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Vector Calculus
Differentiation of vectors, Space curves (Curves in
Space), Curvature, Torsion, Radius of curvature
and radius of torsion, Frenets Formulae
Prepared by:
Dr. Sunil
NIT Hamirpur (HP)
(Last updated on 24-10-2008)
Latest update available at: http://www.freewebs.com/sunilnit/
Differentiation of vectors:
If a vector R varies continuously as a scalar variable t changes, then R is said to
be a function of t and is written as R = F(t ) .
We define the derivative of a vector function R = F(t ) as
F (t + t ) F (t )
t 0
t
Lt
and write it as
dR
dF
or
or F (t ) .
dt
dt
(i)
d
(F + G H ) = dF + dG dH
dt
dt
dt
dt
(ii)
d
dF
d
( F ) = + F
dt
dt
dt
(iii)
d
dF
dG
( F.G ) = .G + F.
dt
dt
dt
(iv)
d
dF
dG
(F G ) = G + F
dt
dt
dt
(v)
d
(FGH ) =
dt
(vi)
d
[(F G ) H ] = dF G H + F dG H + (F G ) dH .
dt
dt
dt
dt
dH
dF
dG
dt GH + F dt H + FG dt
d
(F G ) = F dG + dF G .
dt
dt
dt
d
(F G ) = Lt (F + F ) (G + G ) F G
t 0
dt
t
(F G ) + (F G ) + (F G ) + (F G ) (F G )
= Lt
t 0
= Lt
(F G ) + (F G ) + (F G )
t
t 0
G F
F
dG dF
= Lt F
+
G +
G = F
+
G [ G 0 as t 0]
t 0
t
t
t
dt
dt
d
(F.F ) = 0
dt
dF dF
dF
dF
+
.F = 0 2F.
= 0 F.
= 0.
dt dt
dt
dt
dF
dF
=0
F.
dt
dt
dF
= 0.
dt
dF
= 0.
dt
dF
d G df
= f (t)
+ G.
dt
dt dt
(i)
G (t)
dt
= 0.
dF df
dF
d G df
= G
From (i), we have
= f (t)
+ G
dt
dt dt
dt dt
Now F
F
dF
df
df
= f G G = f G G = 0
dt
dt
dt
dF
= 0.
dt
d
(A.B ) , (ii) d (A B ) .
dt
dt
d
(A.B ) = A. dB + dA .B
dt
dt
dt
= 5t 2 cos t + t sin t + (10t sin t cos t ) = 5t 2 cos t + 11t sin t cos t . Ans.
(ii):
d
(A B ) = A d B + d A B
dt
dt
dt
= 5t 2 sin t K + t cos t K t 3 cos t J t 3 sin t I
+ 10t cos t K + sin t K 3t 2 sin t J + 3t 2 cos t I
[(
Binormal
Normal Plane
Reflecting
Plane
O
Curve
T
Tangent
Osculating Plane
Principal
Normal
z-axis
P0(t0)
s
P(t)
R
s
R(t )
Tangent
R(t + t )
y-axis
O
x-axis
R R (t + t ) R (t )
is parallel to PQ
=
t
t
t 0
which becomes the tangent (vector) to the curve at P, whenever it exists and is not zero.
But Lim
Q P
t 0
R dR
=
= R
t
dt
dR
is a tangent to the space curve R = F(t ) .
dt
dR
dt
X = F ( t ) + uF(t) .
Then Lim
Q P
t 0
arc PQ
1.
chord PQ
s
R
= Lim
P t
t Qt
0
ds dR
=
= R ( t ) .
dt
dt
t
t0
R dt =
t
t0
ds dR
=
.
dt
dt
If we take s as the parameter in place of t, then the magnitude of the tangent vector is
equal to one, i.e.
dR
= 1.
ds
T=
dR
.
ds
dT
Since T is unit tangent vector, then we have
.T = 0 .
ds
dT
is perpendicular to T
ds
dT
or
= 0 T is constant vector w.r.t. the arc length s and so has a fixed direction
ds
dT
then
is in the direction of N ,
ds
Osculating plane:
The plane between T and N is called the osculating plane of the curve at P.
(3) Binormal:
Final Conclusions:
Thus, at each point P of a space curve, there are three mutually perpendicular unit
T = N B ,
N = B T ,
B = T N .
This moving trihedral determines the following three fundamentals planes at each point
of the curve:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Remarks:
(i)
dR
ds
d2R
ds 2
dR d 2 R
.
ds ds 2
(X R ). dR
dt
= 0,
(X R ). dR d
dt
X.
dt 2
=0
dR d 2 R
dR d 2 R
2 =R
.
dt dt
dt dt 2
Curvature:
dT
The arc rate of rotation of the tangent (i.e. the magnitude of
) is called
ds
curvature of the curve and is denoted by k.
dT
Thus,
=k.
ds
or
The arc rate at which the tangent changes its direction as the point moves along
the curve is known as curvature.
Torsion:
dB
The arc rate of rotation of the bi-normal (i.e. the magnitude of
) is called
ds
dB
torsion of the curve and is denoted by .Thus,
= .
ds
or
The arc rate at which the bi-normal changes its direction as the point moves along
the curve is known as torsion.
Remarks: Here, the torsion is positive or negative according as the vectors N and
dB
have the same or opposite senses.
ds
Radius of curvature and radius of torsion:
1
.
k
1
.
10
Frenets Formulae:
We shall now establish the following important results, known as Frenets formulae.
dT
(i)
= kN,
ds
dB
(ii)
= N ,
ds
dN
(iii)
= B k T
ds
Proof:
dT
(i) To prove:
= kN.
ds
dT
.
Since, we know that N is the unit vector having the sense and direction of
ds
dT
i.e.
N.
ds
dT
And moreover, we also know that
=k.
ds
dT
Combining these two facts, we obtain
= kN.
ds
dB
(ii) To prove:
= N .
ds
dB
Since B is a unit vector, we have
.B = 0 .
ds
dB
is perpendicular to B .
ds
Also B. T = 0
d
B . T = 0
ds
dB dT
. T+ B .
=0
ds
ds
dB
d
T
. T+ B . k N = 0 .
= k N
ds
ds
11
B .N = 0
dB
.T = 0
ds
dB
is perpendicular to T .
ds
dB
dB
Thus,
B and
T.
ds
ds
dB
dB
Hence,
is parallel to the vector N
N.
ds
ds
dB
And moreover, we also know that
= .
ds
dB
= N .
Combining these two facts, we obtain
ds
dB
Here, the torsion is positive or negative according as the vectors N and
as defined
ds
above, have the same or opposite senses.
dB
dB
Remarks: If
has direction of N , then
= N .
ds
ds
dN
(iii) To prove:
= B k T .
ds
dN dB dT
.
=
T + B
ds
ds
ds
dT
d
B
= N,
= k N
= N T+ B k N
ds
ds
= B k T
B = T N, T = N B ].
12
Now let us solve some more problems using the general rule of differentiation:
Q.No.2.: Show that, if R = A sin t + B cos t , where A, B and are constants, then
d 2R
dt
= 2 R and R
dR
= A B .
dt
dR
= A cos t + B( sin t )
dt
d 2R
dt
= 2 R . Ans.
dR
= A cos t B sin t
dt
dR
= (A sin t B cos t ) (A cos t B sin t )
dt
= (A B ) . Ans.
Q.No.3.: R = t m A + t n B , where A, B are constant vectors,
show that, if R and
d2R
dt 2
Sol.: R = t m A + t n B
Differentiating w. r. t t, we get
dR
dA n dB
= mt m 1A + nt n 1B + t m
+t
dt
dt
dt
d 2R
dt
13
Since R and
d 2R
dt 2
)[
d 2R
dt 2
=0
(m)(m 1) = n(n 1) m 2 m = n 2 n m 2 n 2 = m n
(m n )(m + n ) = m n m + n = 1
(m n )[(m + n ) 1] = 0
R and
d 2R
dt 2
d
(P.Q ) (ii) d (P Q ) .
dt
dt
d
(P.Q ) = P. dQ + dP .Q
dt
dt
dt
d
(P Q )
dt
t3
Now P Q = 5t 2
2 sin t cos t
5t
14
) (
) (
] [
d
(P Q ) = 20t 3 ( t sin t + cos t ) I + 2(t cos t + sin t ) 75t 2 J
dt
[ (
)]
) (
] [
dU
dV
d
= W U and
= W V , prove that (U V ) = W (U V ) .
dt
dt
dt
Sol.: Since
d
(U V ) = U dV + dU V
dt
dt
dt
Given
Then
dV
dU
= WV ,
= WU
dt
dt
d
(U V ) = U (W V ) + (W U ) V
dt
(A B) C = (A.C)B (B.C)A
A (B C) = (A.C)B (A.B )C = [(U.V )W (U.W)V] + [(W.V )U (U.W )W]
= (W.V )U (U.W)V
d
(U V ) = W (U V )
dt
2
(A B )
xy
15
(A B ) =
x 2 yz 2xz3
2z
) (
) (
x2
) (
) (
2
(A B ) = z 2 I + 4x 3z J + 4xyz K
xy
At (1, 0, 2) , we get
2
(A B ) = ( 2)2 I + 4(1)( 2)J + 4(1)(0)( 1)K = 4 I 8 J = 4 I + 2 J . Ans.
xy
Q.No.7.: Find the angle between the tangents to the curve R = t 2 I + 2 t J t 3 K at the
point t = 1 .
Sol.: Let T1, T2 be two tangents at t = +1 and t = 1 are respectively.
To find: Angle between the tangents T1 and T2 .
Since we know T1. T2 = T1 . T2 cos .
i.e. we have to find:
dR
= 2t I + 2 J 3t 2 K .
dt
T1 = 17.
T1 = 2 I + 2 J 3 K
T2 = 2 I + 2 J 3 K T2 = 17.
Then the required is given by the relation
16
Q.No.8.: Find the unit tangent vector at any point on the curve x = t 2 + 2 ,
y = 4 t 5 , z = 2t 2 6t , where t is any variable.
= t 2 + 2 I + ( 4t 5) J + 2t 2 6t K .
dR
= (2t ) I + (4) J + (4t 6)K
dt
and
dR
= 4 t 2 + 16 + 16 t 2 + 36 48t = 20 t 2 48t + 52 = 2 5t 2 12t + 13
dt
dR
t
I
+
2
J
+
2t
3
K
(
)
1
Thus T = dt =
. 2t I + 4 J + ( 4t 6 ) K =
. Ans
2
dR 2 5t 12t + 13
5t 2 12t + 13
dt
2nd Part:
To find: The unit tangent vector at any point t = 2.
At point t = 2, we get
17
dR
2
I
+
2
J
+K
T = dt =
, Ans.
dR
3
dt
Also find the unit tangent vector at any point t of the curve.
dR
= ( a sin t ) I + (a cos t ) J + (a tan )K
dt
dR
= a 2 sin 2 t + a 2 cos 2 t + a 2 tan 2 = a 1 + tan 2 = a sec
dt
Also
d 2R
dt 2
= ( a cos t ) I + ( a sin t ) J
dR d 2R
(i)
2 = ( a sin t ) I + (a cos t ) J ( cos t ) I (a sin t ) J + a tan K
dt dt
a cos t
a tan
= a sin t
a cos t a sin t
) (
) ( )
(ii)
d 3R
dt 3
= (a sin t ) I (a cos t ) J
dR d 2 R d 3 R
, 2 , 3
dt
dt dt
dR d 2 R d3R
.
dt dt 2 dt 3
18
d 2 R d 3R
Now 2 3
dt
dt
I
J
K
a sin t a cos t 0
dR d 2R d 3R
. 2 3 = ( a sin t ) I + (a cos t ) J + (a tan )K .(0) I + (0) J + a 2 K = a 3 tan
dt dt
dt
dR
= ( a sin t ) I + (a cos t ) J + (a tan )K .
dt
dR
1
(
a
sin
t
)
I
+
(
a
cos
t
)
J
+
(
a
tan
)
K
Unit tangent vector is = dt =
dR
a sec
dt
Q.No.10.: Find the curvature and torsion of the curve x = a cos t , y = asint, z = bt .
z-axis
Sol.:
P
O
*
P0(t=0)
x-axis
y-axis
19
This curve is drawn on a circular cylinder cutting its generators at a constant angle and is
known as circular helix.
dR
= a sin t I + a cos t J + b K .
dt
dT
To find: (i) k ( curvature ) =
ds
dB
.
(ii) (torsion) =
ds
(i)
dR
dT
t
dR dt
d T dt
dR
=
, T=
=
, s=
dt
0
ds
ds
ds
ds
dt
dt
dt
(ii)
dT
dB
d
T
dB
= dt = k N N = ?.
= dt , B = T N ,
ds
ds
ds
ds
dt
dt
dR
dt =
dt
(a
+ b2 ) t
ds
=
dt
(a
+ b2 ).
dR
dR
a
sin
t
I
+
a
cos
t
J
+
b
K
Then T =
= dt =
ds
ds
a 2 + b2
dt
d T a cos t I + sin t J
dT
= kN
N
cos
t
I
sin
t
J
= dt =
ds
ds
a 2 + b2
dt
dT
a
Thus k (curvature) =
.
= 2
ds
a + b2
20
a
sin
t
I
+
a
cos
t
J
+
b
K
cos t I + sin t J
Also B = T N =
2
2
a
+
b
b sin t I b cos t J + a K
=
2
2
a +b
dB
dB
b
= dt = 2
cos
t
I
+
sin
t
J
=
N
=
cos
t
I
+
sin
t
J
ds
ds
a + b 2
dt
Hence =
b
2
a + b2
. Ans.
dR
= ( 2 sin t ) I + (2 cos t ) J
dt
ds dR
=
= 4 sin 2 t + 4 cos 2 t = 2
dt
dt
dR
dR
(
2
sin
t
)
I
+
2
cos
t
J
sin
t
I
+
cos
J
The unit tangent vector = T =
= dt =
=
ds
ds
2
1
dt
dT
Now
= cos t I sin t J
dt
21
dT
dT
cos t I sin t J
dt
=
=
ds
ds
2
dt
dT
cos t I sin t J
2
N = dt =
= cos t I sin t J
1
dT
2
dt
dT 1
k=
= , which is constant.
ds
2
B = T N =
1
sin t
2
cos t
cos t sin t
(i)
dB
=0
dt
dB
dB
0
Hence =
= dt =
= 0 , which is constant.
ds
ds
2
dt
(ii)
Curvature k =
dR d 2 R
dt dt 2
dR
dt
dR d 2 R d3 R
.
dt dt 2 dt 3
, Torsion =
.
2
2
dR d R
dt dt 2
22
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
dR
= 3a 1 t 2 I + (6at ) J + 3a 1 + t 2 K
dt
d 2R
dt 2
d 3R
dt 3
Now
= 6at I + 6a J + 6at K
= 6a I + 6a K
dR d 2 R
2 = 3a 1 t 2
dt dt
6at 3a 1 + t 2 = 18a 2 t 2 1 I 2t J + 1 + t 2 K
6a
6at
6at
dR d 2 R
2 = 18a 2
dt dt
(t + 1)
= 18a 2 2 t 4 + 1 + 2t 2 = 18 2 a 2
And
2
dR
= 3a 1 t 2 + 4t 2 + 1 + t 2
dt
)2 = 3a
1 + t 4 2t 2 + 4t 2 + 1 + t 4 + 2t 2
= 3a 2 t 4 + 2 t 2 + 1 = 3 2 a t 2 + 1
= 3 2 a 1 + t2
dR d 2 R d3R
2 . 3 = 18a 2 t 2 1 I 2t J + 1 + t 2 K . 6a I + 6a K
dt dt dt
dR d 2 R
dt dt 2
dR
dt
= 18 2a 2 t 2 + 1
18 2 a 2 (1 + t 2 )
54 2 a 3 1 + t 2
23
Curvature k =
3a 1 + t
(i)
2 2
dR d 2 R d3R
dt dt 2 dt 3
216a 3
=
Also =
2
18.18.2a 4 1 + t 2
dR d 2R
2
dt dt
Torsion =
3a 1 + t
(ii)
2 2
k=
This shows that curvature equals torsion
Hence this proves the result.
dR
= a sin t I + b cos t J
dt
Also
1/ 2
ds dR
=
= a 2 sin 2 t + b 2 cos 2 t
dt
dt
dR
dR
dR
a
sin
t
I
+
b
cos
t
J
T=
= dt = dt =
ds
ds
ds
a 2 sin 2 t + b 2 cos 2 t
dt
dt
2 2
2
2
a sin t + b cos t a cos t I b sin t J
1 / 2
2
2
a sin t I + b cos t J 1 a 2 sin 2 t + b 2 cos 2 t
d T
=
dt
a 2 sin 2 t + b 2 cos 2 t
) (
)
24
2 2
2
2 1/ 2
a
sin
t
b
cos
t
a
cos
t
b
sin
t
+
a sin t I + b cos t J
1
/
2
a 2 sin 2 t + b 2 cos 2 t
2a 2 sin t cos t 2b 2 cos t sin t
dT
2
=
2
2
2
2
dt
a sin t + b cos t
) (
)
2 2
2
2
a sin t + b cos t a cos t I b sin t J
dT
=
dt
(a
sin 2 t + b 2 cos 2 t
3/ 2
d T ab 2 cos t I a 2 b sin t J
=
3/ 2
dt
a 2 sin 2 t + b 2 cos 2 t
dT
dT
dT
= dt
, where
k=
ds
ds
ds
dt
dT
=
ds
(a
(a
sin 2 t + b 2 cos2 t
dT
dT
ab 2 cos t I a 2 b sin t J
dt
=
=
.
4/2
ds
ds
a 2 sin 2 t + b 2 cos 2 t
dt
dT
k =
=
ds
a 2 b 2 b 2 cos2 t a 2 sin 2 t
(a
sin 2 t + b 2 cos 2 t
)=
ab
(a
sin 2 t + b 2 cos 2 t
3/ 2
. Ans.
25
dR
= 2 I + 2t J
dt
Now
ds dR
=
= 4 + 4t 2 = 2 1 + t 2
dt
dt
dR
dR
dR
2 I + 2t J
dt
dt
T=
=
=
=
ds
dR
ds
2 1 + t2
dt
dt
1 + t 2
1
+
t
J
I
+
t
J
dT
2
=
dt
1 + t2
1 / 2
t 1 + t 2
1
+
t
J
I
+
t
J
=
2
1+ t
(2t )
1 / 2
2
1 + t J I + t J t t I + J
=
=
2 3/ 2
2 3/ 2
1+ t
1+ t
t I+ J
dT
2
dT
I+ J
t
t2 + 1
1
+
t
= dt =
=
=
2
2
ds
ds
2 1 + t2 2 1 + t2
2 1 + t2
dt
dT
2
2
1
=
=
=
Put t = 1, we get
. Ans.
2
ds 2(1 + 1)
24 4 2
dT
1
. Ans.
k =
=
ds
4 2
Problems on equations of the tangent line, the osculating plane and binormal:
Q.No.14.: Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve x = a cos , y = a sin ,
z = a tan at =
.
4
26
dR
= a sin I + a cos J + a tan K
d
[ (
1/ 2
ds dR
=
= a 2 sin 2 + a 2 cos 2 + a 2 tan 2
= a 2 1 + tan 2
d
d
)]
1/ 2
= a sec
dR
dR
a
sin
I
+
a
cos
J
+
a
tan
K
T=
= d =
ds
ds
a sec
d
At =
a
a
a
, x=
, y=
, z=
tan
4
4
2
2
Now T =
tan
1
1
I+
J+
K
sec
2 sec
2 sec
1
,
2 sec
1
tan
,
2 sec sec
a
,
and it passes through the point
2
a
a
,
tan .
4
2
1
1
tan
sec
sec
sec
2
2
x
a
a
x
= y
=
2
2
a
tan
4
. Ans.
2 tan
Q.No.15.: Find the equation of the osculating plane and binormal to the curve
t
t
(i) x = 2 cosh , y = 2 sinh , z = 2t at t = 0.
2
2
t
t
Sol.: (i) The vector equation of the curve is R = 2 cosh I + 2 sinh J + 2t K
2
2
dR d
t
t
t 1
t 1
= 2 cosh I + 2 sinh J + 2t K = 2 sinh I + 2 cosh J + 2 K
dt
dt
2
2
2 2
2 2
27
t
t
= sinh I + cosh J + 2 K
2
2
ds dR
t
t
=
= sinh 2 + cosh 2 + 4
dt
dt
2
2
dR sinh t I + cosh t J + 2 K
dR
2
2
T=
= dt =
ds
ds
t
t
sinh 2 + cosh 2 + 4
dt
2
2
t
t
t
t 1
t 1
2 t
+ cosh 2 + 4 cosh I + sinh J sinh I + cosh J + 2 K
sinh
2
2
2 2
2 2
2
2
1 / 2
1
t
t 1
t
t 1
2 t
2 t
. sinh
+ cosh
+ 4
2 sinh cosh + 2 cosh sinh
2
2
2
2
2 2
d T
2
2 2
=
2
dt
t
t
2
2
sinh
+ cosh
+ 4
2
2
t
t 1
t
t
2 t
2 t
+
+
+
+
+
sinh
cosh
4
cosh
I
sinh
J
sinh
I
cosh
J
2
K
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
1 / 2
1
t
t
2 t
2 t
. sinh cosh
+ 4
2 sinh cosh
2
2
2
2
2
=
t
2 t
+ cosh 2 + 4
sinh
2
2
t
t 1
t
t
2 t
2 t
sinh + cosh + 4 cosh I + sinh J sinh I cosh J + 2 K
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
t
t
. sinh cosh
2
2
=
3/ 2
t
2 t
+ cosh 2 + 4
sinh
2
2
J+ 2 K
At t = 0, we have T =
5
28
dT
dT
= dt =
ds
ds
dt
t
t
2 t
2 t
sinh
+
cosh
+
4
cosh
I
+
sinh
2
2
2
2
t
t
t
t
2
2
2
2
2 t
+ cosh 2 + 4
sinh
2
2
d T 5 I 0 5 I
=
=
=I.
2
ds
5
5
( )
dT
I
N = dt = = I
ds
1
dt
J+ 2 K
B = T N =
I = 0
5
1
5
2
1 2 1
= I (0) + J
+ K
=
J
K
5
5 5 5
5
2 J K
B =
. Ans.
5
which is required equation of binormal. Since we know that any vector r in the plane
containing two vectors a and b is given by r = a + b , where , are arbitrary
constants. Thus
R = p N+ q T = p I +
q
J + 2 K
5
R = p I + q J + 2q K , where q =
q
,
5
R = e t cos t I + sin t J + K
dR
= e t (cos t sin t ) I + e t (cos t sin t ) J + e t K
dt
ds dR
=
= e t 2 cos 2 t + sin 2 t + 1 = 3 e t
dt
dt
dR
dR
cos
t
sin
t
cos
t
sin
t
(
)
I
+
(
)
J
+K
T=
= dt =
ds
ds
3
dt
=
dt
3
dT
(
)
(
)
dT
sin
t
+
cos
t
I
+
cos
t
sin
t
J
= dt
.
ds
ds
3e t
dt
At t = 0, we get
dT
I+ J
dT
= dt =
.
ds
ds
3
dt
I+ J
dT
I+ J
N = ds = 3 =
.
1+1
2
dT
3
ds
I + J+ K
I+ J
Thus, at t = 0, we get T =
and N =
3
2
B = T N =
J K
1
1
6
1 1
1 =
0
1
(0 1) I + ( 1 0) J + (1 + 1)K
6
29
30
I J+ 2 K
B=
. Ans.
6
I + J+ K
I+ J
Also equation of plane through T and N is R = p' T+ q ' N = p'
+ q'
.
3
2
R = (p q ) I + (p + q ) J + p K .
which is the required equation of osculating plane.