build into the DST tool string.
Maximum flow rates can be achieved with fullbore tools and a maximum drawdown pressure.
Injection into the well with a treatment fluid like acid to clean the perforations from debris from
the drilling damage, mud invation, cementing debris and perforation damage.
PRESSURE CONTROLLED TESTER STRING

Typical PCT String
Flowhead - When testing
a well, surface shutoff is
usually provided by a flow
control head or flowhead
that functions as a
temporary christmas tree. The flowhead is
located on top of the well and is the first piece
of equipment at the surface through which
fluid flows.
Tubing or drill pipe; This pipe will convey the well effluents
to surface.
Slip joints; During a test when well effluents are produced,

the temperature in the string will increase the pipe will
expand. When pumping a cold fluid the pipe will shrink. To
compensate for this we need these slip joints. This tool is
only a telescopic joint they slide in when put in compression
and stroke out when put in tension. Most slip joints have a
stroke of 5 feet some have a 2 feet stroke. More than one
slip joint can be used. In some cases even as many as 5 slip
joints are connected together. The total length of stroke in that case will be 25
feet.
Fully closed
Drill collars; These heavy weight type drilling pipes are placed in the string to
provide weight on the packer. It is most effective when placed as close to the
packer as possible.
Backup reversing valve; In case the lower reversing valve

becomes plugged, the upper valve can be operated. This
valve is operated on a different operating system for
maximum safety.
Drill collars; These are placed here to provide weight on the
packer and to space out between the the two reversing
valves to avoid having debris block the tool from operating.
Reverse circulating valve; Allows the hydrocarbons to be
circulated out of the string at the end of the Testing
program.
Drill collars; These are placed here to provide weight on the
packer and to space out between the the two reversing
valves to avoid having debris block the tool from operating.
Safety valve (optional); Protects the casing from being
overpressured above its rating. The tool can be
permanently closed at a predetermined pressure.
DGA
Pressure recorders; Pressure recorders in combination with
an inductive coupler allows the operator to communicate
with the pressure recorders to be able to monitor flowing
and shut-in pressures from surface in real time. The benefit
of that is if the buildup pressure has stabilized the buildup can be stopped and
rig time saved.
Main downhole tester valve; The valve can be opened and
closed by surface pressure commands. The valve is placed
as close as it is practically possible to the formation we want
to test. This will greatly reduce the volume of fluid we need
to compress to get a pressure built-up.
HRT
Pressure recorders; These recorders are located above the

packer just in case the safety joint has to be activated so
that these pressure recorders are still retrievable and
important data is not lost. This recorder is still located below the tester valve
which also allows you to compare data with the the recorder located below the
packer in the case of debris course plugging.
Hydraulic jar; This tool is an upstroke hammer. If the lower
part of the string becomes stuck; the first option is to
activate the jar in an attempt to release the tool string. If
this is unsuccessful the safety joint could be activated.
Safety joint; This tool is in the string just in case the lower
part of the string or the packer becomes stuck in the
well.We can disconnect from here as a last resort.
Packer; Seals the hydrostatic pressure from the mud in the
annulus from the formation pressure (remember Ph > Pf) .
Perforated tail pipe; Allows the flow of the formation fluids

into the testing string. In case Wireline tools or TCP guns are
used, the formation fluid needs to be able to enter the
testing string.
Pressure recorders; These are used to record bottomhole
pressure and temperature. These pressure recorders are
placed below the packer to record the flowing and shut-in
pressures as close to the formation as possible.
Wireline reentry guide; Lower most part of the string. If
logging tools (i.e., Wireline sampling tools), production
logging tools or Wireline perforating guns are used during a
DST, the reentry guide allows these tools to be pulled back
into the testing string safely without hanging up on sharp edges. It is also
possible to replace the WLRG with a string of tubing conveyed perforating guns.
RESERVOIR FLUID SAMPLING
This training page is divided into the following topics:
Introduction
Objectives
Basics
Summary
Self Test
Introduction
Almost all important engineering and economic studies related to oil and gas production
operations are closely dependent on an understanding of the behavior of reservoir fluids. Among
these studies are
oil and gas reserves, recovery factor and field development programs
production forecasts, flowing life of wells, completion and lifting systems
surface flowlines, separation and pumping center design
treatment, processing and refining plants
choice of secondary recovery method.
An important concern of every petroleum engineer, therefore, is the quality of the fluid data upon
which these studies are based. Laboratory analysis techniques on reservoir fluid samples provide
the information needed for an accurate understanding of such fluid behavior. Regardless of the
care and sophistication of the laboratory analyses, a collected sample that does not truly
represent the reservoir fluid will not yield useful data.
The purpose of sampling is to obtain a representative sample of the reservoir fluid identical to the
initial reservoir fluid. This condition is absolutely essential because reservoir engineering studies
using pressure-volume-temperature (PVT) analysis data are always made on the basis of the
reservoir at its initial conditions.
Knowing the importance of collecting representative samples of reservoir fluids, the sampling
operations must be performed using state-of-the-art techniques. Sampling is probably one of the
most delicate field operations since it requires not only a solid experience in well testing and the
operational aspects of fluid collection, but also a good understanding of reservoir and production
engineering.
This training page requires that you be familiar with the characteristics and behaviors of
reservoir fluids.
Objectives
Upon completion of this training page, you should be able to complete the following tasks:
Explain the importance of sampling.

Describe how the producing conditions can affect the representativity of a sample.
Explain the term "well conditioning" and describe the method used to condition a producing
well.
List the two hydrocarbon sampling methods. Select one and state the instances when it is used.
Demonstrate that the first condition for sampling is a monophasic flow in the reservoir.
Write the procedure for obtaining a valid bottomhole sample in a saturated oil reservoir.
Explain why bottomhole sampling is not suitable for gas wells.
Basics
This topic outlines the general considerations and procedures for obtaining representative
samples of formation fluids at the surface and downhole. It is divided into the following sections:
Sampling procedures design

Sampling of oil reservoirs
Sampling of gas reservoirs
Sampling of volatile oil reservoirs
Sampling Procedures Design

Representative Samples
The main objective of a sampling procedure is to obtain a representative sample of the original
reservoir fluid. In designing a sampling procedure, we must consider how the reservoir fluids we
are sampling will be affected by the conditions produced during the sampling process.
When the pressure in an oil reservoir drops below the bubblepoint pressure, the solution
vaporizes and forms a separate phase. Similarly, when the pressure in a gas condensate reservoir
drops below the dewpoint pressure, liquid begins to accumulate in the reservoir from the
condensation of the gas. In either case, the minor phase must build up to a certain critical
saturation within the reservoir rock before it will begin to flow. In the meantime, the composition
of the produced fluid is altered by the selective loss of light or heavy hydrocarbons. While the
liquids in a gas condensate reservoir may never reach a saturation when they can flow, the gas
saturation in an oil reservoir will almost certainly reach a point when gas flow occurs. Due to the
relatively low viscosity of gas, this flow of gas will increase rapidly, exhibiting the typical
performance trend of a solution gas drive reservoir.
Even if these phenomena are not reservoir-wide, the pressure drawdown associated with flow
will often be sufficient to drop the pressure of the fluid in the immediate vicinity of the wellbore
below its bubblepoint or dewpoint pressure and into a two-phase region as illustrated in the
Pressure Distribution graphic.
A sample of the diphasic fluid will not be representative of the original reservoir fluid existing
farther out in the reservoir and thus will not be suitable for analysis. Steps must be taken to
determine the reservoir pressure, temperature and the general category of the reservoir fluid. If
the relationship between reservoir pressure and bubblepoint or dewpoint can be estimated, proper
procedures can be applied to ensure that the sampled fluid is representative.
Another concern about obtaining a representative sample is the degree of variation in the original
reservoir fluid located throughout the reservoir. Large reservoirs having thick vertical oil
columns have been known to exhibit variations in fluid properties with depth. Such variations
cannot be accounted for in a specific sample. A pattern must be established from several samples
taken from various wells that were completed at different intervals. In such cases, proper
sampling procedures can ensure that the sample obtained is representative of the reservoir fluid
at the sampling depth and sampling time.
Timing is also an important consideration in obtaining a representative sample of the original
reservoir fluid. Obviously, it makes sense to sample as early as possible in the reservoir's
producing life. Once production creates significant volumes of free gas on a reservoir-wide basis,
it may be impossible to obtain a sample of the original fluid. Often, a reservoir fluid sample is
part of a well-testing procedure that immediately follows the drilling of the first well in a
reservoir. An example would be a newly discovered field where development plans may rely on
the early determination of expected reserves and production rates.
Estimates of fluid properties can be helpful; e.g., bubblepoint pressure (pb) correlations
employed with early test data can determine if undersaturated reservoir fluid exists. If it is,
sampling in that reservoir could be deferred while more testing is done since such reservoir
fluids might be produced for awhile before the free gas phase forms.
Producing Conditions and Equipment
The producing conditions and surface or subsurface equipment have to be considered when
designing a sampling procedure. The following are the most important considerations:
Type of fluid to sample

Stability and accuracy of the gas rate, oil rate and gas/oil ratio (GOR) measurements
Proximity of the gas-oil contact (GOC) and the oil-water contact (OWC) to the productive
interval
Whether the well is a flowing or a pumping well
Dimensions (internal diameters) of the downhole equipment
Dry gas reservoirs and highly undersaturated oil reservoirs where the produced fluids remain in a
single phase under any flowing conditions are relatively easy to sample on the surface. An oil
reservoir at or slightly above the bubblepoint will undoubtedly yield free gas at the bottomhole
flowing pressures and will require conditioning prior to sampling as explained in the next
section.
If samples of oil and gas are taken at the surface, it is vital that the producing rates and GORs be
accurately measured in order to recombine the fluids in the correct ratios to formulate a
representative sample. If the well is not producing with stable GORs or if the separation facilities
are not adequate for accurate measurements, a surface recombination sample should not be
considered.
Water production can be troublesome, even in small amounts. If possible, no well that is
producing water should be considered for obtaining a representative hydrocarbon sample.
Nevertheless, a well producing water may be sampled if the sample is taken above the oil-water
contact in the well or in the separator. Sampling in wells where gas coning occurs or may occur
in the production interval should not be done.
Flowing wells are the best candidates for fluid sampling because production rates are easily
controlled and it is practical to measure the bottomhole pressure. In contrast, subsurface
sampling on a pumping well requires the removal of the pump and rods. For obvious reasons,
wells on continuous gas lift are unsuitable for surface sampling procedures, however if a gas lift
well will flow at low rates on its own, it may be conditioned and sampled like any flowing well.
Although the wireline bottomhole sampler is a slim tool, it may not pass through some tubing
restrictions or twisted tubing. Before deciding on a sampling procedure, it is important to check
that the sampler can reach the producing interval.
Well Conditioning
The objective of well conditioning is to replace the nonrepresentative reservoir fluid located
around the wellbore by displacing it into and up the wellbore with original reservoir fluid.
A flowing well is conditioned by successively lowering its production rates until the
nonrepresentative oil has been produced. The production rate is reduced and the GOR measured
until it stabilizes. This procedure is repeated until a trend in the GOR is established. The GOR
may remain constant, decrease or increase.
If the GOR remains constant, the flow into the wellbore is monophasic with undersaturated oil
and the well is ready for sampling.
If the GOR decreases, it is the indication of free gas saturation. In the following two situations,
correlations can be used to determine the GOR without free gas production.
o This gas may be due to coning. (i.e., The gas from the gas cap flows into the producing
interval.) Some light components from the oil phase will move into the gas phase.
Therefore, the produced liquid phase (oil) will produce less gas at the surface, thus
lowering the GOR. All the light components which are transferred downhole from the oil
phase to the gas phase will not be produced in a gas cap well. Therefore, the GOR will
be lower at the surface as fewer light components are available.
o This gas may also be due to the flowing bottomhole pressure being less than the
bubblepoint pressure.
If the GOR increases, it may be the indication of the simultaneous production of a gas and oil
zone. This well should not be sampled because it is very difficult to determine when it will be
adequately conditioned.
At low flow rates, some wells produce slugs of liquid followed by gas. This irregular flow makes
it difficult to measure the GOR accurately. Some wells may have such low productivity that even
a low flow rate requires a large drawdown. Reducing the drawdown enough to bring the flowing
bottomhole pressure above the bubblepoint pressure may result in "heading" and may take a very
long time to achieve.
Pumping oil wells are conditioned in the same general manner as flowing wells. If preliminary
correlations show the reservoir fluid to be saturated, the pumping rate should be reduced in order
to increase the bottomhole pressure. After the GOR stabilizes, the well should be pumped for
several days before taking surface samples. If bottomhole sampling is required, the pump is
stopped after conditioning and the rods and pump removed. Then the well is swabbed at a low
rate to ensure a representative fluid at the bottom of the well before the bottomhole sampler is
lowered.
A gas-condensate well is also conditioned by flowing it at successively lower flow rates and
monitoring the GOR. Generally, the GOR should decrease as the rate is decreased, because the
lower rate results in a lower drawdown which brings the wellbore pressure out of the two-phase
region. The heavier hydrocarbons will be produced rather than condensed in the reservoir,
increasing the liquid volume at the surface and decreasing the GOR. When the GOR stabilizes,
the well is ready for sampling.
The duration of the conditioning period depends upon the volume of reservoir fluid that has been
altered as a result of producing the well below the bubblepoint pressure and how quickly it can
be produced at low rates. Most of the oil wells that have not been produced for a long period of
time require little conditioning. However, some wells may require up to a week of conditioning
to achieve stable GORs.
During the conditioning process, careful records should include
flowing bottomhole pressure and temperature (when possible)

flowing tubing pressure and temperature
oil and gas flow rates
separator pressure and temperature
stock tank oil production rate
water production rate.
Any other information should also be noted such as, equipment malfunction, sudden surface
temperature changes and measurement methods.
Hydrocarbon Sampling Methods
After conditioning the well, samples may be taken with a bottomhole sampler or individual
samples of oil and gas may be taken at the surface and recombined to obtain a representative
reservoir fluid sample. The choice of the sampling technique is influenced by the following
conditions:
volume of sample required

type of reservoir fluid to be sampled
degree of reservoir depletion
surface and subsurface equipment.
BOTTOMHOLE SAMPLING
Bottomhole sampling is the trapping of a volume of fluid in a pressurized container suspended

on a cable inside the well to the productive interval. This method is used in the following
situations:
Only a small volume is required.

The oil to be sampled is not so viscous that it impairs the sampler operation.
The flowing bottomhole pressure is known to be greater than the reservoir oil saturation
pressure.
The subsurface equipment will not prevent the sampler from reaching the sampling depth or
make its retrieval difficult.
SURFACE SAMPLING
Surface sampling usually consists of taking samples of oil and gas at the separator along with
accurate measurements of their respective flow rates, pressures and temperatures. The oil and gas
samples will later be combined in a laboratory to make a representative sample. This method is
often used when:
a large volume of oil and gas are required for analysis, which is the case for gas condensate
fluids
the fluid at the bottom of the well is not representative of the reservoir fluid (e.g., gas
condensate reservoirs and oil reservoirs producing large quantities of water)
the facilities at the surface, operated by trained personnel, permit the separation of oil and gas
and can measure their rates in optimal conditions.
The main difficulty when sampling at the surface arises from the fact that liquid and gas are in a
dynamic equilibrium inside the separator. Any drop in pressure or increase in temperature of the
separator liquid, which is at its bubblepoint, will result in the formation of gas. In addition, any
increase in pressure or decrease in temperature of the separator gas, which is at its dew point,
will result in the condensation of the heavy components. In such a case, a fluid becomes diphasic
during the sampling operation and disproportionate quantities of the two phases will be collected.
Subsequently, the sample will not be representative.
It is also very important that the sampling points be verified to ensure that the fluids to collect
will not be contaminated (e.g., oil or gas condensate carryover at the gas sampling point, water or
sludge at the liquid sampling point).
When a chemical (glycol, methanol, inhibitors, etc.) is injected upstream of the separator, the
injection must be stopped and the sampling operations started only when the chemical is purged
from the separator. If it is impossible to operate without the chemical injection, the chemical
used and the injection rate must be recorded.
Whenever possible, separator liquid and gas samples should be taken simultaneously to obtain
the same sampling conditions for both fluids.
Sampling of Oil Reservoirs

Preliminary Considerations on Oil Reservoirs
In an oil reservoir, the saturation pressure or bubblepoint pressure (pb) may either be equal to the
initial bottomhole static pressure (pwsi) (saturated reservoirs) or below the initial bottomhole
static pressure (undersaturated reservoirs). If a gas cap is found above the oil, the oil is always
saturated.
In undersaturated oil reservoirs, it is possible to produce the well on a small enough choke size to
ensure a flowing bottomhole pressure (pwf) higher than the bubblepoint pressure. There is no gas
liberation and the flow in the reservoir is monophasic.
On the other hand, in saturated oil reservoirs, the flowing pressure is always below the
bubblepoint pressure. The gas in solution in the oil is liberated and may flow through the
reservoir along with the oil. The flow is diphasic.
It is important to note that when oil and gas flow together through the reservoir, the amount of
produced gas is always higher than the initial gas in solution in the oil. The total surface GOR is
calculated by the following equation:
where:
= production gas/oil ratio
= gas in solution in the oil
= oil formation volume factor
= gas formation volume factor
= oil viscosity
= gas viscosity
= gas/oil relative permeability ratio (proportional to the amount of free gas in the
reservoir)
This equation shows that in a monophasic flow, when there is no free gas and krg / kro is equal to
zero, the GOR is equal to Rs and the well stream is identical to the reservoir fluid. This is the
case of undersaturated reservoirs with pwf > pb and new wells (even in saturated reservoirs
producing with small drawdowns) where there is no free gas and initial production has a GOR
equal to Rs.
In a two-phase flow, free gas exists and krg / kro is not equal to zero. GOR is then greater than Rs
and the well stream is different from the reservoir fluid. This is generally the case of saturated
reservoirs.
These considerations show that the first condition to obtain representative samples is a
monophasic flow in the reservoir.
In summary, samples from oil reservoirs are representative when the sampled oil contains
exactly the same amount of gas in solution that was in the solution during the initial reservoir
fluid.
Pre-Job Required Data
To determine whether the fluid flow in the reservoir is monophasic and whether the reservoir is
saturated or undersaturated, we must estimate the bubblepoint pressure and compare it with the
reservoir static and flowing pressures. For this purpose, the following data are necessary:
initial or actual bottomhole static pressure (pwsi or pws)

reservoir temperature
oil and gas gravities
flowing reservoir pressures at one or several flowrates (pwf)
initial and actual GOR (or production history for producing wells) at one or several flowrates.
When sampling is to be done without well testing, these data should be supplied to the personnel
in charge of sampling. They are used in conjunction with the following graphic to obtain an
estimation of pb .
This chart, called the Standing correlation chart, can provide an estimate of the bubblepoint
pressure of an oil. Although the estimates of the method are reported to be accurate within 5%,
it is widely accepted that if the composition of the oil being tested is considerably different from
the average composition of the Californian crudes used to create this chart, thus deviations even
as high as 20% can be encountered (i.e. the bubblepoint pressure of a volatile oil with actual pb=
3000 psia could be predicted in the 2400 to 2600 psia range). Since the difference between the
initial reservoir pressure and the fluid's saturation pressure can often be as little as a few hundred
psi, conclusions about the estimated bubblepoint should be treated with extreme care and may
need to be further verified using different references.
All these data and other parameters measured during sampling should be indicated on the
sampling data sheet. This form which accompanies every sample is the only source of
information for PVT analyses.
New Wells or Wells in Undepleted Zones

UNDERSATURATED RESERVOIRS
These reservoirs are characterized by
a constant GOR equal to Rs. At very high drawdowns, the GOR may increase because pwf could
be lower than pb
a possible estimation of pb by the STANDING correlation and its value of pb < pwsi will confirm
that the reservoir is undersaturated.
Bottomhole and surface sampling can be done with the well flowing at stabilized conditions at
any flowrate for which pwf > pb .
SATURATED RESERVOIRS
These reservoirs are characterized by
a GOR only equal to Rs during a very short production period. The GOR increases slightly if the
well is produced at constant and low flowrates. It will increase considerably if the drawdown is
increased, which can be due to the higher gas liberation in the reservoir
a possible estimation of pb by the STANDING correlation using GORi = Rsi and its value should be
close to pwsi
a pb always equal to pwsi if a gas cap exists.
Bottomhole sampling can be accomplished as follows:
The flowrate should be decreased progressively and the well closed. During the flowrate
reduction period, pwf increases and free gas redissolves in the oil. When the well is finally close
and initial static conditions are reached, the reservoir fluids will be very close to their initial
conditions, pb = pwsi .
At these conditions, the well can be sampled. It will be opened at the smallest possible flowrate
(1/16" choke) for ten to fifteen minutes and shut in just before the sampler is activated. During
this short flowing period, the drawdown will be practically zero and gas liberation will be too
small to affect the validity of the samples.
Surface sampling can be done only if, at a minimum stabilized flow, the GOR is very close to the
initial GOR (GORi). Bottomhole sampling should be done at the same time.
Producing Reservoirs or Wells in Slightly Depleted Zones

GOR IS EQUAL TO GORi
In this case, the flow is monophasic and pws > pwf > pb . Surface and bottomhole sampling are
done in the same conditions than for undersaturated reservoirs.
GOR IS GREATER THAN GORi
In this case,the flow is diphasic. The pb should be determined using the initial GORi and
compared with pws and pwf .
If pws > pb > pwf :
Bottomhole sampling can be achieved in the same manner as saturated reservoirs but the time to
reach stabilized conditions could be very long and depends on the depletion of the reservoir.
Surface sampling can be carried out only if it is possible to reach production conditions where
the GOR is very close to GORi . Nevertheless, if surface samples have been taken with GOR >
GORi , they can be recombined in the laboratory to get a reservoir fluid having a specific pb (i.e.,
equal to pwsi ). This procedure is advisable only when the real pb is known but representative
samples cannot be taken.
If pb > pws :
The reservoir is very depleted and the fluid is diphasic. The initial reservoir fluid no longer exists
and it is impossible to obtain representative samples.
For surface samples, the pb can be adjusted in the laboratory as mentioned previously.
Sampling of Gas Reservoirs

Preliminary Conditions on Gas Reservoirs
Gas reservoirs are classified in three categories:
Dry gas reservoirs

In a dry gas reservoir, the gas always remains entirely in the gas phase, whether at reservoir or
separator conditions.
Wet gas reservoirs
In a wet gas reservoir, the gas remains entirely in the gas phase in the reservoir. However at
separator conditions, the well stream will be in two phases, liquid and gas. As the temperature
drops between the reservoir and the separator, the heavier gas components condense as a
liquid.
Gas condensate reservoirs

In a gas condensate reservoir, also called a retrograde condensate reservoir, when the reservoir
pressure drops with production to a point below pd, condensation of the heavier components in
the gas occurs in the reservoir when one would normally expect vaporization. The well stream
composition will vary with pressure and temperature and the production is always in two
phases at separator conditions.
Very often, wet gas and gas condensate reservoirs exhibit very similar behavior which makes it
sometimes difficult to decide which type of reservoir it is solely on the well testing data.
In undersaturated reservoirs, it is theoretically always possible to produce a well when p wf > pd in
order to avoid liquid condensation in the reservoir and to have a well stream identical to the
initial reservoir fluid.
In saturated reservoirs, the production is always with pwf < pd . Liquid deposit is condensed in the
reservoir and the separator GOR increases proportionally to the difference between pwf and pd .
These considerations show that the sampling operation will require flowing conditions with
almost no liquid condensation: GOR = GORi or pwf greater than or very close to pd .
In summary, samples from gas condensate and wet and dry reservoirs are representative only
when they have the total amount of the heavier components contained in the initial reservoir
fluid.
Gas Reservoir Sampling Procedures
It is difficult to distinguish between wet gas and condensate gas reservoirs. The dewpoint
pressure of a gas condensate reservoir cannot be estimated. For this reason, sampling in such
reservoirs should always be done assuming the most unfavorable conditions (i.e., a gas
condensate reservoir where pd = pwsi ).
Sampling in gas reservoirs should always be done at the surface. The separator liquid and the gas
should be recombined in the laboratory.
Bottomhole sampling in a gas reservoir is inappropriate for the following reasons:
The liquid condensed in the bottomhole sampler, when removed from the well, can never be
completely transferred from the sampler to the shipping bottle. Very often, the amount of this
condensate is very small and during the transfer at atmospheric temperature, part of the
condensate will remain in the sampler. Thus, the sample is not representative. Even if the
sampler is heated to the reservoir temperature, complete liquid revaporization could take a very
long time and be impossible to check at the wellsite. The only solution is to send the sampling
chamber to the laboratory.
From a commercial point of view, the liquid phase is of great interest, but its analysis requires a
certain easily obtained at the separator but not reasonably achieved with downhole sampling.
In addition to the usual reservoir sampling conditions, the surface sampling of gas wells require
that the liquid condensed in the production string, between the bottom of the well and the
surface, should be completely removed from the well and produced in the separator. This
condition is satisfied only if the gas velocity is high enough. The following graphic shows the
minimum gas flow rates versus wellhead pressure for different tubing sizes.
New Wells or Wells in Undepleted Zones
At initial conditions, gas wells can always be sampled because pwsi is very close to pd and the
gas/liquid ratio is very close to the initial gas/liquid ratio. Therefore, the well stream contains the
total amount of the heavier components found in the reservoir fluid.
Separator sampling should be done with the well producing at the lowest possible flowrate
(minimum drawdown) but meeting the following conditions:
GOR and wellhead pressure should be constant.

Homogeneous flow should occur in the tubing. Liquid deposits should be removed with
sufficient gas flow velocity.
Even when pd is equal to or very close to pwsi and when pwf is slightly lower than pd, the samples
are acceptable.
In wells having a very low permeability, pwf may be considerably lower than pd. The samples
taken are considered modified. In this case, representative sampling is not possible.
Producing Reservoirs or Wells in Depleted Zones
The only data to analyze is the gas/liquid ratio.

If GOR = GORi , the well is producing at monophasic conditions in the reservoir and sampling
can be achieved as explained in the previous section, "New Wells or Wells in Undepleted
Zones."
If GOR > GORi , pwf is below pd but there is no way of establishing whether pws is higher or
lower than pd . The research of conditions required for proper sampling is too long to be advised
as a standard procedure. Sampling should be done as previously described, but its validity will be
known only after pd is measured in the laboratory.
Sampling of volatile oil reservoirs
A volatile oil is an oil which contains large amounts of light hydrocarbons that vaporize easily. A
small drop in pressure makes the relative amount of gas to liquid increase rapidly. In some cases,
this type of reservoir can be confused with a gas condensate reservoir due to a high API gravity
of the liquid at separator conditions and a high GOR.
The STANDING correlation cannot be used to estimate pb because this correlation is valid only
with GOR less than 2000 scf/bbl. These reservoirs should be sampled as gas condensate
reservoirs and the PVT analyses will determine the type of fluid collected. If the results of the
analyses show an oil reservoir, bottomhole sampling is possible and can be done following the
procedure for saturated oil reservoirs.
A table summarizing the different sampling cases presented in this topic is shown in the
following graphic.
Summary of Reservoir Fluid Sampling Possibilities and Procedures

Produ Well
Reservoir and
R
ced Positi
Flow
ef.
Fluids on
Characteristics
O
I
New
reserv
oir
or
GOR = GORi =
CONSTANT
pwsi > pb
undersaturated
SAMPLING POSSIBILITIES
AND PROCEDURES
Bottomhole
Sampling
Well flowing with pwf
> pb
Surface
Sampling
Stabilized flow
with pwf > pb
Remarks
undepl
eted
zones
reservoirs
- Progressive
reduction of flow
- Well closed until
GOR > GORi
stabilized
pwsi > pb
- Sampling with well
saturated reservoirs
producing at
minimum possible
flow rate
- Flow rate
reduction in order
to get GOR very
close to GORi .
Case of reservoirs with

gas cap
- Stabilized flow
with minimum
drawdown.
GOR = GORi =
3 CONSTANT
Produc
ing
reserv
oir
or
deplete
d
zones
New
reserv
oir
or
undepl
eted
zones
Same procedure as in 1
pws > pwf > pb
GOR > GORi

pws > pb > pwf
GOR > GORi
5 p <p
wf
b
Same procedure as in 2
No sampling
possibility
Produc
ing
reserv
oir
or
deplete
d
zones
Volati
le
New
oil or reserv
doubt oir
ful
cases
Representative
sampling is not
possible.
Surface samples can be

recombined
in the lab in order to
have pb = pwsi .
Smallest possible
flow but
compatible with
GOR = constant =
GORi or
GOR very close to
GORi
Not advisable
A
S
Well conditioning could

be very long
and depends upon the
depletion.
Dew point (pd) cannot

be estimated but
homogen measured only in the
eous flow laboratory, using
in tubing recombined surface
separator samples.
stability.
Same procedure as
in 6
7 GOR = GORi
Not advisable
GOR > GORi
Validity of sampling
Same procedure as
will be known after pd
in 6
measurement.
No possibility of
getting any
reservoir
Not advisable
characteristics
from well test data.
Sample representativity
Same procedure as
will be known after PVT
in 6
analysis.
Summary
This summary is an overview of the most important points presented in this training page. It is
included to help you review the information. In this training page, we have presented the
following:
Important studies related to oilfield operations

Considerations for obtaining a representative sample
How producing conditions can affect a sampling procedure
Conditioning a well prior to sampling
Surface sampling
Bottomhole sampling
Summary of all sampling scenarios
Self Test
1. List five studies closely dependent on fluid sampling analysis.
2. Well conditioning recommendations prior to sampling are not designed to achieve which of the
following options:
o Flowing the well on successively smaller choke sizes
o Ensuring the well is clean
o Having the reservoir pressure in the wellbore area above the bubblepoint pressure
o Gas liberation from the oil occuring in the reservoir during sampling
o Obtaining similar GOR's on two successive flow rates
3. What parameters must be recorded during well conditioning?
4. Why is it important to obtain samples as early as possible in the reservoir's life?
5. What precautions should be taken prior surface sampling?
6. Is it possible to obtain a representative sample in a new gas reservoir having a flowing pressure
much lower than its dewpoint pressure? Why?
7. What parameter will you look at prior to sampling a depleted gas reservoir?
8. A reservoir exhibits a GOR higher than 2000 scf/bbl. How can you verify that the samples you
take are representative?
SURFACE SAMPLING
Introduction
Objectives
Safety
Summary
Self Test
Introduction
Surface sampling usually consists of taking samples of oil and gas at the separator along with
accurate measurements of their respective flow rates, pressures and temperatures, as seen in
Figure 1. The oil and gas samples will be combined later in a laboratory commonly called the
pressure-volume-temperature (PVT) lab to make a representative sample. Water samples may
also be taken at the separator.
Figure 1
Surface sampling also involves taking samples of oil, gas and formation water at the wellhead.
Sampling of formation water is covered in a separate training page.
Surface sampling is used when large volumes of oil and gas samples are necessary. Special
analysis of the produced separator gas and oil as well as detailed crude oil evaluation require
substantial quantities (volume) by far exceeding the quantity that can be recovered with a
bottomhole sampling tool. Large volumes of reservoir fluids are also needed when several PVT
analyses must be made for the same formation.
This training page requires that you be familiar with sampling generalities and with the
characteristics and behaviors of reservoir fluids.
Objectives
Upon completion of this training page and the associated practical exercises, you should be able
to complete the following tasks:
List two sampling techniques for oil and two for gas.
Discuss how to prepare the well prior to sampling.
Explain why oil samples and gas samples should be taken at the same time.
Emphasize the importance of the gas/oil ratio (GOR) in surface sampling.
Write a procedure for sampling gas at the separator using the vacuum method.
Write a procedure for sampling oil at the separator using a piston bottle.
Describe the conditions under which sampling is possible at the wellhead.
List the typical volume requirements for oil and gas samples.
Take an oil and a gas sample using the procedures applicable at the RTC.
Carefully complete the sampling sheet for every sample taken.
This topic outlines the general considerations for obtaining a representative surface sample and
describes the most common oil and gas surface sampling methods used in the field. This topic is
divided into the following sections:
Well conditioning
Gas surface sampling methods
Oil surface sampling methods
Special surface sampling cases
Wellhead sampling
Well Conditioning
The stable flow period during which the samples are to be taken, should be preceded by a
cleanup period long enough to eliminate the drilling, completion or stimulation fluids. The well
should then be flowed through the separator. The flow has to be very stable and should be set at a
low flow rate, which will create a minimum differential pressure at the formation level. This
flow rate can be determined by flowing the well through different choke sizes. The choice of this
flow rate depends upon the productivity of the well. In high productivity wells, flow rate stability
is easily achieved. In average or low productivity wells, or when the productivity is unknown,
choosing a flow rate that gives regular flow of the two phases (oil and gas) to the separator might
be difficult. In such cases, the flow must be maintained at the minimum steady rate. When the
gas/oil ratio (GOR) is steady (i.e., within 2 to 5%) between two flow reductions, the well is
producing fluids representative of the reservoir. At this point, the stabilized flowing bottomhole
pressure (pwf) is greater than the saturation (bubblepoint) pressure (pb), which ensures a singlephase fluid at the formation level. The further the well deviates from constant GOR, the greater
the likelihood that the samples will not be representative.
We always try to sample at the end of a flow period when flow rates are stabilized.
Flowing stability can be checked by the following criteria:
stabilized surface gas and oil flow rates

stabilized wellhead pressure and temperature
stabilized flowing bottomhole pressure (pwf) obtained with a surface readout system.
Surface sampling of a gas condensate well requires another condition: the liquid condensed in
the tubing (between the bottom of the well and the surface) should completely be removed from
the well and produced in the separator. This condition is satisfied if the ascendant gas speed is
high enough. Figure 2 gives the minimum flow rates versus wellhead pressure for different
tubing sizes.
Figure 2
The gas and liquid samples should be taken at the same time or the difference in time should be
as small as possible because significant changes in the separation conditions, particularly the
temperature, can occur over time.
Obtaining accurate values of gas and oil flow rates prevailing at the time of sampling is very
important. The PVT lab has to rely on the reported GOR for the physical recombination of oil
and gas. Inaccurate flow rates applied to valid surface samples lead to invalid recombined fluid.
The following example emphasizes the importance of reporting accurate GOR:
A volatile oil from Africa produced from a reservoir at 214oF was sampled at a separator
pressure of 168 psia and a temperature of 78oF. The reported field GOR was 1200 scf/bbl. If we
assume that the GOR had been underestimated by 5% (actual GOR = 1260 scf/bbl), then
simulation runs show that the two recombined fluids will exhibit the following differences as
indicated in Table 1:
Comparison of Oil Parameters Based on a 5% Difference in GOR Values
Fluid with GOR = 1200 scf/bbl Fluid with GOR = 1260 scf/bbl
Bubblepoint pressure (pb)
2936 psia
3017 psia
Reservoir oil density at pb
0.574 g/cm3
0.563 g/cm3
Gas Z factor at pb
0.831
0.829
Total GOR from separator test 1512 scf/bbl
1621 scf/bbl
Oil volume factor (Bo)
2.607
2.509
Table 1
Table 1 (above) shows that only a 5% error in measuring the field GOR can cause wide
variances in the obtained PVT data. Therefore, every action should be taken to ensure that the
gas and liquid meters are properly calibrated, that they function well and that all the necessary
information is recorded. Omissions or erroneously recorded data may render the samples useless.
The separator pressure must be adjusted to minimize any liquid carryover at the gas outlet.
Figure 3 helps to determine this pressure according to the theoretical gas capacity of the
horizontal separators.
Figure 3
The following gas and oil surface sampling methods are presented in decreasing sample validity
order, which means that the first method listed is more widely used. At the end of each method,
there are some special concerns about checking the disconnected bottle for leaks, installing
safety plugs, labeling the bottle and completing a sampling data sheet. These concerns are
presented in depth in the Remarks section following the presentation of all the gas and oil surface
sampling methods.
Gas Surface Sampling Methods
Five methods are described in this section. When sampling gas at the surface, enough gas
volume should be collected to allow recombination with oil at reservoir conditions.
The minimum number of separator gas samples in 20-liter bottles depends on the GOR and is
defined as follows:
If the GOR < 1500 scf/bbl, then 2 bottles are required.
If 1500 < GOR < 3000 scf/bbl , then 3 bottles are required.
If the GOR > 3000 scf/bbl, then 4 bottles are required.

Vacuum Method
This technique, the recommended one, requires a vacuum pump on the wellsite with a vacuum
gauge to determine if the bottle is properly evacuated. The minimum vacuum (maximum
pressure) allowed is 10 mmHg (10 Torr), but the recommended vacuum of 1 to 2 mmHg should
normally be obtained before sampling is attempted. It takes approximately 30 to 60 minutes to
evacuate a 20-liter bottle to this recommended void. Warming the container and/or maintaining it
in a vertical position during purging to allow condensation to drain out can reduce the possibility
of accumulating condensed hydrocarbons in the sample as a result of cooling. The connecting
line between the separator and the bottle should be purged with separator gas. Then, the gas is
allowed to flow in the bottle until separator pressure is reached. Figure 4 describes how to
evacuate the gas bottle.
1. The minimum vacuum allowed is 10 mmHg (10 Torr), however, the
recommended vacuum is 1 to 2 mmHg. It takes approximately 30 to
60 minutes to evacuate a 20-liter bottle.
Figure 4
Figure 5 illustrates the vacuum method for gas sampling. Figure 5 also shows the status of the
equipment at the end of step 8.
1. Connect the top of the bottle to the separator gas sampling outlet
line.
2. Start with all valves closed.
3. Open valve 1, 2 and 3. The pressure gauge should read the separator
pressure. Close valve 1.
4. Open valve 1, then close valve 1. Open valve 4 to drain gas. Close valve
4. Check for leaks. Repeat this step five times.
5. Open valve 1. The pressure gauge should read the separator pressure.
6. Crack open valve 5 to slowly fill up the gas bottle (approximately 10
minutes for a 10-liter bottle). There should be no appreciable pressure
drop at the pressure gauge.
7. When the approximate filling time is completed, check the pressure
gauge. It should read the separator pressure. Open valve 5
completely. The pressure reading should not change.
8. Close valve 5 and valve 2. Open valve 4 to drain gas. The pressure
gauge should read zero. Close valve 4.
9. Open valve 5. If the gauge does not read the separator pressure, valve
5 is partially plugged and the bottle is not full. Continue sampling by
starting again with step 6.
10. If the gauge reads the separator pressure, close valve 5, then valve 1.
Open valve 2. Open valve 4 to drain the gas.
11. Disconnect the bottle. Verify that there are no leaks at the valves.
Install the safety plugs and label the bottle. Complete the sampling
sheet.
Figure 5
Mercury Displacement Method
This method is decreasingly used due to the stringent environmental regulations about mercury.
The bottle, which must be made of steel, is filled with mercury and its top valve connected to the
separator gas sampling outlet line. The bottom valve is slowly opened to drain the mercury in a
graduated flask. The gas enters at the top of the sampling bottle and the mercury flow rate is
carefully controlled by the bottom valve to avoid any drop in pressure. The pressure is read by a
gauge connected at the bottom valve of the bottle. This valve is closed when all but 20 to 30cc of
mercury is collected in the measuring flask. Figure 6 illustrates this technique and shows the
status of the equipment after step 7.
line.
3. Open valve 1, then close valve 1. Open valve 3 to drain the gas from
the line. Then, close valve 3. Check for leaks. Repeat this step five
times.
4. Open valve 1, then valve 4. Wait a few minutes for pressure
stabilization.
5. Open valve 5, then valve 6. The pressure gauge should read the
separator pressure plus approximately 6 psi (mercury hydrostatic
head).
6. Slowly open valve 7 to ensure that no appreciable pressure drop at
the pressure gauge exists.
7. Let the gas slowly displace all but 20 to 30cc of mercury, which should
take approximately 20 minutes depending on the bottle volume.
8. Close valve 7. Wait a few minutes for pressure stabilization.
9. Close valve 4, then valve 1. Open valve 3 and check for leaks. Then,
close valve 3.
10. Close valve 5. Open valve 7 to drain the mercury left in the bottom
line.
11. Disconnect the bottle. Verify that there are no leaks at the bottle
valves. Install safety plugs and label the bottle. Complete the sampling
sheet.
Figure 6
Air Displacement and Purging Method
This technique consists of filling a bottle with the separator gas by opening the top valve of the
bottle and purging it by throttling with the bottom valve. The container should be kept warm
(i.e., at separator temperature) during the purge to avoid any condensation of the gas in the bottle
in which case the sample will not be representative. When several bottle volumes of gas have
been purged through the bottle, the sample is collected. Figure 7 describes this method. This
figure also shows the status of the equipment at the end of the procedure.
line.
3. Open valve 2 and valve 3.
4. Open valve 1. The pressure gauge should read the separator
pressure. Note this reading. Close valve 1, then open valve 4 to drain
gas. Close valve 4. Check for leaks. Repeat this step five times.
5. Slowly open valve 5.
6. Slowly open valve 1 until the pressure gauge reads 75% of the
separator pressure. Close valve 1.
7. Open valve 6 to drain gas to atmospheric pressure. Close valve 6.
8. Repeat steps 6 and 7, seven times (twelve times if the separator
pressure is below 100 psi).
9. Slowly open valve 1 and fill the bottle to 100% separator pressure.
10. Close valve 5.
11. Close valve 2 and open valve 4 to drain gas. The pressure gauge
should read zero psi. Close valve 4.
12. Open valve 5. If the gauge does not read the separator pressure,
valve 5 is partially plugged. Continue sampling by starting again at
step 5.
13. If the gauge reads the separator pressure, close valve 5, then valve
1. Open valve 2. Open valve 4 to drain gas.
sheet.
Figure 7
During the purging procedure, the bottle is filled up at 75% of separator pressure to avoid
condensation. This is especially important when it is not possible to heat the bottle to separator
temperature. The filling procedure has to be slowed down or stopped and restarted when there is
significant cooling across valve 1.
Air Displacement and Circulating Method
This method consists of circulating a certain amount of separator gas through the bottle before
taking the sample. The setup is similar to the "Air Displacement and Purging Method," but a gas
or air flowmeter or a gas meter is attached to the bottom valve of the bottle to measure the
volume of gas passing through the bottle. A transparent tube is used to connect the meter and the
bottle.
The following equations develop the calculations necessary to obtain the volume of gas to
circulate using this sampling method. The volume of the gas needed is calculated as ten times the
product of absolute pressure and the volume of the bottle in a coherent unit system. The
following sample calculation uses liters and atmospheres.
Figure 8 illustrates this technique and shows the status of the equipment at the end of step 7.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Connect the bottle as shown.

Start with all valves closed.
Open valves 2 and 3.
Open valve 1. The pressure gauge should read the separator pressure.
Close valve 1, then open valve 4 to drain gas. Close valve 4. Check for
leaks. Repeat this step five times.
5. Open valve 1, then slowly open valve 5 to maintain the smallest
possible pressure drop.
6. When the bottle pressure at the gauge reaches the separator
pressure, open valve 6.
7. Let gas circulate until the volume required by calculation passed
through the meter.
8. Close valve 6 and wait for pressure stabilization.
9. Close valve 5 and valve 1.
10. Open valve 4 to drain gas from the top line.
11. Disconnect the bottle. Verify there are no leaks at the valves. Install
Figure 8
the safety plugs and label the bottle. Complete the sampling sheet.
If it is not possible to maintain the bottle at separator pressure during gas circulation and/or
condensate is appearing at the bottom valve, the circulation must be performed at a lower
pressure (e.g., 75% of separator pressure). This is done by controlling the flow at the separator
output (valve 1) and at the bottle lower valve (valve 6). If a significant cooling of the control
valves occurs, purging should be reduced or stopped temporarily. When the volume calculated is
attained, the bottom valve is closed, the pressure on the gauge rises to the separator pressure and
the top valve is closed.
Water Displacement Method
This method is similar to the mercury displacement method, the bottle being initially filled with
water and bled off slowly as the sample of gas is collected.
The major problem with this method is sampling fluid which contains H2S or CO2 or both. These
corrosive gases are easily absorbed by water and will react with steel containers. The
concentrations of these gases read at the wellsite will certainly be different than those read at the
PVT lab. Thus, the type of water used is very important to minimize these liabilities and the
following three possibilities are given in order of decreasing reliability:
Separator water
This is the best choice if the well is producing water at the surface
because this water is already saturated with separator gas. After
ensuring that no hydrocarbon liquid (oil or condensate) is produced at
the separator water tapping point, the sample bottle should be filled
by gravity from the bottom with water at the separator pressure. It
may not be possible to install the bottle below the water output of the
separator, but the separator pressure should be sufficient to make the
water flow. Before filling up the bottle, water is circulated for five (5)
bottle volumes as shown in Figure 9 (right). Take note that the
pressure gauge is attached to the lower valve of the bottle as it is for
oil sampling. Figure 10 (below) illustrates the water displacement
method and also shows the status of the equipment at the end of step
7.
Figure 9
1.
2.
3.
4.

Open valve 2 and valve 3.
Open valve 1. The pressure gauge 1 should read the separator
pressure. Close valve 1. Open valve 4 to drain gas. Close valve 4. Check
for leaks. Repeat this step five times.
5. Open valve 1. The pressure gauge 1 should read the separator
pressure.
6. Open valve 5, 6 and 7. The pressure gauge 2 should read the separator
pressure.
7. Slowly open valve 8 and bleed off water maintaining the pressure
gauges 1 and 2 at the separator pressure. If the bottle temperature is
below the separator temperature, leave 2% of the water in the bottle
to avoid losing any condensate which may have formed during filling.
Otherwise, bleed water until the first gas bubbles appear at valve 8.
8. Close valves 6 and 5.
9. Close valve 1 and open valve 4 to drain gas from the top line.
sheet.
Figure 10
Salt water
This can be seawater or fresh water saturated with sodium chloride. This method is used only if
the water cut is zero. The salt water will reduce the amount of light components from the gas
that pass into solution. The setup is identical to the separator water procedure except that this
method has no bottom pressure gauge and valves 7 and 8 disappear. This procedure also starts
by purging the top line. The following steps illustrate this procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Open valve 2 and valve 3.
Open valve 1. The pressure gauge should read the separator pressure. Close valve 1. Open valve
4 to drain gas. Close valve 4. Check for leaks. Repeat this step five times.
Open valve 1. The pressure gauge should read the separator pressure.
Slowly open valve 5.
Slowly open valve 6 to bleed off salt water. Maintain the sampling pressure between two and
three times atmospheric pressure (30 to 40 psi) with valve 6. This pressure should be well below
the separator pressure since it prevents the dissolving of too much gas components in the
water. The amount of dissolved gas is directly proportional to the pressure. The drawback is that
the gas will likely be in the two-phase region and therefore part of the heavy components will
be lost.
Close valve 6 when gas appears.
9. Allow pressure to build up to separator pressure.

10. Close valve 5, then valve 1. Open valve 4 to drain gas from the top line.
11. Disconnect the bottle. Verify that there are no leaks at the valves. Install the safety plugs and
label the bottle. Complete the sampling sheet.
Fresh water
Preferably not used when H2S or CO2 or both are present in the effluent. The water cut must be
zero and the procedure is similar to the previous one with all water bled off during sampling.
Fresh water does not prevent the lightest components of gas to dissolve into solution and thus
modifying its composition.
Table 2 summarizes the gas sampling methods presented in this section.
Summary of Gas Surface Sampling Methods

Methods
Advantages
Drawbacks
Field of
Application
Equipment
No limits
Filling under
D vacuum
E
C
R
E
A
S
I
N
Mercury
G
displacement
S
A Air
M displacement
P
L
- No heating
Vacuum pump
- Fast
and gauge
- High volumes
needed
sampled
- No heating
- No vacuum
pump
- Only stainless
steel bottles can
be used, and may
be of low
volume
- Reaction between
mercury, H2S
and other sulfur
compounds
- Large volume of
mercury needed
- High volumes Risk of

sampled
condensation
- Vacuum pump
- Manifold + valves,
vacuum gauge and
pressure gauge
No limits
No limits
- Mercury
- Flasks
- Stainless steel
bottles
- Maniford + valve and
pressure gauge
- Safety equipment
- Flowmeter
- Manifold + valve and
E (a) Purging
(b) Circulation
V
A
L
I
D
I
T
Y
- No vacuum
pump
pressure gauge
due to cooling
- High volumes
Risk of
sampled
condensation
- No vacuum
due to cooling
pump
No limits
- Flowmeter
pressure gauge
- Heating system
No limits

pressure gauge
- Separator water
- Flasks
Water
displacement
(a) Separator
water
- High volumes
sampled
- Long duration
- No vacuum
pump
(b) Salt water
- Long duration
- High volumes
- Possible change
sampled
of composition
Preferably with
no H2S or CO2
present

pressure gauge
- High volumes
- Long duration
(c) Fresh water sampled
- Possible change
- No vacuum
of composition
pump
Preferably with
no H2S or CO2
present

pressure gauge-
Table 2
Oil Surface Sampling Methods
As stated earlier in this training page, several methods exist to obtain oil samples at the surface.
They are described in this section.
As a precautionary measure, make sure that the upper and lower valves of the separator oil sight
glass are closed prior to its attachment.
The number of oil samples may vary with the client's needs but a minimum of three oil bottles of
around 600cc each is necessary to ensure representativity and sufficient quantity for a normal
PVT study.
All oil surface sampling methods intend to keep the separator liquid at or above its bubblepoint
pressure until it is transferred inside the sample bottle. This is achieved by keeping the sample at
separator pressure and at or below separator temperature.
The temperature of the sample should be maintained at or below the separator temperature to
prevent gas liberation from the oil which could interfere with the bottle filling operation. When
the separator temperature is below the ambient temperature, the sample bottle should be cooled
either in water or in an ice and water mixture or in an ice, salt and water mixture.
Mercury-Free Displacement Method
This method is more and more widely used as it permits the elimination of mercury usage in the
field. Thus, all the environmental and safety constraints concerning mercury are taken away. It is
Schlumberger's recommended procedure.
This technique involves a sampling bottle equipped with a piston which separates the sample
from the displacing fluid initially set at a pressure higher than the separator pressure to avoid a
flash liberation in the bottle. The displacing fluid (hydraulic oil) is noncompressible and replaces
the mercury. The piston bottle features a very low dead volume on the sample side which needs
to be vacuumed before starting the sampling procedure.
Figure 11 describes the piston bottle preparation and the sampling technique. Figure 10 also
shows the status of the equipment at the end of step 11. Note that in this sampling method, valve
5 is black and valve 6 is blue.
1. Start with all valves closed. Open valves 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. Drain
some hydraulic oil through valve 9.
2. Close valve 9 and activate the hydraulic pump to pressurize the bottle
1000 psi above the pressure of the oil to be sampled. Close valve 8.
3. Slowly open valve 2 and flush the top line to the bucket. Close valve 3.
4. Connect a vacuum pump to valve 4. Create a vacuum on the line
between valve 3, the dead volume in the bottle and the vacuum
pump. Close valve 4 and remove the pump.
5. Open valve 3.
6. Slowly open valve 9. The pressure at the gauge should drop to the
separator pressure. Drain 660cc of hydraulic oil, which should take
approximately 20 minutes. Then, close valve 9.
7. Wait for pressure stabilization. Close valves 2 and 5.
8. Open valve 4 and bleed off the top line. Measure the bottle
temperature.
9. Slowly open valve 9 and drain another 70cc of hydraulic oil to create a
10% gas cap in the bottle for safe transportation.
10. Close valve 9. Note the new pressure on the pressure gauge and the
temperature of the bottle.
11. Close valve 6. Disconnect the bottle. Verify that there are no leaks at
the valves. Install the safety plugs and label the bottle. Complete the
sampling sheet.
Figure 11
The following multimedia provides a dynamic view of the preparation, operation and quality
assurance of oil sampling with a piston bottle.
Surface Oil Sampling with a Mercury-Free Bottle Multimedia

Objective: To learn about the preparation, operation and assurance of surface oil sampling
Comment: This multimedia depicts the surface sampling of oil with a mercury-free bottle. It
describes the preparation of the bottle, the sampling of oil without H2S, the sampling of oil
containing H2S and the quality assurance check to ensure the sample integrity. Oil is transferred
from the separator to the sample bottle for pressure-volume-temperature (PVT) analysis.
This animation does not demonstrate the difference between the non-H2S and the H2S operation.
Mercury Displacement Method
Despite the fact that this method produces excellent results, it is decreasingly used due to the
more stringent environmental regulations about mercury.
The sampling bottle must be made of steel. The bottle that will contain the oil is first filled up
with mercury and connected to the sampling point at the separator oil sight glass. The mercury is
then slowly withdrawn from the bottle and replaced by the oil coming from the separator. The
volume of the bottle is known and the flask used to drain the mercury is graduated so it is easy to
control the quantity of oil in the bottle. Figure 12 describes how to fill up the bottle with
mercury. Water covers the mercury to prevent mercury vapors from escaping. Figure 11 also
shows the status of the equipment after step 1.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The bottle is held vertically. Open valve 4, then valve 5.

When the mercury overflows, close valve 5, then valve 4.
Tilt the bottle to evacuate the mercury trapped at the top of valve 4.
Disconnect the upper tube.
Lower the mercury container or lift the sampling bottle to have valve 5
above the mercury level in the container.
6. Disconnect the lower tube.
Figure 12
Figure 12 illustrates the mercury displacement method. At the end of the procedure, an extra
amount of mercury (i.e., 10% of the oil volume contained in the bottle) is removed to create a
gas cushion (gas cap) for safety reasons. As the gas is highly compressible, it will absorb any
expansion of the oil that can be caused by an exposure of the bottle to high temperatures during
shipment, which eliminates the risk of explosion. For example, a 500cc bottle full of oil which is
submitted to a change of 30oC will see an increase of pressure inside the bottle exceeding 4500
psia.
Figure 13 shows the status of the equipment at the end of step 11.
1. Connect the top of the bottle to the separator oil sight glass.
3. Open valve 1, then valve 2 to allow fresh oil to come to the oil sight
glass. Close valve 1, then valve 2.
4. Open valve 1, then close valve 1. Open valve 3 to drain the oil from the
line. Then, close valve 3. Check for leaks. Repeat this step five times.
5. Open valve 1, then valve 4. Wait a few minutes for pressure
stabilization.
6. Open valve 5, then valve 6. The pressure gauge should read the
separator pressure plus approximately 6 psi (mercury hydrostatic
head).
7. Slowly open valve 7 to ensure that no appreciable pressure drop at
the pressure gauge exists.
8. Let the oil slowly displace 550cc of mercury, which should take
approximately 20 minutes depending on the oil viscosity.
9. Close valve 7. Wait a few minutes for pressure stabilization.
10. Close valve 4, then valve 1. Open valve 3 and check for leaks. Then,
close valve 3.
11. Open valve 7 and drain 55cc of mercury to provide a 10% gas cap for
transportation. Record the new pressure at the pressure gauge and
the temperature of the bottle.
12. Close valve 5. Disconnect the bottle. Verify that there are no leaks at
the bottle valves. Install safety plugs and label the bottle. Complete
the sampling sheet.
Figure 13
Displacement and Equilibrium with Separator Gas Method
This method is used when low viscosity fluids (condensates and volatile oils) must be sampled
when mercury-free bottles are not available and when mercury sampling is forbidden . Prior to
sampling, the bottle should be filled up with separator gas using either the vacuum method or the
air displacement and purging method, both found in the Gas Surface Sampling section. Figure 14
illustrates the Displacement and Equilibrium with Separator Gas method and shows the status of
the equipment at the end of step 8.
1. Connect the bottle to the separator oil sight glass as shown.

3. Open valve 5, then valve 6 to allow fresh oil to come to the oil sight
glass. Close valve 5, then valve 6.
4. Open valve 5, then close valve 5. Open valve 7 to drain oil from the
line. Close valve 7. Check for leaks. Repeat this step five times.
5. Open valves 1 and 2 to allow gas to come inside the bottle.
6. Open slowly valves 4 and 7 to flush the bottle with gas. Close valve 7.
7. Open valve 5. The gas contained in the bottle is displaced by the
liquid.
8. Adjust the height of the bottle such a way that 10% of the bottle
volume is left for a gas cap.
9. Wait five minutes for stabilization. The pressure gauge should read the
separator pressure.
10. Close valves 2, 4, 5 and 1.
11. Open valve 3 to drain the top line. Then, close valve 3.
12. Open valve 7 to drain the oil from the bottom line. Then, close valve 7.
13. Disconnect the bottle. Verify there are no leaks at the bottle valves.
Install safey plugs and label the bottle. Complete the sampling sheet.
Figure 14
Gas or Air Displacement Method
This method is used when low viscosity fluids (condensates and volatile oils) must be sampled
when mercury-free bottles are not available and when mercury sampling is forbidden . High
viscosity fluids will not flow properly by gravity. The bottle initially contains air or separator
gas. The 10% gas cap is made by releasing, as quickly as possible, 10% of the bottle volume of
liquid at the bottom valve. Figure 15 illustrates this technique and shows the status of the
equipment after step 8.
1. Fill the bottle with separator gas using the "Gas Sampling: Air
Displacement and Purging Method" (at least 7 times at 75% of
separator pressure and up to 12 times if separator pressure is less
than 100 psi).
2. Connect the bottle as shown.
4. Open valve 1, then close valve 1. Open valve 3 to drain the oil from the
line. Then, close valve 3. Check for leaks. Repeat this step five times.
5. Open valves 1, 4, 5 and 7. Wait until the pressure gauge reads the
separator pressure.
6. Slowly open valve 6.
7. Purge three oil bottle volumes through valve 6. This is to avoid any
two-phase segregation during filling.
8. Close valve 6, then valve 1. The pressure gauge is still at separator
pressure.
9. Open valve 3 to release 10% of liquid volume to create a 10% gas cap.
Close valve 3. Note the new pressure at the gauge.
Figure 15
10. Close valves 5 and 4. Open valves 3 and 6 to bleed off pressure in the
lines.
11. Disconnect the bottle. Verify there are no leaks at the bottle valves.
Install safety plugs and label the bottle. Complete the sampling sheet.
Water Displacement Method
This method is similar to the mercury displacement method, except that the bottle is initially
filled with water and bled off slowly as the sample of oil is collected.
The major problem with this method is sampling fluid which contains H2S or CO2 or both. These
corrosive gases are easily absorbed by water and will react with steel containers. The
concentrations of these gases read at the wellsite will certainly be different than those read at the
PVT lab. Thus, the type of water used is very important to minimize these liabilities and the
following three possibilities are given in order of decreasing reliability:
Separator water
This is the best choice if the well is producing water at the surface because this water is already
saturated with separator gas.
Salt water
This can be seawater or fresh water saturated with sodium chloride.
Fresh water
Preferably not used when H2S or CO2 or both are present in the effluent.
Table 3 summarizes the oil sampling methods presented in this section.
Summary of Oil or Condensate Surface Sampling Methods

Methods
Advantages
Drawbacks
Field of
Application
No limits
Displacement
using a piston or
D membrane-type
E bottle
C
No mercury
- Vacuum pump
and gauge needed
- Dead volume
Equipment
- Vacuum pump and

gauge
- PSR-F or membrane-type
bottle
- Flasks
- Hydraulic oil and pump
- Maniford + valves and
R
E
A
S
I Mercury
N displacement
G
Displacement
and equilibrium
S with separator
A gas
M
P
L
E Gas or air
displacement
V
A
L
I
D
I
Water
T
displacement
Y
pressure gauge
- Mercury safety
Liquid sample - Reaction
under
between
monophasic mercury, H2S
and other sulfur
conditions
compounds
No mercury
Slight modification
of liquid
composition
due to gas cap
must
be reported.
- No mercury
- Easy
sampling
Risk of slight
modification of
liquid composition
due to gas cap
formation
technique
- No mercury
- Liquid sample Reaction between
under
CO2, H2S and
monophasic
water
conditions
Table 3
No limits
- Mercury
- Flasks
- Stainless steel bottles
- Manifold + valves and
pressure gauge
Liquid of low
viscosity
- Flasks
pressure gauge
No limits
- Flasks
pressure gauge
Not to be used
if
CO2 or H2S
present
- Flasks
pressure gauge
Remarks
The last step of every method presented mentions that the bottle should be verified for leaks,
which simply consists of immersing both valves of the bottle in a bucket of water and looking for
bubbles. If a leak is detected for an oil or condensate sample, the sample is invalid and sampling
should be repeated. A leaking gas bottle should also be rejected unless the leak is cured before a
significant quantity of gas is lost and the bottle pressure is still within 2% of the separator
pressure. This leak test is illustrated in the "Surface Oil Sampling with a Mercury-Free Bottle"
multimedia.
This step also describes that the bottle must be sealed with the safety plugs (two or four
depending on the bottle type) screwed on both valves. These valves are secured with a wire
closed by a lead seal so that opening the valves will deliberately break the wire. The "Surface Oil
Sampling with a Mercury-Free Bottle" multimedia covers these points as well.
It is also very important to label the bottle as soon as sampling is achieved. This is done by
placing a label inside the wire loop. This label indicates that the bottle is full. In case of H2S,
another label marked "H2S" is inserted through the wire. Figures 16 and 17 show gas and oil
valves sealed with the wire and label attached to them.
Figure 16
Figure 17
The bottles used in the recommended Schlumberger sampling techniques are further described in
the gas sampling bottle (SBG-C) and oil sampling bottle (PSR-F) and (PSRA-F) training pages.
Finally, a sampling data sheet containing all the pertinent information regarding the sampling
operation must be properly filled out and one copy will accompany the bottle. A typical sampling
data sheet is shown in Figure 18.
Figure 18
Special Surface Sampling Cases

Hydrogen Sulphide and Carbon Dioxide
H2S and CO2 concentrations in a sample can change due to reaction, adsorption or absorption
during sampling, transportation and storage. Laboratory analyses frequently report reduced
concentrations because of these phenomena.
H2S and CO2 can react chemically with the steel containers especially if water is present.
Concentration measurements of these gases must be performed at the wellsite immediately after
sampling to prevent their losses from the fluid's composition which could render a sour sample
into a sweet sample.
For gas samples, a way to reduce this problem is to fill the container with the gas to be sampled
and allow some time for the walls to be saturated with the absorbed gases before it is evacuated
and filled again with the sample. Then, the concentrations will be much less affected.
Multistage Separation System
In the case of multistage separation (more than one separator in use), gas and liquid samples
must be taken from the first (high pressure) separator. In some circumstances, liquid samples
could be taken from lower pressure separators, but only if samples of gas are taken from all
higher pressure separators. All gas flow rates must be measured.
Wellhead Sampling
Wellhead sampling is not recommended because it usually implies to work with high pressures
and high flowrates. In addition, it is difficult to know what phase of the flow is collected.
Sampling at the separator is much safer and gives more chances to obtain representative samples.
The following paragraphs describe in which conditions oil and gas samples can be obtained at
the wellhead.
Oil Sampling
Oil sampling at the wellhead is only possible when the wellhead pressure is higher than the
bubblepoint pressure at the wellhead temperature. This condition may be achieved with low flow
rates but a good estimate of the bubblepoint pressure is needed.
It is recommended to take separator samples at the same time if an unexpected diphasic flow
occurs at the wellhead giving non representative samples.
Common sampling methods should be used but it is very important to verify that the equipment
(e.g., bottles, valves, gauges and lines) is rated with a working pressure above the wellhead
pressure.
Gas Sampling
Gas sampling at the wellhead is suitable for dry gas wells where no liquid is formed in the
separator. In this case, a wellhead sample will be identical to a separator sample.
For gas condensate wells, since they usually produce two phases at the surface, this technique is
possible only when monophasic flow is expected at the wellhead, but separator samples should
be taken anyway.
Common sampling methods should be used (e.g., usually the vacuum method) but as for the oil
sampling at the surface, verify that the equipment is rated for a working pressure higher than the
wellhead pressure.
Safety
The following is a list of key safety considerations for surface sampling:
A primary consideration is the need for a vapor space within the liquid sample (i.e., a gas cap).
Thermal expansion of the liquid could cause the container to exceed its pressure limits if the
temperature rises. An average increase of 1oC (1.8oF) increases the pressure inside the bottle by
10 kg/cm2 (142 psi).
Sample containers should be kept at reasonable surface temperatures and not stored in direct
sun or placed in hot areas.
Care must be taken to protect the container, especially the end valves, during shipping and
handling. End protectors must be used.
The valves on each end of the sample container must be fitted with safety plugs to prevent
accidental opening during transportation.
When samples contain toxic gas like H2S, it must be labeled on the bottle.
Pressure ratings of the bottles, connections, valves and fittings must be strictly observed.
Every effort should be made to avoid using mercury due to its high toxicity and to its property of
forming irreversible organometallic compounds when found in high concentrations in living
species.
If sampling with mercury, strictly follow the safety rules and procedures.
If sampling gas with with mercury, do not use an aluminium-alloy bottle. Mercury corrodes
aluminium and forms an amalgam.
Before using any sampling bottle, verify that the official pressure test is not overdue. It is a good
practice to have a safety factor of six months for transportation and storage delays.
Vacuum pump and vacuum gauge are not classified as explosion proof equipment. Therefore
they must be used in safe areas.
Whenever H2S is expected or suspected, strictly observe all H2S safey rules.
Government regulations concerning the transportation of flammable and pressurized fluids
must be followed (Department of Transportation (DOT) and International Air Transport
Association (IATA)).
All sampling equipment falls under the scope of the Schlumberger Wireline and Testing Pressure
Operations Guidelines.
Summary
following:
Well conditioning prior to surface sampling

Gas surface sampling methods
o Vacuum method
o Mercury displacement method
o Air displacement and purging method
o Air displacement and circulating method
o Water displacement method
Oil surface sampling methods
o Mercury-free displacement method
o Mercury displacement method
o Displacement and equilibrium with separator gas method
o Gas or air displacement method
o Water displacement method
Special surface sampling methods
Safety points about surface sampling
Self Test
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
What is the purpose of the cleanup period?

Why should a well be produced at a constant GOR prior sampling?
How do you determine the proper flow rate for sampling?
What parameters do you monitor to ensure a stable flow?
Why should oil and gas samples be taken at the same time?
Why does the sampling procedure with a piston bottle recommend pressurizing the bottle at a
pressure higher than the separator pressure?
Why is it very important to create a gas cap in oil bottles?
Describe the oil sampling method using a piston bottle.
Examine the gas sampling method using salt or fresh water and discuss its liabilities. How can we
minimize them?
When sampling oil in a bottle at a temperature higher than that of the separator, which natural
process occurs? Condensation or vaporization?
WATER SAMPLING
Introduction
Objectives
Equipment
Safety
Summary
Self Test
Introduction
The goal of sampling water from the formation is to obtain a representative water sample which
will be analyzed to obtain either its various chemical or physical properties or both. The
chemical analyses of waters produced with oil are very useful in oil production problems such as
identifying the source of intrusive water, planning waterflood and saltwater disposal projects and
treating the water to prevent corrosion problems. Electrical logging interpretation requires a
knowledge of the dissolved solids concentration and composition of the interstitial water. The
formation water properties are also required for material balance calculations particularly when
large volumes of water are produced or when the water provides energy to the hydrocarbons
production process. As opposed to oil and gas, the composition of formation water is not as
dependent on temperature and pressure variations. Thus, the sampling procedures are in most
cases simpler.
Water samples can be obtained at the surface from the separator or the wellhead, downhole with
a subsurface sampling tool or with a drill stem test (DST) sampling tool placed in the DST string.
Openhole tools like the repeat formation tester (RFT) and the modular formation dynamic tester
(MDT) also permit you to obtain water samples downhole. These tools are described in the
Wireline section of the PEPTEC on-line training.
Objectives
Upon completion of this training page, you should be able to complete the following tasks:
Identify the purpose of water sampling.

Differentiate between a pressurized water sample and a dead water sample.
Discuss how to obtain a water sample at the wellhead.
Discuss how to obtain a water sample at the separator.
List two techniques for obtaining a water sample at downhole conditions.
No single procedure is universally applicable for obtaining a sample of oilfield water. It really
depends on the information needed. Water sampling procedures can be divided in two categories:
Obtain a nonpressurized (dead) water sample

Obtain a pressurized water sample
Obtaining a Nonpressurized Water Sample
This technique is used when we want to know the type and concentration of the salts contained
in the water. These major dissolved salts or inorganic constituents are sodium, calcium,
magnesium, chloride, bicarbonate and sulfate. We mainly refer to the salts as water salinity.
They participate in the salinity of the water.
The following figures illustrate three different ways of obtaining this type of a sample at the
surface.
Figure 1a illustrates one method used to obtain an air-free water sample. A plastic or rubber tube
can be used to transfer the sample from a sample valve into the container. The tube and the bottle
should be flushed to remove any foreign material before a sample is taken. After flushing the
system, the end of the tube is placed in the bottom of the container and several volumes of fluid
are displaced before the tube is slowly removed from the container and the container is sealed.
Figure 1a
Figure 1b
Figure 1b illustrates an alternative to the previous method. The sample container, placed into a
larger container, is filled from the bottom until the water overflows both containers. The sample
is then capped under water to prevent air contamination.
Figure 2
Figure 2 shows how to obtain a watersample at the wellhead when oil and water are produced
together. A simple oil and water separator is made. The separation container is first rinsed with
well fluid and then filled from the bottom. An oil-free water sample is obtained from the bottom
of the separator.
These methods permit the measurement of the pH of a water at the sampling point. The pH may
indicate a possible scale-forming or corrosion tendencies of a water. The pH may also show the
presence of drilling-mud filtrate or well treatment chemicals. It is common to see the pH of a
formation water rising during storage at the laboratory because of the formation of carbonate
ions as a result of bicarbonate decomposition.
Soluble iron in the water can precipitate out unless care is taken to keep the oxygen out of the
sample. Thus, a good practice is to take two identical water samples in plastic containers and
acidize one with a solution of hydrochloric acid to fix the iron and keep it in solution until
analysis.
Every sample taken should be clearly labelled with all pertinent data.
Obtaining a Pressurized Water Sample
This technique is used when we want to know the kind and amount of the different gases
dissolved in the water. Most of these gases are hydrocarbons. However, other gases such as CO2,
N2 and H2S are often present.
Usually, a pressurized water sample can be taken at the following locations:
Separator water outlet

This method is identical to the mercury-free displacement method for oil sampling. This bottle is
filled with hydraulic oil or with a mixture of water and glycol at a pressure higher than the
separator pressure. Water enters the bottle on one side of the piston as the transferring fluid is
slowly withdrawn from the other side of the piston. It is particularly important to maintain a
minimum pressure drop across the bottle to ensure that gases stay dissolved in the water, the
solubility of the gases being proportional to the pressure. When the bottle is full of water, a gas
cap is made for safety transportation.
If corrosive gases like H2S and CO2 are expected and need to be measured precisely, a
good practice is to fill the bottle with the water to be sampled, leave it for awhile before it
is evacuated and filled again with water destined for analysis. This technique will limit
the loss of some elements by allowing the walls of the bottle to become saturated with the
adsorbed chemicals.
Downhole with a bottomhole sampler

This method uses a sampling tool run either on electric wireline or slickline and lowered in a
water zone. It permits you to obtain a sample of water at downhole conditions. At the surface,
the sample is transferred under pressure in a bottle. More details about this method are
available in the bottomhole sampling training page.
Downhole with a DST sampling tool

A sampling tool is part of the DST string and is activated by increasing the annulus pressure. This
tool, a fullbore annular sampling chamber (FASC), will trap a sample and when full, will
automatically close. It cannot be reopened downhole. At the surface, the sample can be
transferred in a bottle.
Equipment
This topic describes only the containers used to sample dead water at the surface. The equipment
or tools used to sample water under pressure at the surface or downhole are described in separate
training pages. These tools are the bottomhole sampler, the piston bottle and the FASC.
Containers that are used for water sampling at the surface are made from polyethylene, rubber,
metal or borosilicate glass.
Glass containers are not recommended because glass will adsorb various ions such as manganese
and iron and may contribute boron or silica to the water sample.
Metal containers are not recommended either because they can yield abnormally high iron
content values.
Plastic or rubber containers are not suitable if the sample is to be analyzed for organic contents.
They themselves, contain organic constituents and can contribute to the water sample.
The most satisfactory container is probably the one made of polyethylene but not all
polyethylenes are usable because some of them contain high amounts of metal brought by
catalysts during manufacturing. The metal content of the polyethylene should be obtained from
the manufacturer before use. In fact, the safest way to get the appropriate containers is to obtain
them from the client or the laboratory which will analyse the samples.
Safety
The following is a list of key safety considerations for sampling water:
When obtaining a pressurized water sample at the surface, create a 10% gas cap in the bottle.
The gas will absorb any thermal expansion of the water that could be caused by accidental
exposure of the bottle to high temperature during storage or shipment. Remember that an
average increase of 1oC (1.8oF) increases the pressure inside the bottle by 10 kg/cm2 (142 psi).
When samples contain toxic gas like H2S, it must be labelled on the bottle.
Every effort should be made to avoid using mercury due to its high toxicity and to its property to
form irreversible organometallic compounds when found in high concentrations in living
species.
If sampling with mercury, strictly follow the safety rules and procedures for mercury use.
Whenever H2S is expected or suspected, srictly follow all H2S safety rules.
Summary
In this training page, we have presented the following:
The goal of sampling formation water

Various techniques to sample water at the surface
How to obtain a pressurized water sample at the separator
How to obtain a downhole water sample
The advantages and disadvantages of using each type of sampling bottle
Safety considerations for sampling water
Self Test
1.
2.
3.
4.
Why do we need to sample water from an oil reservoir?

Name three methods of obtaining formation water samples.
Describe one method to recover a water sample at the surface which is free of air.
Why is it important to keep a minimum pressure drop across the bottle when sampling water
under pressure?
5. For a water sample containing H2S gas, it is not unusual to observe a difference between the H2S
readings made at the wellsite and the readings made at the laboratory. Why? How can we
reduce this difference?
6. What type of container would you recommend for sampling dead water at the surface?
7. Is it possible to get samples of formation water during openhole operations? How?
BOTTOMHOLE SAMPLING
Introduction
Objectives
Safety
Summary
Self Test
Introduction
In the oil industry, bottomhole sampling usually means a method of trapping a volume of
formation fluid downhole. This training page describes more specifically the method which uses
a pressurized container suspended on a cable inside the well close to the productive interval. This
technique is used in the following situations:
Only a small volume of fluid is required.

The oil to be sampled is not so viscous that it impairs the sampler operation.
The flowing bottomhole pressure (pwf) is greater than the reservoir bubblepoint pressure (pb).
The subsurface equipment will not prevent the sampler from reaching the sampling depth or
make its retrieval difficult.
Bottomhole sampling is very often used in addition to surface sampling. The main reason being
that a sample obtained downhole using state-of-the-art rules has more of a chance to be
representative than a surface sample resulting from recombination, which heavily depends on the
accuracy of the gas/oil ratio (GOR).
Bottomhole sampling requires extra rig time (e.g., 3 to 4 hours per run for a 2000 meter well)
compared to surface samples which can be taken during a flow period.
This training page requires that you be familiar with general sampling techniques and the
characteristics and behaviors of reservoir fluids.
Objectives
Compare the advantages and disadvantages of bottomhole sampling versus surface sampling.
Discuss how to prepare the well prior to bottomhole sampling.
Explain why a minimum of two bottomhole samples should be taken.
Write a complete sampling procedure including preparation, sampling, transfer and bubblepoint
determination. Break down the procedure by outlining only the key steps.
Describe how you can ensure that the samples collected are valid.
Detail the procedure to obtain an accurate field bubblepoint pressure.
Using the equipment available at the RTC, transfer a sample from the sampler to the shipping
bottle and determine its bubblepoint.
Carefully complete the bottomhole sampling sheet for every sample transferred.
This topic outlines the preparation of the well before proceeding with downhole sampling and
gives information on how to obtain and transfer a sample. It also explains how to control the
quality of a sample. It is divided into the following sections:
Well conditioning
Sampling procedures
Quality control of samples
Transfer procedure
Well Conditioning
As already mentioned in the reservoir fluid sampling training page, conditioning consists of
displacing the nonrepresentative fluid located around the wellbore with fresh and unaltered fluid
from the reservoir. This is to ensure that representative fluid is in the wellbore at the sampling
depth. Well conditioning is achieved by flowing the well and gradually reducing the flow rate to
increase the bottomhole pressure. This method also permits you to observe the surface GOR and
other characteristics like gas and oil gravities during the different flow periods.
Sometimes it is not possible to obtain a minimum stable flow rate without having the bottomhole
pressure dropping below the saturation (bubblepoint) pressure. In this case, bottomhole sampling
is performed with the well shut-in. The following are considerations about sampling with the
well flowing and sampling with the well shut-in.
Well Flowing
Bottomhole sampling is achieved with the well flowing when the bottomhole flowing pressure is
well above pb (undersaturated reservoir). The pressure at the sampling depth must be at least 100
to 200 psi higher than the saturation pressure, a good figure being 500 psi. The main objective is
to obtain a stabilized low flow rate over a period of several hours. This flow period should be
preceded by a production period long enough to eliminate all traces of contaminated oil or water.
The stable flow conditions can be verified with the following points:
Stabilized surface gas and oil flow rates and GOR

Stabilized wellhead pressure
Stabilized flowing bottomhole pressure (pwf)
Well Shut-in
Bottomhole sampling performed with the well shut-in is only done when the smallest possible
rate causes the downhole pressure to drop below the saturation pressure. Shutting in the well will
allow the pressure to build up in the wellbore. Ideally, this will redissolve the gas that has formed
near the well. The time at which sampling is done after the well has been closed, depends on the
productivity of the well. It can vary from 2 hours for a high productivity well to 72 hours for a
low productivity well. A pressure-temperature survey will be very helpful in determining the
gas-oil and oil-water interfaces. These interfaces can be easily determined by plotting the
measured pressure versus depth and noting the points of slope change as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1
When water is present, the sample should be collected just above the oil-water contact, if the
pressure at that point is at least equal to the bubblepoint pressure. If not, another well should be
considered.
Sampling Procedures
This section is presented as a list of the key steps to follow in order to obtain a representative
bottomhole sample:
The well must have been conditioned to ensure that a single-phase representative reservoir
fluid is in the wellbore at sampling depth.
A pressure and temperature survey should be run to determine fluid levels and pressures. It will
help to select the sampling depth and confirm that the well is properly conditioned.
The running speed of the sampler should be between 100 and 200 ft/min and reduced before
reaching the sampling depth.
Downhole pressure and temperature should be monitored during the filling of the sampler to
ensure that the fluid being collected stays representative. Real-time surface readout is the best
option. When this is not possible, a memory gauge attached to the sampler can be used.
The sampling depth should be as close as possible to the perforated zone to avoid a large
pressure difference between the reservoir and the sampling depth.
A clock-operated sampler should be at the sampling depth around thirty minutes before it starts
to take the sample and pulled out about fifteen minutes after the filling operation is completed.
A minimum of two representative samples should be taken for a PVT analysis.
Quality Control of Samples
Every time the sampler is retrieved at surface, the following checks should be made to ensure the
quality and the validity of the sample taken:
Read the opening pressure of the sampler.
The opening pressure of the chamber is an indication of whether any leak or loss occurred
during the trip from the bottom of the well up to the surface. Its value is not directly
comparable to the bottomhole pressure at sampling depth because of the thermal contraction
of the metal and of the fluid, but if all the opening pressures of the recovered samples are
within 2%, there is good reason to believe that the samples are representative.
Determine the bubblepoint pressure of the sample at ambient temperature.

The field bubblepoint pressure of the sample can be measured either while it is still in the
sampler or after it has been transferred into a bottle. If the bubblepoint determination is made
with the sample in the sampler, the sample will need to be recombined one more time before
the transfer. It is time consuming but the advantage is that the shipping bottle will not be
contaminated if the sample is found bad. If the bubblepoint determination is made after the
sample has been transferred into the bottle, only one recombination is necessary. In the field, it
is probably more convenient to transfer the sample into the bottle first, since it will save
operating time.
When using a sampler which features a nitrogen chamber to keep the sample monophasic, the
bubblepoint measurement has to be made in the bottle because the compressibility of the
nitrogen masks the oil compressibility.
Usually, the best way to ensure the validity of a sample is to compare its bubblepoint pressure
with the bubblepoint pressure obtained from other samples taken at the same conditions. These
pressures should be within 2%.
Before starting the transfer, the recovered fluid should be put back into a single phase (by simply
increasing its pressure) because if it is displaced under diphasic conditions, some heavier
components will be lost in the dead volume of the transfer loop and the composition of the
sample will be irremediably effected.
In some cases, the sampler chamber is sent directly to the PVT lab where all operations are
performed under controlled conditions.
Ideally, the bubblepoint pressure should be measured at bottomhole temperature but for practical
reasons, it is rarely done.
The on-site bubblepoint measurement is performed the same way as in a laboratory by
monitoring the compressibility of the oil both at monophasic and diphasic conditions. It consists
of plotting the pressure of the sample versus the amount of transferring fluid (e.g., hydraulic oil,
mercury and water) withdrawn from the sampling bottle. The fluid pressure-volume curve
obtained should exhibit a sharp change in slope, which reflects the compressibility contrast
between the liquid phase and the gas-liquid phase when the first gas bubbles appear. The field
bubblepoint pressure is the pressure read at the slope change.
The change in slope in the pressure-volume diagram (Figure 2) is usually quite obvious for low
volatility oils (black oils) but difficult to observe for high volatility oils. Thus, the bubblepoint
determination of high volatility oils is not very clear. To remedy this problem, the measurements
should start with the fluid in single phase and pressure well above the expected saturation
pressure. Since increasing the pressure does not guarantee that all gas is back in solution, the
sample should be gently rocked to increase the contact area between the two phases and
accelerate the mass transfer. Agitation is also highly recommended before the pressure value is
taken at each step during depressurization as well as giving sufficient time for this pressure to
stabilize.
Figure 2 shows the pressure-volume plot of a sample in which diphasic fluid was recompressed
to 4000 psi and decompressed with agitation at every step. A sharp change in compressibility is
obtained which facilitates the field bubblepoint reading.
Figure 2
Figure 3 shows the pressure-volume plot of the same sample without agitation. This graph
clearly demonstrates how the lack of agitation can result in a wrong and arbitrary field
bubblepoint pressure estimation with an error which could be as much as 50%.
Figure 3
The field bubblepoint pressure obtained from the graph is corrected for bottomhole temperature
(because of the temperature drop from downhole to the surface), compared to the reservoir fluid
pressure at the time of sampling and compared to the saturation pressures measured from the
other bottomhole samples. If the sample has been recovered at single phase conditions, its
bubblepoint pressure should be less than the flowing bottomhole pressure ( pb < pwf). If pb = pwf,
the reservoir fluid was saturated and if pb > pwf, it is very likely some free gas was caught with
the reservoir fluid.
For gas condensate samples, the dewpoint pressure cannot be measured by observing the change
in the fluid's compressibility. The compressibility of the first droplets of condensate appearing is
so small compared to the compressibility of the dominant gas phase that it will not influence the
compressibility of the entire system. For the time being, the determination of saturation pressures
of gases in the field is not done because it requires the use of a visual cell. The quality control is
then limited to the conformity of the opening pressure values and their comparison to pwf.
All the verifications made on a sample as described above do not guarantee a perfect control of
the quality because they are "blind" tests and do not involve any characterization of the fluid
itself. The following example illustrates the case of samples satisfying the opening and
bubblepoint pressures although they were found useless by the PVT lab:
Three samples were sent to the lab with neat depressurization diagrams exhibiting sharp contrast
in compressibility and similar opening and bubblepoint pressures. When the bottles were opened,
formation water was found in the samples because the sampling depth chosen was wrong. The
gas dissolved in the water at downhole conditions caused the fluid to show reasonably high
saturation pressures.
Today, the Schlumberger fluid property evaluation (FPE) system, available at the wellsite, can
eliminate this uncertainty. It permits you to validate the samples and to optimize the sampling
program by providing on-site measurements of fluid properties and compositional analysis.
Transfer Procedure
The sampling chamber of the bottomhole sampler cannot be used as a transportation and storage
container. Thus, the sample is transferred into a bottle suitable for shipment to a PVT laboratory.
This type of bottle is certified for shipping and storing reservoir fluids under pressure and should
have a capacity of at least 10% greater than the sampler chamber.
The transfer procedure is a delicate operation and every precaution should be taken to ensure that
the representativity of the sample is not lost between the sampler and the bottle. The lines
between the sampler and the bottle should be purged to eliminate air from the system.
Due to the temperature change from downhole to the surface, the fluid in the sampler is almost
always in a two-phase condition. To prevent losing part of the fluid during the transfer, it is
compulsory to displace the collected sample in a homogeneous and monophasic state. This is
achieved by repressurizing the sample 1000 psi above the expected bubblepoint pressure or static
bottomhole pressure (when pb cannot be estimated). This pressure will be maintained during the
transfer.
Recombining gas and oil by just increasing the pressure is a long process. It takes time for a
hydrocarbon mixture to reach its phase equilibrium under a given set of pressure, volume and
temperature conditions and time is always a constraint at the wellsite. However, agitating the
sample during the transfer will speed up the equilibrium process, which explains why a good
transfer bench features an agitation device.
When the sample has been transferred into the bottle, it is very important to drain an extra
amount of transfer fluid from the bottle (10%) to create a gas cushion which will absorb any
expansion of the liquid phase due to a possible temperature increase. This ensures that the
internal pressure will never reach or pass beyond the pressure rating of the bottle.
Before transferring a gas condensate, the sampler chamber should be heated with a heating jacket
to a temperature 2 to 4oC above the reservoir temperature because, as can be seen in Figure 4, at
downhole pressure and ambient temperature, a gas condensate can be found in the diphasic
region but also could behave as a saturated oil (when the ambient temperature becomes less than
the cricondentherm).
Figure 4
A very viscous oil may also need to be heated to the downhole temperature before its transfer
from the sampler to the bottle.
The following steps summarize the transfer procedure with the bubblepoint determination made
with the sample in the bottle:
Repressurization of the sampler chamber 1000 psi above the expected bubblepoint pressure or
static bottomhole pressure.
Displacement and agitation of the sample into the bottle at the pressure mentioned in the
previous step.
Determination of the bubblepoint pressure with agitation and pressure stability checks at every
transfer fluid withdrawing step.
Transfer of Bottomhole Sample Multimedia
This animation illustrates the recombination, agitation and transfer of an oil sample from a
bottomhole sampler into an oil bottle. It also covers the bubblepoint determination.
Objective: To understand the operating principles of transferring the bottomhole sample (BHS)
and the determination of the bubblepoint
Comment: This is a continuation of the "Surface Oil Sampling with a Mercury-Free Bottle"
animation.
Remarks: Once the sample has been transferred from the bottomhole sampler into the bottle, the
bottle should be verified for leaks. The leak test simply consists of immersing both valves of the
bottle in a bucket of water and looking for bubbles. If a leak is detected, the sample is invalid and
sampling should be repeated. This leak test is illustrated in the "Surface Oil Sampling with a
Mercury-Free Bottle" multimedia.
The bottle must be sealed with the safety plugs on both valves. The valves are secured with a
metallic wire closed by a lead seal so that opening the valves will deliberately break the wire.
It is also very important to label the bottle as soon as the transfer procedure is achieved. This is
done by placing a label inside the wire loop. This label indicates that the bottle is full. In case of
H2S, another label marked "H2S" is inserted through the wire. Figure 5 shows a valve of an oil
bottle sealed with the wire and a label attached to it.
Figure 5
This type of oil sampling bottle is further described in its own training page. A bottomhole
sampler used for this technique is also described in its own training page.
Finally, a sampling data sheet containing all the pertinent information regarding the sampling
operation must be properly filled out and one copy will accompany the bottle. A typical sampling
data sheet is shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6
Safety
The following is a list of key safety considerations for bottomhole sampling:
Bottomhole sampling can involve high pressures. The equipment must be in perfect condition.
Although the sample chamber is designed to contain pressure, the tool should be handled with
care and not dropped.
A primary consideration is the need for a vapor space within the liquid sample (i.e., a gas cap).
Thermal expansion of the liquid could cause the container to exceed its pressure limits if the
temperature rises. An average increase of 1oC (1.8oF) increases the pressure inside the bottle by
10 kg/cm2 (142 psi).
Sample containers should be kept at reasonable surface temperatures and not stored in direct
sun or placed in hot areas.
Care must be taken to protect the container, especially the end valves, during shipping and
handling. End protectors must be used.
The valves on each end of the sample container must be fitted with safety plugs to prevent
accidental opening during transportation.
When samples contain toxic gas, like H2S, the name of the gas must be labeled on the bottle.
Pressure ratings of the bottles, connections, valves and fittings must be strictly observed.
Every effort should be made to avoid using mercury due to its high toxicity and to its property of
forming irreversible organometallic compounds when found in high concentrations in living
species.
If sampling with mercury, strictly follow the safety rules and procedures.
Whenever H2S is expected or suspected, sampling must be carried out with protective
equipment.
must be followed (Department of Transportation (DOT) and International Air Transport
Association (IATA)).
All sampling equipment falls under the scope of the Schlumberger Wireline and Testing Pressure
Operations Guidelines.
Summary
following:
Preparation of the well prior to sampling

Important steps to follow in order to sample successfully
How to ensure the quality and validity of the samples taken:
o Reading the opening pressure
o Determination of the bubblepoint pressure at ambient temperature
Transfer procedure
Safety considerations
Self Test
1. Why is bottomhole sampling done?
2. What is the main advantage of bottomhole sampling over surface sampling?
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
When do you sample downhole with the well shut-in?

What measurements should be made when sampling?
Why do we need to recompress the sample before the transfer?
What is the purpose of the compressibility curve?
How can we obtain a better sharp contrast on the compressibility curve?
Why is it not possible to accurately measure the saturation pressure of a gas condensate
sample?
9. Why should the shipping bottle have at least a capacity 10% greater than the sampler chamber?
GAS SAMPLING BOTTLE
Introduction
Objectives
Equipment
Safety
Maintenance
Summary
Self Test
Introduction
Usually during a well test, samples of produced fluids are taken at the surface or downhole or
both places for further analysis in a laboratory. Due to the hazardous nature of these fluids and
the high pressures involved, the samples are collected in special containers or bottles which
comply with stringent regulations in terms of design, manufacturing, testing, certification,
operation and transportation. The gas sampling bottle described in this training page is built to
transport hydrocarbon gases safely and simply consists of a cylindrical aluminium container
equipped with a valve on each side. It is the latest Schlumberger standard gas sample bottle and
its usual code name is SBG-C.
Objectives
Explain the relationship between the general gas law "PV / ZT= constant" and the sampling
procedure with a gas bottle.
List the technical characteristics of the SBG-C.
Gas sampling bottles are considered as "mobile pressure vessels." Write the important safety
regulations that govern this type of vessel.
Perform a FIT and TRIM procedure for the SBG-C.
Take a gas sample using the procedures applicable at the RTC.
Prepare the gas bottle for shipment.
The usage of the gas bottle is described in the Surface Sampling training page under gas surface
sampling methods. It should be noted that this bottle cannot be used for sampling with mercury
because it is made of an aluminium alloy.
This topic describes the main components of the SBG-C. It also examines how a gas bottle is
characterized and how this applies to the SBG-C. Figure 1 illustrates each component of the
SBG-C.
Gas Bottle Components

Body
The body of the gas bottle is simply a cylinder threaded at both

ends to receive the valves. It is made of an aluminium alloy
resistant to H2S, CO2 and chlorides and has a capacity of 20
liters. On one side, it is stamped with the bottle specifications
and the certification data.
Valves and Safety Plugs
The gas bottle is equipped with two valves. Each valve has a
threaded lateral outlet to connect the sampling line. A safety plug
covers the outlet during storage and transportation. It acts as a
seal and protects the threads. The valves and the safety plugs
feature a small hole to pass a metallic wire through for sealing
such that opening the valves or removing the plugs will break the
seal.
Figure 1
Protectors
Two protectors are connected on both sides of the bottle. They

protect the valves during transportation. They also serve as
handles to carry the bottle and they can be used as stands to hold
the bottle vertically.
Gas Bottle Characterization
A gas sampling bottle is not only defined by a working pressure and a test pressure but also by a
maximum sampling pressure versus temperature. This is a direct consequence of the general gas
law "PV / ZT = constant" which governs the pressure of a gas sample versus its temperature.
Since a gas sample bottle may be exposed to high temperatures after it has been filled, the initial
filling pressure at the initial filling temperature must be such that the bottle's internal pressure
will never exceed the safe maximum working pressure for which the bottle was certified.
Schlumberger's policy is to base its gas sampling procedures on a maximum allowable bottle
temperature of 100oC [212oF].
Figure 2 gives the maximum sampling pressure versus sampling temperature for the SBG-C.
Figure 2
Equipment
The SBG-C was developed to answer all the field needs particularly in terms of safety, weight and
volume capacity. Figure 3 shows the gas bottle and lists its specifications.
Description
The SBG gas sample bottle is designed primarily for sampling the separator gas
needed for PVT recombination studies.
The bottle is manufactured in aluminum alloy and is suitable for H2S service.
A unique serial number, including the year of manufacture, is stamped on each
bottle, which comes with an individual fiberglass transport box.
Specifications
Certification
Bureau Des Mines/Lloyds
Design codes
API 6A, NACE MR0175
Assembly number
P-579057
Project code
SBG-C
EE (H2S, Co2)
Working pressure
2150 psi [150 bar]
Test pressure
4250 psi [300 bar]
Working temperature
14 to 212 oF [-10 to 100oC]
Capacity
20 liter
Diameter
9 in. [229 mm]
Length with protectors
43.5 in. [1106 mm]
Weight empty
(empty, in transport box)
60 lbm [27 kg]
Weight of box
49 lbm [22 kg]
Safety
Gas bottles are "mobile pressure vessels" designed to contain hydrocarbon gases along with
corrosive gases like H2S and CO2. As such they are subjected to stringent regulations regarding
testing, certification, operation and transportation. The following is a list of key safety
considerations for gas bottles:
Every new gas bottle is pressure tested by a certifying authority. In France, the certification is
valid for two years and should be renewed every two years to verify that the bottle still complies
with the actual regulations.
When no local regulations exist or when they are less severe than the French regulations, the
French regulations apply.
Before using a gas bottle, verify that the official pressure test is not overdue. It is a good practice
to have a safety factor of six months for transportation and storage delays. This is particularly
important if the bottle is sent to the French PVT laboratory for analysis because the French
regulations do not allow a pressurized sample to enter if the certification due date is less than
six months.
Gas bottles should be kept at reasonable surface temperatures and not stored in direct sun or
placed in hot areas.
Care must be taken to protect the bottle, especially the end valves, during shipping and
handling. End protectors must be used. A fiberglass container is provided to protect the bottle
during shipment.

must be followed. The SBG-C and its fiberglass container meet the International Air Transport
Association (IATA) dangerous goods transportation requirements. Figure 4 shows the SBG-C
container properly labelled with the appropriate stickers to comply with IATA rules.
Figure 4
Any repair made on the gas bottle should be followed by a routine test with water at 110% of
the working pressure.
When sampling gas containing H2S, it must be clearly labelled on the bottle.
To prevent any accidental opening of a bottle containing a valid sample, both valves should be
stopped with a metallic wire closed by a lead seal. In addition, a safety plug should be fitted on
each valve.
Always use the colored labels to distinguish between an empty bottle and a full bottle. The
green "empty" label should be attached to a bottle which is ready to use. The red "full" label
must be attached to the bottle immediately after the sample is taken. Figure 5 shows a gas
bottle valve sealed with the wire and a label attached to it.
Figure 5
Solvents used to clean the hydrocarbon containers are usually toxic. Carefully read and follow
the safety instructions given with every solvent.
Gas sample bottles fall under the scope of the Schlumberger Wireline and Testing pressure
operations guidelines.
Maintenance
This topic lists the main steps of the maintenance procedure for the SBG-C. The detailed
procedure should be performed according to the FIT and TRIM requirements spelled out in the
surface sampling section of the Field Operating Handbook (FOH) vol. II.
Verify the validity of the official test.

Inspect all the threads (e.g., valves, safety plugs and protectors).
Rinse the bottle with solvent and dry with filtered air.
If necessary, dismantle the valves for complete cleaning.
Pressure test the bottle at 100% of its nominal working pressure with water. If the valves have
been removed, pressure test at 110% of its nominal working pressure.
After the pressure test, rinse the bottle with solvent and dry with filtered air.
Close the valves. Install the safety plugs. Seal and label "empty" so that opening the valve will
deliberately break the wire. Install end protectors.
Fill out the history card.
Summary
The reasons why we use gas sampling bottles.

The components of the gas sampling bottle.
The technical specifications of the SBG-C.

The parameters that define a gas sampling bottle.
Some important safety considerations for the gas sampling bottle.
An overview of the main maintenance procedures applicable to the SBG-C.
Self Test
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Why is a gas sampling bottle characterized by a maximum sampling pressure?

What is the Schlumberger policy regarding gas sampling procedures?
What are the technical specifications of the SBG-C?
What is the purpose of sealing the gas sampling bottle?
How is it sealed?
Is it possible to sample sour gas with the SBG-C?
Why is the bottle equipped with two valves?
OIL SAMPLING BOTTLE
Introduction
Objectives
Equipment
Safety
Maintenance
Summary
Self Test
Introduction
Usually during a well test, samples of produced fluids are taken at the surface or downhole or at
both places for further analysis in a laboratory. Due to the hazardous nature of these fluids and
the high pressures involved, the samples are collected in special containers or bottles which
comply with stringent regulations in terms of design, manufacturing, testing, certification,
operation and transportation. The oil sample bottle described in this training page is built to
transport hydrocarbon liquids safely and exists in two versions which differ only by their size
and working pressure. It is the latest Schlumberger standard oil sample bottle and its usual code
name is PSR-F for the 10 kpsi version and PSRA-F for the 15 kpsi version.
This bottle was primarily designed to answer the needs of obtaining representative oil samples
without the constraints of mercury.
Objectives
Draw a schematic of the PSR-F and explain how it works.

List the technical specifications of the PSR-F and the PSRA-F.
Perform a FIT and TRIM procedure for the PSR-F or the PSRA-F.
Collect an oil sample using the procedures applicable at the RTC.
Prepare the oil bottle for shipment.
Prior to describing the bottle in detail, it is important to know the different considerations that
dictated its design.
For a long time, mercury was the transfer fluid used in the field due to its specific properties.
Today, its high toxicity makes it prohibited by most companies and governments preoccupied
with the environment. The floating piston system was then found as an alternative.
It was also necessary to improve the sampling procedures and the equipment that had not been
upgraded in years. Voids in the transfer systems that were filled with mercury before now use a
vacuum. It was important to reduce the dead volumes to a minimum to avoid the flashing of the
samples.
Another aspect to consider was the improvement of the precision of the field bubblepoint
pressure by reducing the internal frictions of the piston system and permitting the agitation of the
sample.
The last consideration was to guarantee the original conditions of the sample even after a long
period of storage by using metal-to-metal seals.
The following topic describes the oil piston bottle and focuses on its specific features. Figure 1
shows a cut view of the different components of the PSR-F.
Figure 1
Oil Bottle Components

Valves and Safety Plugs
The bottle is equipped with two precision valves. They are colored
differently to help the user distinguish between the two different sides of
the bottle. The blue valve is located on the transfer fluid side and the
black valve on the sample side. These high pressure needle valves
feature metal-to-metal seals and comprise of two lateral outlets each.
Figure 2 shows how the bottle is connected using the valves outlets on a
typical oil surface sampling setup at the separator.
Figure 2
To ensure a complete seal of the bottle, the outlets are covered with safety plugs. Figure 3 shows
a cut view of a precision valve.
Figure 3
Floating Piston Assembly
The floating piston is used as an interface between the transfer fluid and the liquid which is to be
sampled. It has a very special design to provide the best sealing with the minimum friction. The
arrangement of the sealing parts gives only a 2 psi maximum differential pressure across the
floating piston. It comprises of two O-rings that achieve the inner seal and a special quad-ring
located in the groove of a low friction ring that achieves the outer seal. This low friction feature
permits you to obtain an accurate bubblepoint pressure.
The piston is centralized by two special wiper rings. They allow a minimum clearance with the
cylinder which prevents sand or debris from impeding its movement.
One side of the piston has a semispherical seat to receive the ball, reducing the dead volume of
the bottle. The other side includes a ball check valve that closes the transfer fluid orifice when
the piston touches the transfer fluid side of the bottle. This happens at the end of the transfer
procedure and permits you to leave a minimum amount of pressurized driving fluid behind the
piston which keeps the seals at no differential pressure. Even a leak through the piston could not
modify the sample significantly.
An equalizing duct prevents the pressure from being trapped behind the screws. Tests proved
that without the duct, the trapped pressure could loosen the screws. Figure 4 shows the floating
piston and its associated components.
Figure 4
Ball
As stated in the bottomhole sampling training page, agitation of the sample speeds up the
equilibrium between the oil and the oil phases. This phenomenon is particularly useful when
recombining or decompressing a sample for bubblepoint determination. The ball will improve
the agitation process. It should be noted that the ball fits completely in the piston and cap profile
reducing the dead volume of the bottle.
Cylinder, Plugs and Nuts
The bottle is made of a cylinder covered at both ends by a plug and a threaded nut. On the
transfer fluid side, the plug is flat to shoulder the flat side of the piston. On the sample side, the
plug has a semispherical shape to receive the ball when the piston is fully pushed by the transfer
fluid which reduces the dead volume of the bottle. Each nut is threaded with 4 threads per inch
(TPI) allowing for quick dismantling of the bottle for inspection and cleaning purposes. Six
screws evenly distributed on the nuts compress the metal seal and hold (lock) the nuts in place.
This system permits the nuts to be gently tightened on the cylinder by hand for easy disassembly
later on.
Metal Seals
The plugs-to-cylinder body seals are made of an American Petroleum Institute (API) flange-type
metal seal to prevent oil migration during long storage periods.
Protectors
Different types of protectors are available. They are used to protect the valves and facilitate the
transportation of the bottle. The one shown in Figure 1 can also serve as a stand when sampling
and when reassembling the bottle. Figure 5 shows two other types of protectors.
Figure 5
Equipment
The oil bottle is available in two models, the PSR-F, which has a pressure rating of 10 kpsi, and
the PSRA-F, which has a pressure rating of 15 kpsi. The PSR-F has a lateral outlet of 1/8 in. and
a lower outlet of 1/4 in., whereas the PSRA-F has a lateral outlet of 1/8 in. and a lower outlet of
1/8 in.
Description
The PSR-F/PSRA-F oil sample bottles are designed for mercury-free
transfer of samples from bottomhole sampling tools, or for mercury-free
surface sampling.
The bottles feature a piston with special low-friction seals for accurate
bubblepoint checks. A heavy ball assists in homogenization of the sample.
Metal-to-metal seals avoid gas migration during long storage periods. Dead
volumes are reduced to a minimum. Each bottle has a unique serial
number.
Specifications
Certifying
authority
Bureau Des Mines
Design codes
API 6A, NACE MR0175
Assembly number M-873200

Project code
PSR-F
Fluid
classification
EE (H2S, Co2)
Working pressure 2860 psi, -10oC/+70oC

Working
temperature
14 to 302 oF [-10 to 150oC]

14 to 158 oF [-10 to 70oC]
Capacity
730 cm3
Needle valves
Autoclave with 2 x 1/8-in.

W125 outlets per valve
Body connections 1/4-in. Autoclave F250C

Diameter
Length
4.65 in. [118 mm]
M-871211
PSRA-F
15,000 psi
[1035 bar]
Without valves
With protectors
Weight
(empty, in transport
box)
Options
Oscillating stand
17.1 in. [436 mm]

25.7 in. [654 mm]
52 lbm [23.6 kg]
M-872901
Figure 6
Figure 6 shows a generic oil bottle and lists the specifications for both models.
Safety
Oil bottles are "mobile pressure vessels" designed to contain hydrocarbon gases along with
corrosive gases like H2S and CO2. As such, they are subjected to stringent regulations regarding
testing, certification, operation and transportation. The following is a list of key safety
considerations for oil bottles:
Every new oil bottle is pressure tested by a certifying authority. In France, the certification is
valid for two years and should be renewed every two years to verify that the bottle still complies
with the actual regulations.
When no local regulations exist or when they are less severe than the French regulations, the
French regulations apply.
Before using a oil bottle, verify that the official pressure test is not overdue. It is a good practice
to have a safety factor of six months for transportation and storage delays. This is particularly
important if the bottle is sent to the French PVT laboratory for analysis because the French
regulations do not allow a pressurized sample to enter if the certification due date is less than
six months.
Oil bottles should be kept at reasonable surface temperatures and not stored in direct sun or
placed in hot areas.
Care must be taken to protect the bottle, especially the end valves, during shipping and
handling. End protectors must be used. A fiberglass container is provided to protect the bottle
during shipment.
must be followed. The oil bottle and its fiberglass container meet the International Air Transport
Association (IATA) dangerous goods transportation requirements. Figure 7 shows the PSR-F and
Figure 8 shows the PSRA-F containers properly labelled with the appropriate stickers to comply
with IATA rules.
Figure 7
Figure 8
Any repair made on the oil bottle should be followed by a routine test with water at 110% of the
working pressure.
When sampling oil containing H2S, it must be clearly labelled on the bottle.
To prevent any accidental opening of a bottle containing a valid sample, both valves should be
stopped with a metallic wire closed by a lead seal. In addition, two safety plugs should be fitted
on each valve.
Solvents used to clean the hydrocarbon containers are usually toxic. Carefully read and follow
the safety instructions given with every solvent.
Always use the colored labels to distinguish between an empty bottle and a full bottle. The
green "empty" label should be attached to a bottle ready to use. The red "full" label must be
attached to the bottle immediately after the sample is taken. Figure 9 shows a oil bottle valve
sealed with the wire and a label attached to it.
Figure 9
Oil sample bottles fall under the scope of the Schlumberger Wireline and Testing pressure
operations guidelines.
Maintenance
For information about preparation, assembly and disassembly of the oil bottle, see the "Technical
Circular 162," dated March 1991, which should be found in the transfer bench maintenance
manuals (TRB-B/C) and (TRB-D) (references M-075037 and M-075100 respectively).
Summary
The reasons behind the design of this oil sampling bottle.

The operating principles of the oil sampling bottle.
The components of the oil sampling bottle.
The technical specifications of the PSR-F and PSRA-F.
Some important safety considerations for the oil sampling bottle.
Self Test
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Why is it important to reduce the dead volumes in the bottle?

What is the function of the ball valve in the piston?
Why is the bottle equipped with metallic seals?
How is the differential pressure minimized across the floating piston?
Why is the friction reduced to a minimum between the floating piston and the body?

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1 Testing overview

Why Is a Reservoir Tested?

Will the reservoir flow?

When Is a Reservoir Tested?

What Is Measured During a Test?

What Is Derived from a Test?

Geometry of the reservoir and its extent:

Different Types of Well Tests

Exploration tests (oil or gas)

Well Test Setup Diagram

Main Services Provided in Well Testing

Testing a Reservoir under Dynamic Conditions

Creating a Pressure Disturbance

Surface Testing Equipment

The following is a list of surface testing equipment:

Layout of Surface Testing Equipment

High flowrate and high pressure

Location (offshore or onshore)

Standard onshore setup

Standard Onshore Layout

Standard Offshore Layout

High Flow Rate Layout

The main problems encountered with high viscosity oil are:

Flowing the well to surface

Four typical well testing layouts:

The different classified zones and their definitions.

What factors influence a surface testing layout?

This training page is divided into the following main headings:

It supports the weight of the test string.

Explain the purpose of a flowhead.

Build up and set packer

Build up describes the time period when the well is shut

Killing and acidizing

To stop the well from producing, the well is killed by

Running tools downhole

Wing union connection

Description The FHT-AS flowhead is a lightweight, compact flowhead for low-pressure

3000 psi [207 bar]

6000 psi [415 bar]

Marine anticorrosion coating

* Delivered with plug fitted with 1 2 -in. NPT pressure port

Det Norske Veritas

DNV Drill "N," DOE

5000 psi [345 bar]

10,000 psi [690 bar]

10,000 psi [690 bar]

15,000 psi [1034

149 in. [3.78 m]

149 in. [3.78 m]

35.5 in. [0.90 m]

4410 lbm [2000 kg]

5000 lbm [2265 kg]

* Delivered with plug fitted with 1 2 -in. NPT

Det Norske Veritas

DNV Drill N, DOE

15,000 psi [1034 bar] 15,000 psi [1034 bar]

22,500 psi [1380 bar] 22,500 psi [1380 bar]

157 in. [3.99 m]

157 in. [3.99 m]

8600 lbm [3900 kg] 8600 lbm [3900 kg]

Det Norske Veritas

DNV Drill N, DOE SI

3 1 8 in. [79 mm]