Sensors and Transducers

SENSORS and TRANSDUCERS
Interfacing to the Real World
Dr S.H. Upadhyay
Assistant Professor, MIED
MI 563, Dr. S.H. Upadhyay
Sensors p.1
Sensors and actuators are two critical components of every closed loop
control system. Such a system is also called a mechatronics system . A
typical mechatronics system as shown in Figure consists of a sensing unit, a
controller, and an actuating unit.
A sensing unit can be as simple as a single sensor or can consist of
additional components such as filters, amplifiers, modulators, and other
signal conditioners.
The controller accepts the information from the sensing unit, makes
decisions based on the control algorithm, and outputs commands to the
actuating unit.
The actuating unit consists of an actuator and optionally a power supply and
a coupling mechanism
Sensors p.2
Sensors
Sensor is a device that when exposed to a physical phenomenon
(temperature, displacement, force, etc.) produces a proportional
output signal (electrical, mechanical, magnetic, etc.).
The term transducer is often used synonymously with sensors.
However, ideally, a sensor is a device that responds to a change in
the physical phenomenon.
On the other hand, a transducer is a device that converts one form
of energy into another form of energy.
Sensors are transducers when they sense one form of energy input
and output in a different form of energy.
For example, a thermocouple responds to a temperature change
(thermal energy) and outputs a proportional change in electromotive
force (electrical energy).
Therefore, a thermocouple can be called a sensor and or
transducer.
Sensors p.3
Transducers
Transducer
a device that converts a primary form of energy into a
corresponding signal with a different energy form
Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic,
optical, chemical, etc.
take form of a sensor or an actuator
Sensor (e.g., thermometer)

a device that detects/measures a signal or stimulus
acquires information from the real world
Actuator (e.g., heater)

a device that generates a signal or stimulus
real
world
sensor
actuator
intelligent
feedback
system
Sensors p.4
Sensor Systems
Typically interested in electronic sensor
convert desired parameter into electrically measurable signal
General Electronic Sensor

primary transducer: changes real world parameter into
electrical signal
secondary transducer: converts electrical signal into analog or
digital values
real
world
primary
transducer
analo
g
signal
sensor
secondary
transducer
usable
values
Typical Electronic Sensor System

input
signal
(measurand)
sensor
sensor data
analog/digital
microcontroller
signal processing
communication
network
display
Sensors p.5
Example Electronic Sensor Systems

Components vary with application
digital sensor within an instrument
microcontroller
signal timing
data storage
sensor
sensor
signal timing
memory
sensor
display
handheld instrument
analog sensor analyzed by a PC

sensor interface
keypad
e.g., RS232
A/D, communication
signal processing
PC
comm. card
multiple sensors displayed over internet

internet
sensor
processor
comm.
sensor bus
PC
sensor bus
comm. card
sensor
processor
comm.
Sensors p.6
Primary Transducers
Conventional Transducers
large, but generally reliable, based on older technology
thermocouple: temperature difference

compass (magnetic): direction
Microelectronic Sensors
millimeter sized, highly sensitive, less robust
photodiode/phototransistor: photon energy (light)

infrared detectors, proximity/intrusion alarms
piezoresisitve pressure sensor: air/fluid pressure

microaccelerometers: vibration
chemical senors: O2, CO2, Cl, Nitrates (explosives)
DNA arrays: match DNA sequences
Sensors p.7
Performance terminology
Range- the range of a transducer define the limits between which the input
can vary
Span-maximum value of the input-min. value of the input
For a load cell measurement of forces might have a range of 0 to 50 kN
and a span of 50kN
Error=measured value true value of the quantity being measured
A sensor might give a resistance change of 10.2 when the true
change is 10.5 . The error is thus -0.3 .
Accuracy-extent to which the value indicated might be wrong.
Accuracy of 20C means reading of instrument may lie + or -20C.
Also expressed as % of full range output.
Range 0 to 2000C, accuracy 5%, means result is expected to lie within
+ or -100C
Sensitivity: relation ship indicating how much output one gets per unit
input.
A resistance thermometer may have a sensitivity of 0.5 /0C.
Many times sensitivity is expressed for input which is not being
measured.
Sensors p.8
Hysteresis error
Transducers can give different o/p for the same
value of the i/p-depending upon whether it has been
got for increasing value or for decreasing value.
Sensors p.9
Non Linearity Error

For many transducers a linear relationship between the
input and output is assumed over the working range , i.e.
a graph of output plotted against input is assumed to
give a straight line.
Few transducers, however have a truly relationship and
thus errors occurs as a result of the assumption of
linearity.
The error is define as the maximum difference from the
straight line.
Various methods are used for the numerical expression
of the non-linearity error.
The difference occur in determining the straight line
relationship which the error is specified.
Sensors p.10
a- End range values

b- best straight line for all values (using least
square)
C-best straight line through zero point
Sensors p.11
Repeatability/reproducibility: The term repeatability and

reproducibility of a transducer are used to describe its
ability to give same o/p for repeated application of same i/p
value.
The error resulting from the same output not being given with
repeated applications is usually expressed as a % of the full range
output.
Repeatability=[(max-min value given)/full range]x100

Stability: The stability of the transducer is its ability to give
same o/p when used to measure a constant input over a
period of time.
Drift is used to define the change of output over time.
Zero drift is used for changes that occur in output when
there is zero input.
Sensors p.12
Dead band/time: The dead band or dead space of a

transducer is the range of input values for which there is no
output.
For example, bearing friction in a flow meter using a rotor capacity

mean that there is no output until the input has reached a particular
velocity threshold.
Dead time : length of time from the application of an input

until the output begins to respond the change.
Resolution: when the input varies continuously over the range,
the output signals for some sensors may change in small
steps.
A wire-wound potentiometer is an example of such a sensor, the output

going up in steps as the potentiometer slider moves from one wire turn
to the next.
The resolution is the smallest change in i/p value that will produce an
observable change in o/p values.
Output impedance: it is important to know this as sensor is

either connected in series or parallel in circuit.
Sensors p.13
Static & Dynamic Characteristics

Static characteristic:
Values given when steady state condition occurs i.e.
the values given when the transducer has settle down
after having receiving some input.
Dynamic Characteristic:
the behavior between the time that the input values
changes and the time that the values given by
transducers settle down to the steady-state value.
Inputs
Step input (0 to a constant value)
Ramp i/p i/p changed at steady rate.
Sinusoidal input of a specified frequency.
Sensors p.14
Response time:
this is the time which pass after a const. i/p (step input) is applied to
the transducer up to the point at which transducer gives values
corresponding to some specific % of the value of the o/p. (say 95%)
Time constant:
Time corresponding to 63.2% of o/p

The time constant is a measure of the inertia of the sensor and so how
fast it will react to changes in its i/p.
Rise time:
Time taken for the o/p to rise to some specific % of steady state
o/p(10% to 90 or 95%).
Settling time:
Time taken for the o/p to settle to within some % (2% of steady state
value)
Sensors p.15
Response to a step input
Sensors p.16
Sensors can also be classified as passive or active .

In passive sensors, the power required to produce the output is provided by the
sensed physical phenomenon itself (such as a thermometer)
whereas the active sensors require external power source (such as a strain
gage).
Furthermore, sensors are classified as analog or digital based on

the type of output signal.
Analog sensors produce continuous signals that are proportional to the sensed
parameter and typically require analog-to-digital conversion before feeding to
the digital controller.
Digital sensors on the other hand produce digital outputs that can be directly
interfaced with the digital controller. Often, the digital outputs are produced by
adding an analog-to-digital converter to the sensing unit.
If many sensors are required, it is more economical to choose simple analog

sensors and interface them to the digital controller equipped with a multichannel analog-to-digital converter.
Sensors p.17
We can further classify transducers according

to their
function (displacement, temperature, force)
physical property (inductive, photo-voltaic,
piezo-electric)
Sensor output
Sensor output is generally in the form of resistance
change or voltage change or capacitance change or
current change when input quantity is changed.
Appropriate circuit is required to measure the above
changes.
Sensors p.18
Displacement Measurements
Measurements of size, shape, and position utilize
displacement sensors
Examples
diameter of part under stress (direct)

movement of a microphone diaphragm to quantify liquid
movement through the heart (indirect)
Primary Transducer Types
Resistive Sensors (Potentiometers & Strain Gages)

Inductive Sensors
Capacitive Sensors
Piezoelectric Sensors
Secondary Transducers
Wheatstone Bridge
Amplifiers
Sensors p.19
Resistance transducer
Potentiometric principle
The object of whose motion is to be sensed is

connected to the wiper of potentiometer. The
movement changes voltage output. Voltage output will
be linear for a linear potentiometer. These type of
transducers have slow dynamic response, susceptible
to vibration and noise, wear etc.
Sensors p.20
Resistance transducer
Strain gauge principal
When a wire is stretched, it gets thinner and longer and
the resistance changes. More the wire is strained more
the change in resistance.
Gf is gage factor, which defines the sensitivity. It is

defined as change in resistance for unit strain. Gage
factor can vary from 2-6 for metallic strain gages.
For semiconductor it varies from 40 to 200. Gage factor
value is supplied by the manufacturer gauge principle
Sensors p.21
Wheatstone bridge for measuring resistance change

Balanced bridge condition
Potential difference between A & B is zero
When strain is applied, bridge is in unbalanced condition.
Potential difference between A & B is measured by
external circuitry.
Sensors p.22
A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit invented by Samuel Hunter in 1833 and

improved and popularized by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1843. It is used to measure
an unknown electrical resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of
which includes the unknown component. Its operation is similar to the original
potentiometer.
In the figure, R4 is the unknown resistance to be measured; R1, R2 and R3 are
resistors of known resistance and the resistance of R3 is adjustable. If the ratio of
the two resistances in the known leg (R2 / R3) is equal to the ratio of the two in the
unknown leg (R1 / R4), then the voltage between the two midpoints (B and A) will be
zero and no current will flow through the galvanometer Vg. If the bridge is
unbalanced, the direction of the current indicates whether R3 is too high or too low.
R3 is varied until there is no current through the galvanometer, which then reads
zero.
Detecting zero current with a galvanometer can be done to extremely high accuracy.
Therefore, if R1, R2 and R3 are known to high precision, then R4 can be measured to
high precision. Very small changes in R4 disturb the balance and are readily detected.
At the point of balance, the ratio of R2 / R1 = R4 / R3
This setup is frequently used in strain gauge and resistance thermometer
measurements, as it is usually faster to read a voltage level off a meter than to
adjust a resistance to zero the voltage.
Sensors p.23
Inductance transducer
Based on Faradays law of induction in a coil. The induced voltage, or
electromotive force, is equal to the rate at which the magnetic flux
through the circuit changes.
The inductance change can be caused by any of the following:
a.Variation in the geometry of the coil (change in number of turns
in a coil)
b.Change in the effective permeability of the medium in and
around coil
c.Change in the reluctance of the magnetic path or variation of the
air gap
d.Change in mutual inductance (by a change in the coupling between
coils 1 and 2 with aiding or opposing fields)
Sensors p.24
The inductance type transducer consists of three parts: a coil, a movable

magnetic core and a pressure sensing element.
The element is attached to the core and as pressure varies, the element
causes the core to move inside the coil.
An AC voltage is applied to the coil, and as the core moves the inductance
of the coil changes. The current through the coil will increase as the
inductance decreases.
For increased sensitivity the coil can be separated into two coils by
utilizing a center tap, as shown in fig. As the core moves within the coils
the inductance of one coil will increase, while other will decrease.
Sensors p.25
Linear Variable Differential Transducer

LVDT most widely used for measurement of linear
displacement. It is based on mutual inductance which
changes with the position of central core.
Primary coil is excited by AC signal.
Voltage is induced in secondary coil and
amplitude depends on the position of
core.
LVDTs are very stable, high resolution,
high accuracy. Used for large as well as
for small displacements. 1 meter to a cm
full scale measurement.
Dynamic response is 1/10 of excitation
frequency and dependent on inertia of
the core
Sensors p.26
Linear variable differential transducer

Two secondary coils are connected in series opposing configuration.
At null position output will be zero. When away from null position,
output will be in-phase or out of phase depending on the core
movement. Amplitude will be proportional to the position of core in
linear range.
Sensors p.27
Capacitance transducers
Capacitance between two separated members is used for
the measurement of many physical phenomena. It is a
function of effective area of the conductors, separation
between the conductors, the dielectric strength of the
material. Change in capacitance can be brought about by
varying any of the above parameters.
Sensors p.28
The capacitive transducer or sensor is nothing but the capacitor

with variable capacitance.
The capacitive transducer comprises of two parallel metal plates
that are separated by the material such as air, which is called as
the dielectric material.
In the typical capacitor the distance between the two plates is
fixed, but in variable capacitance transducers the distance between
the two plates is variable.
In the instruments using capacitance transducers the value of the
capacitance changes due to change in the value of the input quantity
that is to be measured.
This change in capacitance can be measured easily and it is
calibrated against the input quantity, thus the value if the input
quantity can be measured directly.
Sensors p.29
Applications
Precision positioning
Disc drive industry
Precision thickness measurements
Non-conductive targets
Machine tool metrology
Assembly line testing
Sensors p.30
Piezoelectric transducers
Piezoelectric material generate electric voltage when
deformed and vice versa. This is a reversible effect.
This property is directional and the force to be
measured is applied normal to the specific plane. The
voltage across electrode is the charge generated due to
mechanical action. The charge generated is proportional
to the magnitude of applied force. This also produces
similar effect in transverse direction.
Sensors p.31
A piezoelectric transducer is a device which

transforms one type of energy to another by
taking advantage of the piezoelectric properties
of certain crystals or other materials.
When a piezoelectric material is subjected to
stress or force, it generates an electrical
potential or voltage proportional to the
magnitude of the force. This makes the
piezoelectric transducer ideal as a converter of
mechanical energy or force into electric
potential.
Sensors p.32
The high sensitivity of the piezoelectric transducer

makes it useful in microphones, where it converts sound
pressure into electric voltage; in precision balances; in
accelerometers and motion detectors; and as generators
and detectors of ultrasound.
Piezoelectric transducers are also used in nondestructive testing, in the generation of high voltages,
and in many other applications requiring the precise
sensing of motion or force.
Sensors p.33
The piezoelectric effect also works in reverse,

in that a voltage applied to a piezoelectric
material will cause that material to bend,
stretch, or otherwise deform.
This deformation is usually very slight and
proportional to the voltage applied, and so the
reverse piezoelectric effect offers a method of
precision movement on the micro scale.
A piezoelectric transducer may thus be used as
an actuators for the exact adjustment of fine
optical instruments, lasers, and atomic force
microscopes.
Sensors p.34
These piezoelectric devices can be used both as

sensors and actuators, so they're referred to
as transducers, a term applied to any device
that can convert one form of energy to another.
Thus,
both
piezoelectric
sensors
and
piezoelectric actuators come under the heading
of piezoelectric transducer. The sensor turns
mechanical energy into electric potential, and
the actuator converts electrical energy into
mechanical force or motion.
Sensors p.35
Eddy Current Type

Probe contains two coils. One is active and the balance coil is
excited with high frequency 1 MHz. In normal condition the bridge
is balanced. When probe is close to a conducting surface, eddy
currents are formed and disturbs the magnetic field in active coil.
Un-balance in the bridge is measure of distance. Eddy currents are
stronger when target is closer to sensor. Range from 0.25 mm to 30
mm. Target surface should be more than the probe diameter.
Sensors p.36
Eddy current transducers (eddy current sensors) are

designed for non-contact measurement of the vibration,
display and rotation frequency of conducting objects.
They are used for diagnostics of the industrial turbines,
compressors, electric motors. Axial displacement and
radial rotor shaft vibration are the main subjects to
control this way.
Eddy current transducer (eddy current probe) consists
of non contact eddy probe, extension cable and probe
driver. Eddy probe is a metal probe with dielectric tip at
the end and some piece of the coaxial cable at the other
end. The probe is connected to the driver by the coaxial
extension cable.
Sensors p.37
Applications
Electromagnetic braking
Repulsive effects and levitation
Attractive effects
Identification of metals
Vibration and position Sensing
Structural testing
Sensors p.38
Hall effect transducers

When a beam of charged particles passes through a
magnetic field, forces act on the particles and the beam
is deflected from its straight line path.
A current flowing in a conductor is like a beam of moving
charges and thus can be deflected by a magnetic field.
This effect is discovered by E.R.Hall in 1879 and is
called the hall effect.
A Hall effect sensor is a transducer that varies its
output voltage in response to changes in magnetic field.
Hall sensors are used for proximity switching,
positioning, speed detection, and current sensing
applications.
Sensors p.39
Hall effect transducers

Hall effect occurs when a strip of conducting material
carries current in the presence of a transverse magnetic
field. The hall effect results in the production of
electric field perpendicular to the directions of both
magnetic filed and the current with the magnitude
proportional to the product of magnetic field strength,
current and various properties of the conductor.
In the absence of magnetic
field, potential between 3 & 4
are same. When magnetic flux
passes through the conductor as
shown, potential V appears
between 3 &4.
Sensors p.40
Applications of Hall Sensor

The Hall sensor is used in some automotive Fuel Level
Indicators. A permanent magnet is mounted on the
surface of a floating object. The current carrying
conductor is fixed on the top of the tank lining up with
the magnet. When the level of fuel rises, more amount
of magnetic field is applied on the current resulting in
higher Hall voltage. As the fuel level decreases, the
Hall voltage will also decrease. The fuel level is
indicated and displayed by proper signal condition of
Hall voltage.
The Hall sensor is also used in the brushless DC motor
to sense the position of the rotor and to switch the
transistor in the right sequence.
Sensors p.41
Linear and Rotational Sensors

Linear and rotational position sensors are two of the
most fundamental of all measurements used in a typical
mechatronics system.
In general, the position sensors produce an electrical
output that is proportional to the displacement they
experience. There are contact type sensors such as
strain gage, LVDT, RVDT, tachometer, etc.
The noncontact type includes encoders, hall effect,
capacitance, inductance, and interferometer type. They
can also be classified based on the range of
measurement.
Sensors p.42
Usually the high-resolution type of sensors such as hall

effect, fiber optic inductance, capacitance , and strain
gage are suitable for only very small range (typically
from 0.1 mm to 5 mm).
The differential transformers on the other hand, have a
much larger range with good resolution. Interferometer
type sensors provide both very high resolution (in terms
of microns) and large range of measurements (typically
up to a meter).
However, interferometer type sensors are bulky,
expensive, and requires large set up time.
Sensors p.43
Acceleration Sensors
Measurement of acceleration is important for systems subject to
shock and vibration. Although acceleration can be derived from the
time history data obtainable from linear or rotary sensors, the
accelerometers whose output is directly proportional to the
acceleration is preferred.
Two common types include the seismic mass type and the
piezoelectric accelerometer.
The seismic mass type accelerometer is based on the relative
motion between a mass and the supporting structure. The natural
frequency of the seismic mass limits its use to low to medium
frequency applications.
The piezoelectric accelerometer, however, is compact and more
suitable for high frequency applications.
Sensors p.44
Accelerometer is used to measure linear acceleration.

The design is based on the inertial effects associated
with a mass connected to a moving object through a
spring, damper and displacement sensor. Characteristics
of a accelerometer are like spring mass system, second
order system.
Sensors p.45
Piezoelectric accelerometer : In this seismic mass is

attached to Piezoelectric crystal, which produces
charge when it is loaded. Here spring is only for
preloading the crystal. These accelerometers requires
no external power supply. These accelerometers
produces large output for its size.
Sensors p.46
Force, Torque, and Pressure Sensors

Among many type of force/torque sensors, the strain
gage dynamometers and piezoelectric type are most
common. Both are available to measure force and/or
torque either in one axis or multiple axes.
The dynamometers make use of mechanical members
that experiences elastic deflection when loaded. These
types of sensors are limited by their natural frequency.
On the other hand, the piezoelectric sensors are
particularly suitable for dynamic loadings in a wide range
of frequencies. They provide high stiffness, high
resolution over a wide measurement range, and are
compact.
Sensors p.47
Force measurement
Strain gage based : Strain gage is thin foil as shown
below, with a polymer backing material. The resistance
of the foil changes when strained and this change in
resistance is measured by Wheatstone bridge.
Wide end loops reduces the
transverse
effect.
Temperature compensation
is
required
for
high
temperature application. It
is skilled job to fix the
strain
gage.
Used
in
different configuration: Full
bridge, Half bridge and
quarter bridge.
Sensors p.48
Force measurement
Strain gage mounting : Strain gage are also available in
combination of two or three at an angle of 450, 900 or
1200
Bi-axial stress in a thin walled

pressure vessel
General state of stress on the

surface of a component
Sensors p.49
Pressure measurement
Bellow type: The pressure change inside the bellow
results in mechanical movement. This can be connected
to LVDT and linear displacement can be measured
corresponding to pressure change. Dynamic response is
poor.
Sensors p.50
Pressure measurement
Strain gage based : This consist of a diaphragm, it
deforms when subjected to differential pressure. This
deformation is sensed by the strain gage mounted on it.
Strain gages are directly etched on the silicon
diaphragm along with the bridge and associated circuitry
by modern microelectronics technology.
Diaphragm - flat and corrugated

Sensors p.51
Flow Sensors
Flow sensing is relatively a difficult task. The fluid medium
can be liquid, gas, or a mixture of the two. Furthermore, the
flow could be laminar or turbulent and can be a time-varying
phenomenon.
The venturimeter and orifice plate restrict the flow and use
the pressure difference to determine the flow rate. The
pitottube pressure probe is another popular method of
measuring flow rate. When positioned against the flow, they
measure the total and static pressures. The flow velocity and
in turn the flow rate can then be determined.
The Rota meter and the turbine meters when placed in the
flow path, rotate at a speed proportional to the flow rate.
The electromagnetic flow meters use noncontact method.
Magnetic field is applied in the transverse direction of the
flow and the fluid acts as the conductor to induce voltage
proportional to the flow rate.
Sensors p.52
Fluid flow measurement

Based on Bernoullis principle. These are generally precalibrated and used. Pressure tappings are taken at
prescribed location from the orifice on upstream and
down stream. Maintenance free and inexpensive, not
very accurate.
Sensors p.53
Fluid flow measurement

Pitot tube : In this arrangement difference between
static and dynamic pressure is the measure of flow
velocity. It is widely used for airspeed measurement.
Usually it consist of two concentric tubes. Inner tube
which measures dynamic pressure connects to one port
of differential pressure transducer. Outer tube which
measures static pressure is connected to the other port
of the pressure transducer.
Sensors p.54
Rotameter : It consist of a tapered glass tube and a

float. Float rises due to buoyancy and fluid flow. Position
of the float gives the flow rate. It has to be vertical to
obtain correct results. Not very accurate.
Sensors p.55
Ultrasonic flow meters measure fluid velocity by passing high-frequency
sound waves through fluid.

A schematic diagram of the ultrasonic flow meter is as shown in Figure
The transmitters (T) provide the sound signal source. As the wave travels
towards the receivers (R), its velocity is influenced by the velocity of the
fluid flow due to the doppler effect.
The control circuit compares the time to interpret the flow rate. This can
be used for very high flow rates and can also be used for both upstream
and downstream flow.
The other advantage is that it can be used for corrosive fluids, fluids with
abrasive particles, as it is like a noncontact sensor.
Sensors p.56
Temperature Sensors
A variety of devices are available to measure temperature,
the most common of which are thermocouples, thermisters,
resistance temperature detectors (RTD), and infrared types.
Thermocouples are the most versatile, inexpensive, and have
a wide range (up to 1200 C typical). A thermocouple simply
consists of two dissimilar metal wires joined at the ends to
create the sensing junction. When used in conjunction with a
reference junction, the temperature difference between the
reference junction and the actual temperature shows up as a
voltage potential.
Thermisters are semiconductor devices whose resistance
changes as the temperature changes. They are good for very
high sensitivity measurements in a limited range of up to 100
C. The relationship between the temperature and the
resistance is nonlinear.
Sensors p.57
Applications of Thermisters
Thermistors can be used as current-limiting devices for circuit protection,

as replacements for fuses.
Thermistors are used as timers in the degaussing coil circuit of most CRT
displays and televisions.
Thermistors are used as resistance thermometers in low-temperature
measurements of the order of 10 K.
Thermistors can be used as inrush-current limiting devices in power supply
circuits.
Thermistors are regularly used in automotive applications. For example,
they monitor things like coolant temperature and/or oil temperature inside
the engine and provide data to the ECU and, indirectly, to the dashboard.
Thermistors can be also used to monitor the temperature of an incubator.
Thermistors are also commonly used in modern digital thermometers and
to monitor the temperature of battery packs while charging.
Sensors p.58
The RTD s use the phenomenon that the resistance of a

metal changes with temperature. They are, however,
linear over a wide range and most stable.
Applications:
Resistance Thermometers can be used for a wide variety of
industrial applications.
A high electrical output can be obtained by using the RTD with
many types of simple resistance bridges. This high output can then
be fed directly into recorders, temperature controllers,
transmitters, or digital readouts which can be calibrated to read
very precise increments of temperature over wide dynamic ranges.
RTD's can also be read out on precision laboratory bridges and
digital ohmmeters.
Sensors p.59
Infrared type sensors use the radiation heat to

sense the temperature from a distance. These
noncontact sensors can also be used to sense a
field of vision to generate a thermal map of a
surface.
Applications:
Night vision, Tracking ,Heating ,Communications ,Spectroscopy,
Meteorology, Thermography, Biological systems
Sensors p.60
Proximity Sensors
They are used to sense the proximity of an object relative to another

object. They usually provide a on or off signal indicating the presence or
absence of an object.
Inductance, capacitance, photoelectric , and hall effect types are widely
used as proximity sensors.
Inductance proximity sensors consist of a coil wound around a soft iron
core. The inductance of the sensor changes when a ferrous object is in its
proximity. This change is converted to a voltage-triggered switch.
Capacitance types are similar to inductance except the proximity of an
object changes the gap and affects the capacitance.
Photoelectric sensors are normally aligned with an infrared light source.
The proximity of a moving object interrupts the light beam causing the
voltage level to change.
Hall effect voltage is produced when a current-carrying conductor is
exposed to a transverse magnetic field. The voltage is proportional to
transverse distance between the hall effect sensor and an object in its
proximity.
Sensors p.61
Light Sensors
Light intensity and full field vision are two important measurements
used in many control applications. Phototransistors, photoresistors ,
and photodiodes are some of the more common type of light
intensity sensors.
A common photoresistor is made of cadmium sulphide whose
resistance is maximum when the sensor is in dark. When the
photoresistor is exposed to light, its resistance drops in proportion
to the intensity of light. When interfaced with a circuit as shown in
Figure and balanced, the change in light intensity will show up as
change in voltage. These sensors are simple, reliable, and cheap,
used widely for measuring light intensity.
Sensors p.62
Smart Material Sensors

There are many new smart materials that are gaining more
applications as sensors, especially in distributed sensing
circumstances. Of these, optic fibers, piezoelectric, and
magnetostrictive materials have found applications. Within these,
optic fibers are most used.
Optic fibers can be used to sense strain, liquid level, force, and
temperature with very high resolution. Since they are economical
for use as in situ distributed sensors on large areas, they have
found numerous applications in smart structure applications such as
damage sensors, vibration sensors, and cure-monitoring sensors.
These sensors use the inherent material (glass and silica) property
of optical fiber to sense the environment. Figure illustrates the
basic principle of operation of an embedded optic fiber used to
sense displacement, force, or temperature. The relative change in
the transmitted intensity or spectrum is proportional to the change
in the sensed parameter.
Sensors p.63
Sensors p.64
Micro- and Nanosensors

Microsensors (sometimes also called MEMS) are the miniaturized
version of the conventional macrosensors with improved
performance and reduced cost. Silicon micromachining technology
has helped the development of many microsensors and continues to
be one of the most active research and development topics in this
area.
Vision microsensors have found applications in medical technology. A
fiberscope of approximately 0.2 mm in diameter has been developed
to inspect flaws inside tubes.
Another example is a microtactile sensor , which uses laser light to
detect the contact between a catheter and the inner wall of blood
vessels during insertion that has sensitivity in the range of 1 mN.
Similarly, the progress made in the area of nanotechnology has
fuelled the development of nanosensors. These are relatively new
sensors that take one step further in the direction of
miniaturization and are expected to open new avenues for sensing
applications.
Sensors p.65
Switch
A switch is a device that is used for making and
breaking electrical connections in a circuit.
There are many types of these devices. Some of
the more common ones that you may use are
shown below. (microswitch, pushbutton, toggle,
dip, slide, rotary).
Sensors p.66
The switch shown in fig is called a SPDT switch,

which is short for single-pole, double throw. A
SPDT switch has three leads.
The SPDT switch changes the pole between two
different throw positions.
The SPST switch is a single-pole (SP),singlethrow (ST) device that opens or close a single
connection.
Sensors p.67
Switch Terminology
Beside the general type of switch (toggle, slide,
pushbutton, etc) there are many configurations
of the contacts possible.
Often you will see a switch in a schematic
referred to as a SPST or DPDT. These stand
for Single Pole Single Throw and Double Pole
Double Throw.
A switch with a single throw has it's lines either
connected or unconnected. In other words there
are two terminals with are electrically
connected only when the switch is activated.
Sensors p.68
A switch with a double throw has an extra terminal

for each pole so that there are two electrical paths
possible instead of just one.
Another term used often with switches is Normally
Open or Normally Closed.
Most pushbutton-style switches are "normally
open", meaning that the switch contacts are in the
open-circuit position when the switch is in the nondepressed state.
Microswitches often have both normally open and
normally closed contacts and a common contact.
When wiring a touch sensor with a microswitch, it is
customary to use the normally open mode.
Sensors p.69
Two common uses of switches in mechatronics

are power cutoff and as an input sensor.
The microswitch is a type of touch sensors.
A microswitches is a small, momentary switches
that can be attached to bumpers to signal when
the robot has run into an obstacle.
A micro switch is housed in a rectangular body
and has a very small button which is the
external switching point.
Usually, micro switches are also equipped with
lever arms to reduce the force needed to
actuate the switch.
Sensors p.70
Switch Circuitry
The following figure shows how a single throw
switch can be wired to a sensor input port.
When the switch is opened, the sensor input is
pulled to the +5V supply by the pull up resistor.
When the switch is closed, the input is tied to
ground, generating a zero voltage signal.
Sensors p.71
Switch Debouncing
When mechanical switches are opened or closed, there
are brief current oscillations due to mechanical bouncing
or electrical arcing. This phenomenon is called switch
bounce.
A problem that occurs with mechanical switches is
switch bounce.
When a mechanical switch is switched to close the
contacts, we have one contact being moved towards the
other. It hits the other and, because the contacting
elements are elastic bounces.
Similarly, when a mechanical switch is opened, bouncing
can occur. To overcome this problem either hardware or
software can be used.
Sensors p.72
With software, the microprocessor is programmed to

detect if the switch is closed and then wait, say 20 ms.
After checking that bouncing has come to a close and
switch is in the same close position, the next part of the
program can take place.
The hardware solution to the bounce problem is based
on the use of a flip-flop.
Sensors p.73
Proximity Switches
There are a number of forms of switch which
can be activated by the presence of an object in
order to give a proximity sensor with an output
which is either on or off.
Sensors p.74
The microswitch is a small electrical switch

which requires physical contact and a small
operating force to close the contacts.
For example, in the case of determining the
presence of an item on a conveyor belt, this
might be actuated by the weight of the item on
the belt depressing the belt and hence a springloaded platform under it, with the movement of
this platform then closing the switch.
Above figures shows examples of ways such
switches can be actuated.
Sensors p.75
Reed Switch
Figure shows the basic form of a reed switch.
It consists of two magnetic switch contacts
sealed in a glass tube.
Sensors p.76
When magnet is brought close to the switch,

the magnetic reeds are attracted to each other
and close the switch contacts.
It is a non-contact proximity switch.
Such a switch is a very widely used for checking
the closure of door.
It is also used in tachometers
Sensors p.77
Keypads
Sensors p.78
A keypad is an array of switches, perhaps the

keyboard of a computer or the touch input
membrane pad for some device such as a
microwave oven.
A contact type key of the form generally used
with a keyboard is shown in fig., depressing the
key plunger forces the contact together with
spring returning the key to the off position
when the key is released.
Sensors p.79

Sensors and Transducers

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Sensors and Transducers

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SENSORS and TRANSDUCERS

Interfacing to the Real World

MI 563, Dr. S.H. Upadhyay

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take form of a sensor or an actuator

Sensor (e.g., thermometer)

Actuator (e.g., heater)

General Electronic Sensor

Typical Electronic Sensor System

MI 563, Dr. S.H. Upadhyay

Example Electronic Sensor Systems

analog sensor analyzed by a PC

multiple sensors displayed over internet

MI 563, Dr. S.H. Upadhyay

large, but generally reliable, based on older technology

thermocouple: temperature difference

millimeter sized, highly sensitive, less robust

photodiode/phototransistor: photon energy (light)

piezoresisitve pressure sensor: air/fluid pressure

MI 563, Dr. S.H. Upadhyay

MI 563, Dr. S.H. Upadhyay

Non Linearity Error

a- End range values

MI 563, Dr. S.H. Upadhyay

Repeatability/reproducibility: The term repeatability and

Repeatability=[(max-min value given)/full range]x100

MI 563, Dr. S.H. Upadhyay

Dead band/time: The dead band or dead space of a

For example, bearing friction in a flow meter using a rotor capacity

Dead time : length of time from the application of an input

A wire-wound potentiometer is an example of such a sensor, the output

Output impedance: it is important to know this as sensor is

Static & Dynamic Characteristics

Time corresponding to 63.2% of o/p

MI 563, Dr. S.H. Upadhyay

Response to a step input

MI 563, Dr. S.H. Upadhyay

Sensors can also be classified as passive or active .

Furthermore, sensors are classified as analog or digital based on

If many sensors are required, it is more economical to choose simple analog

We can further classify transducers according

MI 563, Dr. S.H. Upadhyay

diameter of part under stress (direct)

Primary Transducer Types

Resistive Sensors (Potentiometers & Strain Gages)

MI 563, Dr. S.H. Upadhyay

The object of whose motion is to be sensed is

MI 563, Dr. S.H. Upadhyay

Gf is gage factor, which defines the sensitivity. It is

MI 563, Dr. S.H. Upadhyay

Wheatstone bridge for measuring resistance change

MI 563, Dr. S.H. Upadhyay

A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit invented by Samuel Hunter in 1833 and

MI 563, Dr. S.H. Upadhyay

The inductance type transducer consists of three parts: a coil, a movable

MI 563, Dr. S.H. Upadhyay

Linear Variable Differential Transducer

MI 563, Dr. S.H. Upadhyay

Linear variable differential transducer

MI 563, Dr. S.H. Upadhyay

MI 563, Dr. S.H. Upadhyay

The capacitive transducer or sensor is nothing but the capacitor

MI 563, Dr. S.H. Upadhyay