DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF

THORP T-211 WING

A PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by

ARUN CELESTIN.P

(611311101002)

ASWIN SHANKAR.P.S

(611311101003)

SUDARSAN.N

(611311101020)

VIGNESHWARAN.S

(611311101022)

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
MAHENDRA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
NAMAKKAL-637 503

ANNA UNIVERSITY :CHENNAI 600 025

APRIL 2015

ANNA UNIVERSITY :CHENNAI- 600 025

1

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project report FABRICATION AND INSTALLATION
OF THORP-T211 WING is the bonafide work of,

ARUN CELESTIN.P

(611311101002)

ASWIN SHANKAR.P.S

(611311101003)

SUDARSAN.N

(611311101020)

VIGNESHWARAN.S

(611311101022)

Who carried out the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE

SIGNATURE

Dr.C.DHAVAMANI,M.E., Ph.D.,

Mr.K.BALAKRISHNAN, M.Tech

M.I.S.T.E., M.I.E.

SUPERVISOR,

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT,

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,

Department of Aeronautical Engineering,

Department of aeronautical

Engineering

Mahendra Engineering College,

Mahendra Engineering College,

Namakkal-637 503.

Namakkal-637 503.

Submitted for the University examinations held on. at .

INTERNAL EXAMINER

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Behind every achievement lies an unfathomable sea of gratitude to those
who actuated it, without them it would never have into existence .To them we
lay the word of gratitude imprinted within us.
We express our sincere thanks and gratitude to our honorable Chairman,
Shri.M.G.BHARATKUMAR, M.A., B.Ed., M.I.S.T.E., who has provided
excellent facilities for us to complete our project as successful one.
We wish to express our sincere thanks to our respected Principal
Dr.M.MADHESWARAN, B.E., M.E., Ph.D., M.B.A., (Ph.D).,
M.I.S.T.E.,for all the blessing and help provided during the period of project
work..
We wish to express our sincere thanks to Dr.V.SHANMUGAM, M.E.,
Ph.D., M.B.A.,Dean School of Mechanical Science for the continuous help
over the period of project work
We wish to express our sincere thanks to Dr.C.DHAVAMANI, M.E.,
Ph.D., M.I.S.T.E., M.I.E.,Head of the Department of
Aeronautical
Engineering for the continuous help over the period of project work.
With sincere gratitude respect and pride, we express our thanks to
MR.U.V.RAO, SENIOR ENGINEER, AVIONICS DEPARTMENT,
TAAL, HOSUR for his excellent guidance and encouragement throughout the
successful completion of the project.
We are indebted to our guide Mr.K.BALAKRISHNAN, M.Tech.,
Assistant Professor, Department of Aeronautical Engineering for his constant
help and creative ideas over the period of Project work.
We would like to extend our warmest thanks to all our Staff members and
Lab Technicians for helping us in this venture.

ABSTRACT
Our main aim is to implement the composite materials to the
thorp T-211 wing by fabrication of the carbon fiber and aramid fiber
by the process of lapping of the sandwich panels.
In the initial stage of manufacturing of the thorp T-211 wing
was done with the metals like aluminum. Aluminum has more
strength, corrosion resistant and also less weight. So, aluminum has
used in all aircraft parts.
But, now the technology has been increased in the material
science. So, there is a new material has introduced in the field of
materials. That is composite material these materials, Light weight,
Resistance to corrosion, High resistance to fatigue damage, reduced
machining Tapered sections and compound contours easily
accomplished, Can orientate fibers in direction of strength/stiffness
needed.

LIST OF TABLES
6.1

Wing 1: with propeller & landing gear

84

6.2

Wing 1: without landing gear

85

6.3

Wing 2: without landing gear

86

6.4

Carbon fabric construction data-Hexcel fibers

88

6.5

PAN Carbon fibers data

89

LIST OF FIGURES
1.1 Structural wing design

1.2 Aerofoil shape

1.3 Aerofoil

1.4 Aerodynamic forces

10

1.5 Lift direction

12

1.6 Lift induced drag

14

1.7 Various wing tip devices

20

1.8 Types of aircraft wings

23

1.9 Parts of wings

24

1.10 Types of fibers

32

1.11 Cross sectional view of composite blade

35

1.12 Explore view of T-211

38

1.13 Thorp T-211 aircraft

39

3.1 Tools for fabrication

54

3.2 Fabrication Process

55

3.3 Composite layers

56

4.1 Open circuit wind tunnel

73

5.1 Rear beam assemby 699L(699R)

78

5.2 AFT RIB ASSY 698-7L(698-7R)

79

5.3 Drilling holes

81

5.4 Rear spar attachment

82

6.1 Cross sectional view of wing

90

6.2 Ribs and Spar

91

LIST OF ABBREVATIONS
DOC

Direct Operating Cost

ATL

Automated Tape Laying

FRP

Fiber Reinforced Plastic

AFP

Automated Fiber Placement

UHMPE
LC
HLC
VARTM

Ultra High modules Polyethylene

Laminate Composite
Hybrid Laminate Composite
Vacuum Assisted resin Transfer Molding

SRPP

Self Reinforced Poly Propylene

HLU

Hand Lay Up

RTM

Resin Transfer Molding

RIP

Resin infusion Process

TSHB

Tensional Split Hopkinson Bar

HAL

Hindustan Aeronautics Limited

ISRO

Indian space Research Organization

NAL

National Aerospace Limited

ADE

Aeronautical Development Establishment

E-beam

Electron beam

RIM

Reaction Injection Molding

CFRP

Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic

NACA

National Advisory committee for

Aeronautics

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 WING AND WINGDESIGN
Aircraft preliminary design the second step in design process was
introduced. Three parameters were determined during preliminary design,
namely: aircraft maximum takeoff weight (WTO); engine power (P), or engine
thrust (T); and wing reference area (Sref). The third step in the design process is
the detail design. During detail design, major aircraft components such as wing,
fuselage, horizontal tail, vertical tail, propulsion system, landing gear and
control surfaces are designed one-by-one. Each aircraft component is designed
as an individual entity at this step, but in later design steps, they are integrated
as one system aircraft- and their interactions are considered.

This chapter focuses on the detail design of the wing. The wing may be
considered as the most important component of an aircraft, since a fixed-wing
aircraft is not able to fly without it. Since the wing geometry and its features are
influencing all other aircraft components, we begin the detail design process by
wing design. The primary function of the wing is to generate sufficient lift force
or simply lift (L). However, the wing has two other productions, namely drag
force or drag (D) and nose-down pitching moment (M). While a wing designer
is looking to maximize the lift, the other two (drag and pitching moment) must
be minimized. In fact, a wing is considered as a lifting surface that lift is
produced due to the pressure difference between lower and upper surfaces.
Aerodynamics textbooks are a good source to consult for information about

mathematical techniques for calculating the pressure distribution over the wing
and for determining the flow variables.
Basically, the principles and methodologies of systems engineering are
followed in the wing design process.
Limiting factors in the wing design approach originate from design
requirements such as performance requirements, stability and control
requirements, producibility requirements, operational requirements, cost, and
flight safety. Major performance requirements include stall speed, maximum
speed, takeoff run, range and endurance. Primary stability and control
requirements include lateral-directional static stability, lateral-directional
dynamic stability, and aircraft controllability during probable wing stall.
During the wing design process, eighteen parameters must be determined. They
are as follows:
1. Wing reference (or plan form) area (SW or Serf or S)
2. Number of the wings
3. Vertical position relative to the fuselage (high, mid, or low wing)
4. Horizontal position relative to the fuselage
5. Cross section (or aerofoil)
6. Aspect ratio (AR)
7. Taper ratio
8. Tip chord
9. Root chord
10. Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC or C)
11. Span
12. Twist angle (or washout)
13. Sweep angle
14. Dihedral angle
15. Incidence (iw) (or setting angle)
10

16. High lifting devices such as flap

17. Aileron

Fig1.1. Structural wing design

Thus, the wing design begins with one known variable (S), and
considering all design requirements, the other 17 wing parameters are obtained.
The wing must produce sufficient lift while generate minimum drag, and
minimum pitching moment. These design goals must be collectively satisfied
throughout all flight operations and missions. There are other wing parameters
that could be added to this list such as wing tip, winglet, engine installation,
fairing, vortex generator, and wing structural considerations.

11

1.2 Wing design - selection of wing parameters

1.2.1 Introduction
In the context of wing design the following aspects need consideration.
1. Wing area (S) : This is calculated from the wing loading and gross weight
which have been already decided i.e. S= W / (W / S)
2. Location of the wing on fuselage : High-, low- or mid-wing
3. Aerofoil : Thickness ratio, camber and shape
4. Sweep () : Whether swept forward, swept backward, angle of sweep,
5. cranked wing, variable sweep.
6. Aspect ratio (A) : High or low, winglets
7. Taper ratio () : Straight taper or variable taper.
8. Twist () : Amount and distribution
9. Wing incidence or setting (iw)
10.High lift devices : Type of flaps and slats; values of CLmax, Sflap/S
11.Ailerons and spoilers : Values of Saileron/S; Sspoiler/S
12.Leading edge strakes if any.
13.Dihedral angle ( ).
14.Other aspects : Variable camber, planform tailoring, area ruling, braced
15.wing, aerodynamic coupling (intentionally adding a coupling lifting
surface like canard).

The above parameters are dealt with in the following order.

i) Airfoil selection
ii) Aspect ratio
iii) Sweep
iv) Taper ratio
12

v) Twist
vi) Incidence
vii) Dihedral
viii) Vertical location
ix) Wing tips
x) Other aspects

Fig1.2. Aerofoil shape

1.3 Airfoil selection

Large airplane companies like Boeing and Airbus may design their own
airfoils However, during the preliminary design stage, the usual practical is to
choose the airfoil from the large number of airfoils whose geometric and
aerodynamic characteristics are available in the aeronautical literature. To
enable such a selection it is helpful to know the aerodynamic and geometrical
characteristics of airfoils and their nomenclature. These topics are covered in
the next three subsections.

13

Following six terms are essential in determining the shape of a typical

airfoil:
(1) The leading edge
(2) The trailing edge
(3) The chord line
(4) The camber line (or mean line)
(5) The upper surface
(6) The lower surface

For Thorpedo T211 aircraft,

Wing Span, b = 7.62m
Wing Area, S = 9.75m2
S = b x Croot
Solving,
Croot = 1.28m

14

Aspect Ratio, A.R

=
= 5.953m
= 576.607N/m2

Wing loading,

Stall Velocity, Vstall = 39 knots

=20.063m/s
CLmax =
= 1.225kg/m3

Density at sea level

Hence,

CLmax

= 2.338746

Reynolds number:
Reynolds's number, Re =
0

= 1.667x10-5 Ns/m2

= 1.225kg/m3

Re = 3.8318023 x 106

Hence it is transient flow.

When a retractable landing gear is installed it needs provisions to be stored
within airplane body. In Thorpedo T211 aircraft fuel is stored within the
fuselage. Hence the wings are hollow. This space can be utilized for storing the
15

under carriage once its retracted. But, the existing airfoil NACA 1410 is a thin
airfoil and cannot accommodate it.
So a new airfoil which is thicker and has more CLmax, in order to counter the
extra weight of landing gear mechanism, is selected.
NACA 4415 airfoil meets all these requirements.

NACA 4415
15
10
5
0
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

-5

1.4 National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA)

Mathematical theory has not, as yet, been applied to the discontinuous
motion past a cambered surface. For this reason, we are able to design aerofoil
only by consideration of those forms which have been successful, by applying
general rules learned by experience, and by then testing the airfoils in a reliable
wind tunnel.
NACA 4415 is defined as a shape that has a maximum camber of 4 percent of
the chord (first digit); the maximum camber occurs at a position of 0.4 chord
from the leading edge (the second digit), and the maximum thickness is
15percent (the last two digits).

NACA 1410 is defined as a shape that has a maximum camber of 1percent of

the chord (first digit); the maximum camber occurs at a position of 0.4 chord
16

from the leading edge (the second digit), and the maximum thickness is 10
percent (the last two digits).

1.5 Geometrical characteristics of airfoils

In this procedure, the camber line or the mean line is the basic line for
definition of the aerofoil shape . The line joining the extremities of the camber
line is the chord. The leading and trailing edges are defined as the forward and
rearward extremities, respectively, of the mean line. Various camber line shapes
have been suggested and they characterize various families of airfoils.. Various
thickness distributions have been suggested and they characterize different
families of airfoils. The maximum ordinate of the thickness distribution as
fraction of chord (ytmax/c) and its location as fraction of chord (xytmax/c) are
the important parameters of the thickness distribution.

1.6 Airfoil shape and ordinates

The aerofoil shape (Fig.1.3) is obtained by combining the camber line
and the thickness distribution in the following manner.
a) Draw the camber line shape and draw lines perpendicular to it at
various locations along the chord.
b) Lay off the thickness distribution along the lines drawn perpendicular
to the mean line.
c) The coordinates of the upper surface (xu, yu) and lower surface (xl, yl)
of the airfoil are given by the four equations presented in fig1.3.

Fig. 1.3 Aero foil

17

1.7 AERODYNAMIC FORCES

Aerodynamic force is exerted on a body by the air (or some other gas) in which
the body is immersed, and is due to the relative motion between the body and
the gas. Aerodynamic force arises from two causes the normal force due to the
pressure on the surface of the body the shear force due to the viscosity of the
gas, also known as friction. Pressure acts locally, normal to the surface, and
shear force acts locally, parallel to the surface. The net aerodynamic force over
the body is due to the pressure and shear forces integrated over the total exposed
area of the body. When an aerofoil (or a wing) is moving relative to the air it
generates an aerodynamic force, in a rearward direction at an angle with the
direction of relative motion. This aerodynamic force is commonly resolved into
two components. Drag is the force component parallel to the direction of
relative motion, lift is the force component perpendicular to the direction of
relative motion. In addition to these two forces, the body may experience an
aerodynamic moment also, the value of which depends on the point chosen for
calculation. The force created by a propeller or a jet engine is called thrust and it
is also an aerodynamic force (since it also acts on the surrounding air). The
aerodynamic force on a powered airplane is commonly represented by three
vectors: thrust, lift and drag. The other force acting on an aircraft during flight is
its weight. Weight is a body force and is not an aerodynamic force.

18

Fig. 1.4.Aerodynamic force

1.7.1 Lift (Force)

A fluid flowing past the surface of a body exerts a force on it. Lift is the
component of this force that is perpendicular to the oncoming flow direction. It
contrasts with the drag force, which is the component of the surface force
parallel to the flow direction. If the fluid is air, the force is called an
aerodynamic force. In water, it is called a hydrodynamic force. Lift is most
commonly associated with the wing of a fixed-wing aircraft, although lift is also
generated by propellers, kites, helicopter rotors, rudders, sails and keels on
sailboats, hydrofoils, wings on auto racing cars, wind turbines, and other
streamlined objects. Lift is also exploited in the animal world, and even in the
plant world by the seeds of certain trees. While the common meaning of the
word "lift" assumes that lift opposes weight, lift in the technical sense used in
this article can be in any direction with respect to gravity, since it is defined
with respect to the direction of flow rather than to the direction of gravity.
When an aircraft is flying straight and level (cruise) most of the lift opposes
gravity. However, when an aircraft is climbing, descending, or banking in a turn
the lift is tilted with respect to the vertical. Lift may also be entirely downwards
in some aerobatic manoeuvres, or on the wing on a racing car. In this last case,
the term downforce is often used. Lift may also be largely horizontal, for
instance on a sail on a sailboat.
19

Aerodynamic lift is distinguished from other kinds of lift in fluids.

Aerodynamic lift requires relative motion of the fluid which distinguishes it
from aerostatic lift or buoyancy lift as used by balloons, blimps, and dirigibles.
Aerodynamic lift usually refers to situations in which the body is completely
immersed in the fluid, and is thus distinguished from planing lift as used by
motorboats, surfboards, and water-skis, in which only a lower portion of the
body is immersed in the lifting fluid flow.

Fig. 1.5. Lift direction

An airfoil generates lift by exerting a downward force on the air as it flows past.
According to Newton's third law, the air must exert an equal and opposite
(upward) force on the airfoi , which is the lift. The air flow changes direction as
it passes the airfoil following a path that is curved downward, and the overall
result is that a reaction force is generated opposite to the directional
change.[17][18] In the case of an airplane wing, the wing exerts a downward force
on the air and the air exerts an upward force on the wing. Some of the air
passing the airfoil has downward momentum imparted to it at a rate equal to the
lift (see "Momentum balance in lifting flows" for details). This is consistent
with Newton's second law of motion which states that the rate of change of
momentum is equal to the resultant force.
20

1.7.2 Drag (Force)

In fluid dynamics, drag (sometimes called air resistance or fluid resistance)
refers to forces that oppose the relative motion of an object through a fluid (a
liquid or gas). Drag forces act in a direction opposite to the oncoming flow
velocity. Unlike other resistive forces such as dry friction, which is nearly
independent of velocity, drag forces depend on velocity.
For a solid object moving through a fluid, the drag is the component of the net
aerodynamic or hydrodynamic force acting opposite to the direction of the
movement. The component perpendicular to this direction is considered lift.
Therefore drag opposes the motion of the object, and in a powered vehicle it is
overcome by thrust. In aerodynamics, and depending on the situation,
atmospheric drag can be regarded as an inefficiency requiring expense of
additional energy during launch of the space object or as a bonus simplifying
return from orbit.
VARIOUS TYPES OF DRAG:
1) PARASITE DRAG:
i) FORM DRAG
ii) SKIN FRICTION DRAG
iii) INTERFERENCE DRAG
2) LIFT-INDUCED DRAG
3) WAVE DRAG

1.7.2.1 PARASITE DRAG:

Parasitic drag (also called parasite drag) is drag caused by moving a solid
object through a fluid. Parasitic drag is made up of multiple components
including viscous pressure drag (form drag), and drag due to surface roughness
(skin friction drag). Additionally, the presence of multiple bodies in relative
21

proximity may incur so called interference drag, which is sometimes described

as a component of parasitic drag. In aviation, induced drag tends to be greater at
lower speeds because a high angle of attack is required to maintain lift, creating
more drag. However, as speed increases the induced drag becomes much less,
but parasitic drag increases because the fluid is flowing faster around protruding
objects increasing friction or drag. At even higher speeds in the transonic, wave
drag enters the picture.
Each of these forms of drag changes in proportion to the others based on speed.
The combined overall drag curve therefore shows a minimum at some airspeed an aircraft flying at this speed will be at or close to its optimal efficiency. Pilots
will use this speed to maximize endurance (minimum fuel consumption), or
maximize gliding range in the event of an engine failure.

1.7.2.2 LIFT-INDUCED DRAG:

Fig. 1.6. Lift in induced drag

Lift-induced drag (also called induced drag)

is drag which occurs as the result

of the creation of lift on a three-dimensional lifting body, such as the wing or

fuselage of an airplane. Induced drag consists of two primary components,
including drag due to the creation of vortices (vortex drag) and the presence of
additional viscous drag (lift-induced viscous drag). The vortices in the flowfield, present in the wake of a lifting body, derive from the turbulent mixing of
air of varying pressure on the upper and lower surfaces of the body, which is a
22

necessary condition for the creation of lift. For an aircraft in flight, this means
that as the angle of attack, and therefore the lift coefficient, increases to the
point of stall, so does the lift-induced drag. At the onset of stall, lift is abruptly
decreased, as is lift-induced drag, but viscous pressure drag, a component of
parasite drag, and increases due to the formation of turbulent unattached flow
on the surface of the body.

1.7.2.3 WAVE DRAG:

Wave drag (also called compressibility drag) is drag which is created by the
presence of a body moving at high speed through a compressible fluid. In
aerodynamics, Wave drag consists of multiple components depending on the
speed regime of the flight. In transonic flight (Mach numbers greater than 0.5
and less than 1.0), wave drag is the result of the formation of shockwaves on the
body, formed when areas of local supersonic (Mach number greater than 1.0)
flow are created. In practice, supersonic flow occurs on bodies traveling well
below the speed of sound, as the local speed of air on a body increases when it
accelerates over the body, in this case above Mach 1.0. Therefore, aircraft flying
at transonic speed often incur wave drag through the normal course of
operation. In transonic flight, wave drag is commonly referred to as transonic
compressibility drag. Transonic compressibility drag increases significantly as
the speed of flight increases towards Mach 1.0, dominating other forms of drag
at these speeds.
In supersonic flight (Mach numbers greater than 1.0), wave drag is the result of
shockwaves present on the body, typically oblique shockwaves formed at the
leading and trailing edges of the body. In highly supersonic flows, or in bodies
with turning angles sufficiently large, unattached shockwaves, or bow waves
will instead form.
23

Additionally, local areas of transonic flow behind the initial shockwave may
occur at lower supersonic speeds, and can lead to the development of additional,
smaller shockwaves present on the surfaces of other lifting bodies, similar to
those found in transonic flows.

1.8 DRAG REDUTION TECHNIQUES

Drag reduction is one of the main objectives of the transport aircraft
manufacturers. The drag breakdown of a transport aircraft at cruise shows that
the skin friction drag and the lift-induced drag constitute the two main sources
of drag, approximately one half and one third of the total drag. Hybrid laminar
flow technology and innovative wing tip devices offer the greatest potential for
drag reduction. Aircraft performance improvement in off-design conditions can
also be obtained through trailing edge optimization, control of the shock
boundary layer interaction and of the boundary layer separation. The paper will
give an overview of the results obtained for the different mentioned topics and
will try to evaluate the potential gains offered by the different technologies.
Drag reduction of civil transport aircraft directly concerns performance, but also
indirectly, of course, cost, and environment. Fuel consumption represents about
22% of the Direct Operating Cost (DOC) which is of utmost importance for the
airlines, for a typical long range transport aircraft.
Drag reduction directly impacts on the DOC: a drag reduction of 1% can
lead to a DOC decrease of about 0.2% for a large transport aircraft. Other tradeoffs corresponding to a 1% drag reduction are 1.6 tons on the operating empty
weight or 10 passengers.

24

The environmental factors, such as noise, air pollution around airports and
impact on climate change, which are well underlined in [1], will also play an
important role for future growth of the civil aviation.
The impact of air travel on the environment will then become an increasing
powerful factor on aircraft design. It is also important to recall the main goals of
the vision 2020 launched by the European commission: a 50% cut in CO2
emissions per passenger kilometer and an 80% cut in nitrogen oxide emissions.
These objectives cannot be reached without breakthrough in today technologies.

Drag reduction is a great challenge but there is certainly room for

improvements. The drag breakdown of a civil transport aircraft shows that the
skin friction drag and the lift-induced drag constitute the two main sources of
drag, approximately one half and one third of the total drag for a typical long
range aircraft at cruise conditions. This is why specific research on these topics
has been initiated in European Research centers and it seems that Hybrid
Laminar Flow technology and innovative wing tip devices offer the greatest
potential. Aircraft performance improvement can also be obtained through
trailing edge optimization, control of the shock boundary layer interaction and
of boundary layer separation. In the following sections, the different
technologies which were investigated at ONERA will be presented and
illustrated by experimental results.

1.8.1 SKIN FRICTION DRAG REDUCTION

Two methods are generally considered for skin friction drag reduction.
The first one aims at reducing the turbulent skin friction while the second one
aims at delaying transition to maintain large extent of laminar flow.
1.8.1.1Turbulent skin friction reduction
A skin friction drag reduction can be obtained with the use of passive
boundary layer manipulators. Among the various devices, V-groove rib-lets
25

have demonstrated substantial reductions (up to 8%) of the local skin friction.
An experimental verification in a large wind tunnel was carried out in 1988 on a
1/11 scale complete model of the Airbus A320.
For the test, 2/3 of the wetted model surface was covered with the rib-lets for
which the previously mentioned V-groove cross-section has been chosen.
Viscous flow computations on the wing and on the fuselage have shown that a
rib-let depth of 0.023 mm can allow a average value of h + w=8 to be obtained.
Wind tunnel test was successful and total drag reductions up to 1.6% have been
demonstrated at corresponding cruise Mach number conditions.
With the guidelines of the previous wind tunnel investigations and the
recommendations coming from the structure, material and system teams, a flight
test was prepared with the Airbus A320 No 1. Overall performance and local
data were measured with and without the rib-lets, and drag reduction predictions
based on the wind tunnel tests were confirmed.

1.8.2 Hybrid laminar flow technology

A substantial reduction in fuel consumption and in CO2 emissions will
certainly require the adoption of laminar flow control in order to reduce the skin
friction. For small aircraft with low swept wing, laminar flow can be maintained
by shaping the airfoil and this concept is currently considered for new small jet
aircraft. However for high Reynolds number and high sweep encountered on a
large transport aircraft, suction has to be applied.
In the Hybrid Laminar Flow concept, the laminar flow can be maintained
by the application of suction in the region of the leading edge to control the
development of cross flow instabilities combined with favorable pressure
gradients in the spar box region. It is first necessary to ensure that the
attachment line remains laminar and to avoid contamination phenomenon. Anti
contamination devices have to be used to avoid the contamination of the
attachment line by the turbulent structures coming from the fuselage.

26

The suction system has to be designed according to various aerodynamic

and structure requirements. Main features of suction systems are laser drilled
titanium panel and suction chambers controlled by independent ducts.
The geometrical characteristics of perforated panel such as hole diameter,
porosity as well as chamber sizes are determined taking into account the suction
velocity range, computed by stability approach, and pressure distributions for
various aerodynamic conditions.

With suction systems, premature transition can be caused by outflow and

by roughness effects due to high velocities in the suction holes. Pressure drop
methods and suction criteria have to be used to avoid these premature
transitions.
Surface imperfections such as isolated roughness, gaps, steps and
waviness can provoke premature transition. It is then necessary to study their
effects on transition and to develop calculation methods and criteria in order to
estimate these effects. Recent studies have shown that modern manufacturing
techniques can provide smooth surfaces, compatible with laminar flow.
Recent progress carried out towards the understanding of transition
characteristics of swept-wing flows would allow to control the transition by
passive means. Some experiments presented in have shown that transition
governed by cross flow instabilities can be delayed using artificial roughness. In
this concept, the artificial vortices interact nonlinearly with the natural vortices
in such a way that the natural vortices are strongly reduced.
In this approach, the drag reduction could be lower than the one expected with
the HLF concept, but the drawbacks are also very limited. It is worthwhile to
investigate these passive means through basic experiments and non-linear PSE
computations, because they can contribute to the system simplification needed
for a future laminar aircraft.
27

1.8.3 LIFT-INDUCED DRAG REDUCTION

The second major drag component is the lift-induced drag. The classical
way to decrease the lift-induced drag is to increase the aspect ratio of the wing.

Wing aspect ratio is a compromise between aerodynamic and structure

characteristics and it is clear that for a given technology there is not a great
possibility to increase aspect ratios. The alternative is to develop wing tip
devices acting on the tip vortex which is at the origin of the lift-induced drag.
Basic studies have shown that drag reduction can be obtained with
variations in plan form geometry along a small fraction of the wing-span and
with aft-swept configurations.
Furthermore, the presents, as examples among the investigated shapes, the
wing tip turbine, the wing tip sails, the wing grid, the blended winglet and the
spiroid tip.

Fig.1.7. various wingtip devices

The concept of the blended winglet is to modify a large part of the wing
tip together with the winglet itself in order to obtain a very smooth blended
shape. The blended winglet is expected to be more efficient than a narrow one
to reduce the flow acceleration that occurs in the cross flow curvature and to
28

decrease the vortex intensity as important chord variation is avoided. The

spiroid tip is a spiral loop obtained when joining by their tip a vertical winglet
and a horizontal one. This unconventional device seems promising to reduce the
tip vortex intensity but has a complex geometry difficult to optimize.
Total drag reduction of about 2% can be expected with such wing tip
devices. However, for industrial applications, wingtip devices have a strong
influence on the wing structure and aero- elastic effects have to be taken into
account through a multidisciplinary optimization approach.
1.8.4 WAVE DRAG REDUCTION
Even if the wave drag contribution to the total drag of a modern transport
aircraft is not high, there is room for some significant improvements through
adaptation of the aircraft to the variation of the flight conditions : an increase of
the cruise Mach number for example. This aerodynamic adaptation can be
realized with shock control or trailing edge devices.
1.8.4.1 Shock control devices
Among the different passive shock boundary layer control concepts
investigated, the bump concept seems promising. This concept is based on the
local modification of the airfoil surface in the shock region. The straight shock
is transformed into a lambda shock configuration and its strength is reduced by
the presence of the compression waves.
1.8.4.2 Trailing edge devices
For wave drag reduction, the concept of the thick cambered trailing edge
which increases the rear loading and reduces the upper surface pressure
recovery seems also very promising. This concept has then been investigated on
a wing body configuration under a co-operation with Airbus France. Tests were
carried out on a half-model in the wind tunnel and the results have been
carefully analyzed through far-field drag extraction techniques. The computed
and measured drag reduction obtained when the thick cambered trailing edge is
installed in the outer part of the wing. It is clear that the thick cambered trailing
29

edge concept can be used by the designer as an additional degree of freedom. Its
effects can also be obtained through a trailing edge deflector.

These results show that characteristics of the flow can be strongly modified with
the use of a trailing edge device which allows drag reduction and greater buffet
margin to be obtained. Important investigations are currently carried out to
adapt the wing geometry to the different flight conditions: cruise, take-off and
landing.
1.9 TYPES OF WINGS
Fixed-wing aircraft, popularly called aeroplanes, airplanes or just planes may be
built with many wing configurations. This page provides a breakdown of types,
allowing a full description of any aircrafts wing configuration. For example the
Spitfire wing may be classified as a conventional low wing cantilever
monoplane with straight elliptical wings of moderate aspect ratio and slight
dihedral.Sometimes the distinction between types is blurred, for example the
wings of many modern combat aircraft may be described either as cropped
compound deltas with (forwards or backwards) swept trailing edge, or as
sharply tapered swept wings with large Leading Edge Root Extension (or
LERX). All the configurations described have flown (if only very briefly) on
full-size aircraft, except as noted.
Some variants may be duplicated under more than one heading, due to their
complex nature. This is particularly so for variable geometry and combined
(closed) wing types.
1.9.1MONO PLANE
One wing plane. The most aeroplanes have been monoplanes. The wing
may be mounted at various positions relative to the fuselage.

30

High wing
Parasol wing

1.

Low wing: mounted near or below the bottom of the fuselage.

2.

Mid wing: mounted approximately halfway up the fuselage.

3.

Shoulder wing: mounted on the upper part or shoulder of the fuselage,

slightly below the top of the fuselage. A shoulder wing is sometimes
considered a subtype of high wing.

4.

High wing: mounted on the upper fuselage. When contrasted to the

shoulder wing, applies to a wing mounted on a projection (such as the
cabin roof) above the top of the main fuselage.

Low wing

Mid wing

Fig.1.8. Types of aircraft wings

1.10 WING PARTS

Aileron
Flap
Rib
Spar
Spoiler
Stall strips
31

Shoulder wing

 Wing tip
1.10.1 AILERON
An aileron is a hinged flight control surface usually attached to
the trailing edge of each wing of a fixed-wing aircraft. Ailerons are used in pairs
to control the aircraft in roll (or movement around the aircraft's longitudinal
axis), which normally results in a change in flight path due to the tilting of
the lift vector. Movement around this axis is called 'rolling' or 'banking'.

Fig 1.9 Parts of wing

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1.10.2 Flaps
Flaps are devices used to alter the lift characteristics of a wing and are
mounted on the trailing edges of the wings of a fixed-wing aircraftto reduce the
speed at which the aircraft can be safely flown and to increase the angle of
descent for landing. They shorten takeoff and landing distances. Flaps do this by
lowering the stall speed and increasing the drag.
Extending flaps increases the camber or curvature of the wing, raising the
maximum lift coefficient the lift a wing can generate. This allows the aircraft
to generate as much lift, but at a lower speed, reducing the stalling speed of the
aircraft, or the minimum speed at which the aircraft will maintain flight.
Extending flaps increases drag, which can be beneficial during approach and
landing, because it slows the aircraft. On some aircraft, a useful side effect of
flap deployment is a decrease in aircraft pitch angle which lowers the nose
thereby improving the pilot's view of the runway over the nose of the aircraft
during landing. However the flaps may also cause pitch-up depending on the
type of flap and the location of the wing.

1.10.3 Spoiler
In aeronautics, a spoiler (sometimes called a lift dumper) is a device
intended to reduce lift in an aircraft. Spoilers are plates on the top surface of a
wing that can be extended upward into the airflow to spoil it. By so doing, the
spoiler creates a controlled stall over the portion of the wing behind it, greatly
reducing the lift of that wing section. Spoilers differ from airbrakes in that
airbrakes are designed to increase drag without affecting lift, while spoilers
reduce lift as well as increasing drag.

33

Spoilers fall into two categories: those that are deployed at controlled angles
during flight to increase descent rate or control roll, and those that are fully
deployed immediately on landing to greatly reduce lift ("lift dumpers") and
increase drag. In modern fly-by-wire aircraft, the same set of control surfaces
serve both functions. Spoilers are used by nearly every glider (sailplane) to
control their rate of descent and thus achieve a controlled landing. An increased
rate of descent can also be achieved by lowering the nose of an aircraft, but this
would result in increased speed. Spoilers enable the approach to be made at a
safe speed for landing.

1.10.4 Spar
In a fixed-wing aircraft, the spar is often the main structural member of the
wing, running spanwise at right angles (or thereabouts depending on wing
sweep) to the fuselage. The spar carries flight loads and the weight of the wings
while on the ground. Other structural and forming members such as ribs may be
attached to the spar or spars, with stressed skin construction also sharing the
loads where it is used. There may be more than one spar in a wing or none at all.
However, where a single spar carries the majority of the forces on it, it is known
as the main spar. Spars are also used in other aircraft aerofoil surfaces such as
the tailplane and fin and serve a similar function, although the loads transmitted
may be different from those of a wing spar.

1.10.5 Ribs
In an aircraft, ribs are forming elements of the structure of a wing, especially in
traditional construction. By analogy with the anatomical definition of "rib", the
ribs attach to the main spar, and by being repeated at frequent intervals, form a
skeletal shape for the wing. Usually ribs incorporate the airfoil shape of the
wing, and the skin adopts this shape when stretched over the ribs.

1.10.6 Wing tip

34

A wing tip is the part of the wing that is most distant from the fuselage of
a fixed-wing aircraft. Wing tips are also an expression of aircraft design style,
so their shape may be influenced by marketing considerations as well as
byaerodynamic requirements.Wing tips are often used by aircraft designers to
mount navigation lights, anti-collision strobe lights, landing lights, handholds,
and identification markings.Wing tip tanks can act as a winglet and distribute
weight more evenly across the wing spar.Aerobatic aircraft use wingtip
mounted crosses for visual attitude reference.

1.11 DESCRIPTION OF COMPOSITE STRUCTURES

1.11.1 Introduction
Composite materials are becoming more important in the construction of
aerospace structures. Aircraft parts made from composite materials, such as
fairings, spoilers, and flight controls, were developed during the 1960s for their
weight savings over aluminum parts. New generation large aircraft are designed
with all composite fuselage and wing structures, and the repair of these
advanced composite materials requires an in-depth knowledge of composite
structures, materials, and tooling. The primary advantages of composite
materials are their high strength, relatively low weight, and corrosion resistance.

1.11.2 Laminated Structures

Composite materials consist of a combination of materials that are mixed
together to achieve specific structural properties. The individual materials do
not dissolve or merge completely in the composite, but they act together as one.
Normally, the components can be physically identified as they interface with
one another. The properties of the composite material are superior to the
properties of the individual materials from which it is constructed. An advanced
composite material is made of a fibrous material embedded in a resin matrix,
35

generally laminated with fibers oriented in alternating directions to give the

material strength and stiffness. Fibrous materials are not new; wood is the most
common fibrous structural material known to man.

Applications of composites on aircraft include:

Fairings
Flight control surfaces
Landing gear doors
Leading and trailing edge panels on the wing and stabilizer
Interior components
Floor beams and floor boards
Vertical and horizontal stabilizer primary structure on
large aircraft
Primary wing and fuselage structure on new generation
large aircraft
Turbine engine fan blades
Propellers

1.11.2.1 Major Components of a Laminate

An isotropic material has uniform properties in all directions. The
measured properties of an isotropic material are independent of the axis of
testing. Metals such as aluminium and titanium are examples of isotropic
materials.
A fiber is the primary load carrying element of the composite material. The
composite material is only strong and stiff in the direction of the fibers.
36

Unidirectional composites have predominant mechanical properties in one

direction and are said to be anisotropic, having mechanical and/or physical
properties that vary with direction relative to natural reference axes inherent in
the material. Components made from fiber reinforced composites can be
designed so that the fiber orientation produces optimum mechanical properties,
but they can only approach the true isotropic nature of metals, such as
aluminum and titanium.

A matrix supports the fibers and bonds them together in the composite
material. The matrix transfers any applied loads to the fibers, keeps the fibers in
their position and chosen orientation, gives the composite environmental
resistance, and determines the maximum service temperature of a composite.

1.11.2.2 Strength Characteristics

Structural properties, such as stiffness, dimensional stability, and strength
of a composite laminate, depend on the stacking sequence of the plies. The
stacking sequence describes the distribution of ply orientations through the
laminate thickness. As the number of plies with chosen orientations increases,
more stacking sequences are possible. For example, a symmetric eight-ply
laminate with four different ply orientations has 24 different stacking
sequences.

1.11.2.3 Fiber Orientation

The strength and stiffness of a composite buildup depends on the
orientation sequence of the plies. The practical range of strength and stiffness of
carbon fiber extends from values as low as those provided by fiberglass to as
high as those provided by titanium. This range of values is determined by the
orientation of the plies to the applied load. Proper selection of ply orientation in
advanced composite materials is necessary to provide a structurally efficient
design. The part might require 0 plies to react to axial loads, 45 plies to react
37

to shear loads, and 90 plies to react to side loads. Because the strength design
requirements are a function of the applied load direction, ply orientation and ply
sequence have to be correct. It is critical during a repair to replace each
damaged ply with a ply of the same material and ply orientation. The fibers in a
unidirectional material run in one direction and the strength and stiffness is only
in the direction of the fiber. Pre-impregnated tape is an example of a
unidirectional ply orientation. The fibers in a bidirectional material run in two
directions, typically 90 apart.
A plain weave fabric is an example of a bidirectional ply orientation.
These ply orientations have strength in both directions but not necessarily the
same strength. The plies of a quasi-isotropic layup are stacked in a 0, 45,
45, and 90 sequence or in a 0, 60, and 60 sequence. These types of ply
orientation simulate the properties of an isotropic material. Many aerospace
composite structures are made of quasi-isotropic materials.

1.11.2.4 Warp Clock

Warp indicates the longitudinal fibers of a fabric. The warp is the high
strength direction due to the straightness of the fibers. A warp clock is used to
describe direction of fibers on a diagram, spec sheet, or manufacturers sheets.
If thewarp clock is not available on the fabric, the orientation is defaulted to
zero as the fabric comes off the roll. Therefore, 90 to zero is the width of the
fabric across.

1.11.2.5 Fiber Forms

All product forms generally begin with spooled unidirectional raw fibers
packaged as continuous strands. An individual fiber is called a filament. The
word strand is also used to identify an individual glass fiber. Bundles of
filaments are identified as tows, yarns, or rovings. Fiberglass yarns are twisted,
while Kevlar yarns are not. Tows and rovings do not have any twist. Most
fibers are available as dry fiber that needs to be impregnated (impreg) with a
38

resin before use or prepreg materials where the resin is already applied to the
fiber.

1.11.2.6 Roving
A roving is a single grouping of filament or fiber ends, such as 20-end or
60-end glass rovings. All filaments are in the same direction and they are not
twisted. Carbon rovings are usually identified as 3K, 6K, or 12K rovings, K
meaning 1,000 filaments. Most applications for roving products utilize mandrels
for filament winding and then resin cure to final configuration.

1.11.2.7 Unidirectional (Tape)

Unidirectional prepreg tapes have been the standard within the aerospace
industry for many years, and the fiber is typically impregnated with
thermosetting resins. The most common method of manufacture is to draw
collimated raw (dry) strands into the impregnation machine where hot melted
resins are combined with the strands using heat and pressure. Tape products
have high strength in the fiber direction and virtually no strength across the
fibers. The fibers are held in place by the resin. Tapes have a higher strength
than woven fabrics.

1.11.2.8 Bidirectional (Fabric)

Most fabric constructions offer more flexibility for layup of complex
shapes than straight unidirectional tapes offer. Fabrics offer the option for resin
impregnation either by solution or the hot melt process. Generally, fabrics used
for structural applications use like fibers or strands of the same weight or yield
in both the warp (longitudinal) and fill (transverse) directions. For aerospace
structures, tightly woven fabrics are usually the choice to save weight,
minimizing resin void size, and maintaining fiber orientation during the
fabrication process.

39

1.12 TYPES OF FIBERS

Fig1.10 Types of Fibers

1.12.1 Fiberglass
Fiberglass is often used for secondary structure on aircraft, such as
fairings, radomes, and wing tips. Fiberglass is also used for helicopter rotor
blades. There are several types of fiberglass used in the aviation industry.
Electrical glass, or E-glass, is identified as such for electrical applications. It has
high resistance to current flow. E-glass is made from borosilicate glass. S-glass
and S2-glass identify structural
fiberglass that have a higher strength than E-glass. S-glass is produced from
magnesia-alumina-silicate. Advantages of fiberglass are lower cost than other
composite materials, chemical or galvanic corrosion resistance, and electrical
properties (fiberglass does not conduct electricity). Fiberglass has a white color
and is available as a dry fiber fabric or prepreg material.
40

1.12.2 Kevlar
Kevlar is DuPonts name for aramid fibers. Aramid fibers are light
weight, strong, and tough. Two types of Aramid fiber are used in the aviation
industry. Kevlar 49 has a high stiffness and Kevlar 29 has a low stiffness.
An advantage of aramid fibers is their high resistance to impact damage, so they
are often used in areas prone to impact damage. The main disadvantage of
aramid fibers is their general weakness in compression and hygroscopy.
Service reports have indicated that some parts made from Kevlar
absorb up to 8 percent of their weight in water. Therefore, parts made from
aramid fibers need to be protected from the environment. Another disadvantage
is that Kevlar is difficult to drill and cut. The fibers fuzz easily and special
scissors are needed to cut the material. Kevlar is often used for military
ballistic and body armor applications.
It has a natural yellow color and is available as dry fabric and prepreg
material. Bundles of aramid fibers are not sized by the number of fibers like
carbon or fiberglass but by the weight.

1.12.3 Carbon/Graphite
One of the first distinctions to be made among fibers is the difference
between carbon and graphite fibers, although the terms are frequently used
interchangeably. Carbon and graphite fibers are based on graphene (hexagonal)
layer networks present in carbon. If the graphene layers, or planes, are stacked
with three dimensional order, the material is defined as graphite. Usually
extended time and temperature processing is required to form this order, making
graphite fibers more expensive. Bonding between planes is weak. Disorder
frequently occurs such that only two-dimensional ordering within the layers is
present. This material is defined as carbon. Carbon fibers are very stiff and
strong, 3 to 10 times stiffer than glass fibers. Carbon fiber is used for structural
aircraft applications, such as floor beams, stabilizers, flight controls, and
41

primary fuselage and wing structure. Advantages include its high strength and
corrosion resistance. Disadvantages include lower conductivity than aluminum;
therefore, a lightning protection mesh or coating is necessary for aircraft parts
that are prone to lightning strikes. Another disadvantage of carbon fiber is its
high cost. Carbon fiber is gray or black in color and is available as dry fabric
and prepreg material. Carbon fibers have a high potential for causing galvanic
corrosion when used with metallic fasteners and structures.

1.12.4 Lightning Protection Fibers

An aluminum airplane is quite conductive and is able to dissipate the high
currents resulting from a lightning strike. Carbon fibers are 1,000 times more
resistive than aluminium to current flow, and epoxy resin is 1,000,000 times
more resistive (i.e., perpendicular to the skin).
The surface of an external composite component often consists of a ply or
layer of conductive material for lightning strike protection because composite
materials are less conductive than aluminum. Many different types of
conductive materials are used ranging from nickel-coated graphite cloth to
metal meshes to aluminized fiberglass to conductive paints. The materials are
available for wet layup and as prepreg. In addition to a normal structural repair,
the technician must also recreate the electrical conductivity designed into the
part. These types of repair generally require a conductivity test to be performed
with an ohmmeter to verify minimum electrical resistance across the structure.
When repairing these types of structures, it is extremely important to use only
the approved materials from authorized vendors, including such items as potting
compounds, sealants, adhesives, and so forth.

42

1.13 MATRIX MATERIAL

1.13.1 Thermosetting Resins
Resin is a generic term used to designate the polymer. The resin, its
chemical composition, and physical properties fundamentally affect the
processing, fabrication, and ultimate properties of a composite material.
Thermosetting resins are the most diverse and widely used of all man-made
materials. They are easily poured or formed into any shape, are compatible with
most other materials, and cure readily (by heat or catalyst) into an insoluble
solid. Thermosetting resins are also excellent adhesives and bonding agents.

1.13.2 Polyester Resins

Polyester resins are relatively inexpensive, fast processing resins used
generally for low cost applications. Low smoke producing polyester resins are
used for interior parts of the aircraft. Fiber-reinforced polyesters can be
processed by many methods. Common processing methods include matched
metal molding, wet layup, press (vacuum bag) molding, injection molding,
filament winding, pultrusion, and autoclaving.

43

Fig 1.11 cross sectional view of composite blade

1.13.3 Vinyl Ester Resin

The appearance, handling properties, and curing characteristics of vinyl
ester resins are the same as those of conventional polyester resins. However, the
corrosion resistance and mechanical properties of vinyl ester composites are
much improved over standard polyester resin composites.

1.13.4 Phenolic Resin

Phenol-formaldehyde resins were first produced commercially in the
early 1900s for use in the commercial market. Ureaformaldehyde and
melamine-formaldehyde appeared in the 19201930s as a less expensive
alternative for lower temperature use. Phenolic resins are used for interior
components because of their low smoke and flammability characteristics.

1.13.5 Epoxy
Epoxies are polymerizable thermosetting resins and are available in a
variety of viscosities from liquid to solid. There are many different types of
epoxy, and the technician should use the maintenance manual to select the
correct type for a specific repair. Epoxies are used widely in resins for prepreg
materials and structural adhesives.
44

The advantages of epoxies are high strength and modulus, low levels of
volatiles, excellent adhesion, low shrinkage, good chemical resistance, and ease
of processing. Their major disadvantages are brittleness and the reduction of
properties in the presence of moisture. The processing or curing of epoxies is
slower than polyester resins. Processing techniques include autoclave molding,
filament winding, press molding, vacuum bag molding, resin transfer molding,
and pultrusion. Curing temperatures vary from room temperature to
approximately 350 F (180 C). The most common cure temperatures range
between 250 and 350 F (120180 C).

1.14 INTRODUCTION TO THORP T-211

THORP T211 Even the name screams power and performance. Affectionately
named after its designer, John Thorp, the six cylinders Jabiru 3300 equipped
T211 is not an ordinary aircraft. The combination of a light, yet strong airframe
with 120 horsepower provides a tremendous power to weight ratio which
creates short take off runs, strong climbs and impressive cruise speeds. The
Thorpedo is the first U.S. manufactured aircraft to earn the Special
Airworthiness certificate under the Light Sport Aircraft ruling. The FAA type
certified heritage ensures a proven design that has been tested to a higher
standard. With all its power, this nimble aircraft outperforms many in its class.
The available digital panel, luxurious interior and other options make this an
efficient or spirited recreational aircraft, suitable for both the seasoned pilot and
the new sport pilot alike.
Almost all the trainer and light sport aircraft have fixed landing gear
system. The landing gear system itself produces about 20 40% of the total
drag produced in an airplane. We know that the resultant power needed to
overcome this drag will vary as the cube of velocity, hence if the drag produced

45

in the aircraft is reduced, the total power consumed by the aircraft will be
reduced by a great extent. In order to do so, the perfect alternative would be the
retractable landing gear system, which will not only increase the performance of
the aircraft but will also enhance the maneuverability of the aircraft. We will
also be observing the various changes which will occur with respect to
aerodynamics and performance of the aircraft. The present wing of the aircraft
does not have the thickness to incorporate the landing gear of the aircraft, thus
we will have to change the wing of the aircraft keeping in mind the lift coefficient and the Reynolds no. at which the aircraft flies. Hence to check the
results we have made a prototype of the aircraft and tested the same in the wind
tunnel.

46

Fig 1.12 Explore view of T-211

1.14.1 Development
Thorp constructed eight prototypes, and had the design certified by the
FAA, but was unable to find a foothold in the Cessna-dominated post-war US
market. The T-211 was developed with a 90 horsepower continental upgrade in
1953. The project was therefore shelved until the homebuilding boom saw the
rights to the aircraft acquired first by Adams Industries and then by Thorp Aero
in the 1970s, the latter firm building five examples as the Thorp Arrow or T211 Aero Sport built in Sturgis Kentucky, but only sold overseas or part 141
operations due to current liability laws. The kits were then manufactured by AD
Aerospace in the United Kingdom and Venture Light Aircraft in the United

47

States.

Fig 1.3 Thorp T-211 aircraft

Indus Aviation began production of the T-211 to the guidelines of Light
Sport Aircraft in the mid-2000s. The Thorp T-211 was the first US-designed
Special Light Sport Aircraft to receive certification from the Federal Aviation
Administration. The light-sport version uses the 120 hp (89 kW) Jabiru 3300
engine, while the type certified version uses a 100 hp (75 kW) Continental O200 engine and is equipped for both VFR and IFR flying.

1.14.2 Specifications (T-211)

General characteristics

Crew: 1 pilot
48

Capacity: 1 passenger

Length: 18 ft 2 in (5.49 m)

Wingspan: 25 ft 0 in (7.62 m)

Height: 6 ft 1 in (1.92 m)

Wing area: 105 ft (9.67 m)

Empty weight: 750 lb (339 kg)

Max. takeoff weight: 1,270 lb (575 kg)

Power plant: 1 Continental O-200-A, 100 hp (75 kW)

Fuel capacity: 21 gal usable (78 l)

Baggage capacity: 40 lb (18 kg)

Performance

Maximum speed: 120 mph (193 km/h)

Range: 375 miles (764 km)

Service ceiling: 12,500 ft (3,810 m)

Rate of climb: 750 ft/min (229 m/min)

Wing loading: 12.1 lb/ft (60 kg/m)

Power/mass: 0.08 hp/lb (0.13 kW/kg)

1.15 DESCRIPTION OF COMPANY

The project is an industrial project sponsored by Taneja Aerospace and
Aviation Ltd., Hosur. Part of the Pune based Indian Seamless group, TAAL was
established in 1994 as the first private sector company in the country to
manufacture general aviation i.e. non-military aircraft. The companys vision at
the time was to create a nucleus facility for the development of an aeronautical
industry in India, TAAL entered into collaboration with Partenavia of Italy to
manufacture the six-seat twin piston engine P68C aircraft and the eleven-seat
twin turbo-prop Viator aircraft. While TAAL continues to manufacture Light
49

Transport and Trainer Aircraft, the company has since diversified its activities
and has established a significant presence in many segments of the aviation and
aeronautical industries in India.
Part of the Pune based Indian Seamless group, TAAL was established in 1994
as the first private sector company in the country to manufacture general
aviation i.e. non-military aircraft. The company's vision at the time was to
create a nucleus facility for the development of an aeronautical industry in India
and in particular to promote affordable general aviation in the country. To kickoff this process, TAAL entered into a collaboration with Partenavia of Italy to
manufacture the six-seat twin piston-engine P68C aircraft and the eleven-seat
twin turbo-prop Viator aircraft.
While manufacture of Light Transport and Trainer Aircraft continues to be in
TAALs capability, the company has since diversified its activities and has
established a significant presence in many segments of the aviation and
aeronautical industries in India.
TAAL is into all Aviation related business activities namely, Aircraft
Manufacturing & Maintenance Centre and Aviation Infrastructure - Airfield &
MRO.

1.15.1 Aircraft Manufacturing & Maintenance Centre

This business has evolved from the initial business of the company, which was
to manufacture the Partenavia P68C, six seat, twin-engine aircraft in India (We
are the first and only private sector company in India to have built and certified
an aircraft).
We currently manufacture aero structures for Hindustan Aeronautics Limited
(HAL), Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), National Aerospace
Laboratories (NAL) Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE), and
50

Number of modifications on Indian Navy and Air force Helicopters and

Aircraft. Of these, the largest structures that we manufacture are for ISRO
where we build most of the structural assemblies for the Booster rockets of the
GSLV program. We have also built major structures of 14 seat Saras aircraft
developed by NAL. Once again, we would regard ourselves as the largest
dedicated private sector aero structure manufacturer in India.

1.15.2 Aviation Infrastructure - Airfield & MRO

TAAL has entered into an Aviation Infrastructure - Airfield & MRO facility
agreement with Air Works India (Engg) for establishment of commercial
Aircraft Maintenance and Operating Aviation Infrastructure - Airfield & MRO
Division services at TAAL's private airfield (Licensed) at Hosur, near
Bangalore. The runway at this airfield is capable of accepting Airbus A 320 and
Boeing 737 Series class of aircraft and the hanger is capable of accommodating
narrow body aircraft.
TAAL has DGCA Maintenance approval under CAR 145 for Maintenance of
Cessna Jet and other Light Transport Aircraft.

51

CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE SURVEY
The evolution of composite material has replaced most of the
conventional material of construction in automobile, aviation industry etc. Fibre
reinforced composites have been widely successful in hundreds of applications
where there was a need for high strength materials. There are thousands of
custom formulations which offer FRPs a wide variety of tensile and flexural
strengths. When compared with traditional materials such as metals, the
combination of high strength and lower weight has made FRP an extremely
popular choice for improving a products design and performance.

2.1 Literature Survey Related to Present Work

Polymer matrix composites are predominantly used for the aerospace
industry, but the decreasing price of carbon Fibres is widening the applications
ofthese composites to include the automobile, marine, sports, biomedical,
construction, and other industries .Carbon Fibre polymer-matrix composites
have started to be used in automobiles mainly for saving weight for fuel
economy. The so-called graphite car employs carbon Fibre epoxy-matrix
composites for body panels, structural members, bumpers, wheels, drive shaft,
engine components, and suspension systems. This car is 570 kg lighter than an
equivalent vehicle made of steel. It weighs only 1250 kg instead of the
conventional 1800 kg for the average American car. Thermoplastic composites
with PEEK and polycarbonate (PC) matrices are finding use as spring elements
for car suspension systems. An investigation was conducted by Issac M Daniel
et.al on failure modes and criteria for their occurrence in composite columns
and beams. They found that the initiation of the various failure modes depends
on the material properties, geometric dimensions and type of loading.

52

They 18 reported that the loading type or condition determines the state of stress
throughout the composite structure, which controls the location and mode of
failure. The appropriate failure criteria at any point of the structure account for
the biaxiality or triaxiality of the state of stress. Jeam Marc et. investigates the
modeling of the flexural behavior of all-thermoplastic composite structures with
improved aesthetic properties, manufactured by isothermal compression
moulding. A four noded plate element based on a refined higher order shear
deformation theory is developed by Topdar et. for the analysis of composite
plates. This plate theory satisfies the conditions of inter-laminar shear stress
continuity and stress free top and bottom surfaces of the plate. Moreover, the
number of independent unknowns is the same as that in the first order shear
deformation theory. Banerji and Nirmal reported an increase in flexural strength
of unidirectional carbon Fibre/ Poly(methyl methacrylate), composite laminates
having polyethylene Fibres plies at the lower face Li and Xian showed that the
incorporation of a moderate amount of carbon Fibres into ultra-high-modulus
polyethylene (UHMPE) Fibres reinforced composites greatly improved the
compressive strength, flexural modulus while the addition of a small amount of
UHMPE Fibres into a carbon Fibre reinforced composite remarkably enhanced
the ductility with only a small decrease in compressive strength. Rohchoon and
Jang studied the effect of stacking sequence on the flexural properties and
flexural failure modes of aramid-UHMPE hybrid composites. The flexural
strength depends upon the type of Fibres at the compressive face and dispersion
extent of the Fibres. Matteson and Crane reported increase in flexural strength
by using unidirectional steel wire tapes in glass Fibre composites and carbon
Fibres composites.

53

They showed that the increase in flexural strength was due to a change in
failure mode from compressive buckling to nearly ductile tensile failure.
Bradley and Harris used unidirectional high carbon steel wires to improve the
impact properties of epoxy resin reinforced with unidirectional carbon Fibre
reinforced.
Unfortunately, flexural design methodologies rely on their experimental
boundary conditions and the particular laminate setup, since a scaling of the
results is very difficult. The occurrence of usual failure modes under flexural
loading conditions, like delamination, matrix tensile fracture, localized
compressive failure and Fibre shear failure is strongly dependent of the material
configuration (Fibre type, resin type, lay-up, and thickness), the loading type. In
this respect, three point bend test equipment along with specimen indicated in
figure 1 was used as a fast and cost efficient comparison tool.

Jawad Kadhim Uleiwi :

Studies Investigated the effect of fibre volume fraction on the flexural
properties of the laminated composite constructed of different layers, one of
them having reinforced glass fibre and the other layer reinforced with Kevlar
fibre has been investigated experimentally and the results illustrate that tension
stress decreases with the increase in fibre volume fraction of glass fibre of the
lower layer while it increases with the increase of Kevlar volume fraction of the
upper layer.

Wen-Pin Lin :
Studies analysed the Failure of Fibre-Reinforced Composite Laminates
under Biaxial Tensile Loading. With the onset of failure for individual lamina is
determined by a mixed failure criterion composed of the maximum stress
criteria. The lamina was described and observed to be brittle or degrading
modes with the collapse of the entire laminate.
54

Amjad J. Aref :
Examined the structural behaviour of the fibre reinforced polymerconcrete hybrid bridge superstructure system subjected to negative moment
flexural loads through experimental procedures.
The experimental results showed that the design of the hybrid FRPconcrete bridge superstructure under a negative flexural moment is found to be
stiffness- driven instead of strength-driven.

Slimane Metiche and Radhouane Masmoudi :

Studied the flexural behaviour of light weight fibre reinforced polymer
(FRP) poles. Experimental results show that the use of low linear density glassFibres could provide an increase of the ultimate load carrying capacity up to 38
% for some fibre reinforced polymer poles. the positioning of the hole in the
compression side compared to the tension side leads to an increase of the
ultimate load carrying capacity up to 22 % for the 5.4m (18 feet) fibrereinforced
polymer poles and it was learnt that there was no significant effect (3,5%) for
the 12m (40 feet) fibre reinforced polymer poles. This is mainly due to the
stacking sequence and the stress states generated around the hole.

H. A. Rijsdijk :
Investigated the influence of maleic-anhydride-modified polypropylene
(m-PP) on monotonic mechanical properties of continuous-glass-fibrereinforced
polypropylene (PP) composites. This study showed an increase in composite
strength as a result of the addition of maleic-anhydride- modified PP to
continuous-glass-fibre-reinforced PP composites. An optimum in both
longitudinal and transverse flexural strength was reached for composites based
on a PP matrix with 10wt% m-PP.

55

P.N.B. Reis :
Studied the flexural behaviour of hand manufactured hybrid laminated
composites with a hemp natural fibre/polypropylene core and two glass
fibres/polypropylene surface layers at each side of the specimen.
Laminate composites (LC) present an ultimate strength about 4% higher
than the hybrid laminated composites (HLC) associated to changes in failure
mechanisms, while the stiffness modulus was also about 3.8% higher. Fatigue
strength of hybrid laminated composites 21 is also about 20% lower than the
laminated composites as consequence of the change of the failure mechanisms
and of the different static strengths.

M. Davallo :
Investigated the Mechanical behaviour of unidirectional glasspolyester
composites to identify performance differences of composites with different
glass lay-ups and laminate thicknesses during flexure and tensile testing formed
by hand lay-up moulding (HLU). es. The damage generated in the composites
exhibited matrix cracking on the lower face followed by the coalescence of
delaminations formed within the reinforcing plies.

Michel Espinosa Klymus :

Evaluated the fracture pattern of four composites for indirect dental
restoration relating to three-point flexural strength. Further the compressive
strength and modulus of elasticity were also addressed. Composites
polymerized under high temperatures (belle Glass and Targis) had higher
flexural strength and elastic modulus values than composites polymerized by
light temperatures (Artglass and Solidex). It was found that they failed earlier
under compression because they were more rigid and showed partial fracture in
the material bulk.
56

S. Benjamin Lazarus :
Investigated the mechanical properties of natural Fibre developed using a
plant fibre which is used for green manuring called Sunhemp. Polyester is used
as the matrix to prepare the composite.
From the results the applications of the composite for some specific
purposes can be decided upon since the maximum value of strength is achieved
for a particular Fibre length and Fibre weight ratio.

M. Wesolowski :
Studied the elastic properties of laminated composites by different NonDestructive techniques. Two carbon fibre XP45 Turane Resin laminated
composite plates and four beams cut from the plates along their principal
directions 1, 2 (two beams from each plate), are chosen for the study. Among all
proposed methods for the elastic properties characterization, the approach based
on the inverse technique is most suited for the convenient, fast, and accurate
identification of elastic properties.
J. Davies and H. Hamada:
Investigated the flexural properties of hybrid unidirectional fibre
reinforced polymer (FRP) composites containing a mixture of carbon (C) and
silicon carbide (SiC) fibres were evaluated at span to depth (S/d) ratios of 16,
32, and 64. The hybrid composite flexural strength was generally higher than
either the pure CFRP or SiC fibre composites. The work of fracture was a factor
of 2.6 larger for the S 4 /C 4 specimen compared to the S specimen and
suggests that these hybrid FRP composites may have a role as energy absorption
materials. The compressive stress, compressive strain and modulus to failure of
the SiC fibre were estimated to be 3.46 GPa, 157 GPa, and 0.018, respectively.

57

IH Tacir :
Studied the reinforcing effect of glass fibres on the fracture
resistance and flexural strength of acrylic resins. In this study, statistically
significant differences were found in the flexural strength of the specimens. The
injectionmoulded, fibre reinforced polymers had significantly lower flexural
strength than the injection-moulded composites, and the microwave-moulded,
fibre reinforced composites had lower flexural strength than the microwavemoulded composites.
The fracture resistance was significantly higher in the injection moulded,
fibre-reinforced composites than in the injection-moulded composites, and the
fracture resistance was significantly higher in the microwave moulded, fibrereinforced composites, than in the microwave-moulded composites.
Hoo Tien Kuan :
Evaluated

the

mechanical

properties

of

composite

materials based on two types of self-reinforced polypropylene (SRPP) and a

glass fibre reinforced polypropylene are investigated under quasi-static and
dynamic loading conditions. Hybrid laminates based on glass fibre reinforced
polypropylene skins and a self-reinforced polypropylene core was manufactured
using a compression moulding technique. Hybridising the glass and
polypropylene fibre composites in this manner combines the strength and
stiffness of the glass fibres system with the excellent impact resistance and low
density of the self-reinforced polypropylene composite. Tests have shown that
increasing the volume fraction of self-reinforced polypropylene can enhance the
energy-absorbing characteristics of the hybrid composites.
Further with the increase in the amount of glass fibre in the reinforced
composite there was an increase in the flexural modulus of the hybrid
composites.
58

M. Davallo :
Flexural properties of continuous random glass-polyester composites
formed by resin transfer moulding (RTM) and hand-lay up (HLU) moulding
have been studied to determine the effects of glass content, composite thickness,
reinforcement geometry and type of fabrication on damage developed during
flexure tests. Strain values both at maximum-load and failure were determined.
The failure strains of the two sets of composite series were relatively constant.
Hence, both types of composite series appeared to fail at a critical strain value.
The damage developed during the test was monitored on the side of each
polished beam using an optical microscope.

S. Tolson and N. Zasara:

Investigated the computational model for determining the ultimate
strength of an arbitrary laminated composite plate. A new higher order shear
deformation plate theory was developed. The theory utilizes seven degrees of 24
freedom at each node. An improvement in the accuracy of the transverse shear
stress was obtained by calculating these stresses using three-dimensional
elasticity equilibrium equations. The composite failure analysis is used to
determine the first and last ply failure of a laminated composite plate. The
computer programming was developed based on the seven degree of freedom
higher order shear deformation plate theory.

Geon-Woong Lee :
Studied the mechanical properties and failure mechanisms of through-thethickness

stitched

plain

weave

glass

fabric/polyurethane

foam/epoxy

composites. Hybrid composites were fabricated using resin infusion process

(RIP). Stitched sandwich composite increased drastically the flexural properties
as compared with the unstitched fabrics.
59

Breaking of stitching in yarns was observed during the flexural test and
thus the failure mode yielded relatively high flexural properties. Polymer
composites with stitched sandwich structure improved the mechanical
properties with increasing the number of stitching yarns. It was concluded from
the study that proper combination of stitching density and types of stitching
fibre is important factor for through-the-thickness stitched composite panels.

N.K. Naik:
Investigated the inter laminar shear behaviour of typical polymer matrix
composites under high strain rate shear loading. Tensional split Hopkinson bar
(TSHB) apparatus is used for the studies in the shear strain rate range of 496
1000/ s. It is observed that the interlaminar shear strength at high strain rate is
enhanced compared with that at quasistatic loading. Further, it is observed that
the inter laminar shear strength increases with increasing shear strain rate within
the range of shear strain rate considered.

Slavisa Putic:
This paper outlines the experimental investigation of inter laminar shear
strength as the critical mechanical property of composite constructions

of

structure elements Placed between two thin glass mat layers where a layer is
placed on the glass fabric of the same structure but of different density, with
different polyester resin matrices. The significance of the shear strength lies in
the fact that for all types of composites it is strongly influenced by factors
weakening the interface binds.

60

W.Richards Thissels:
The IM6 Fibres 3051/6 epoxy resin showed a 40% increased in stress
strain slope under compression loading at strain rate of 2000 L/S than 110-3
L/S when the applied load was parallel,45 0 and normal to the Fibre axis.The
compression test showed that delamination significant failure component.
The applicability of current hole in plate analytical methods to highly
anisotropic material is there questionable. Both hole in a plate analytical
methods

indicates

that

GI

is

about

50%

higher

than

G1.

Jane Maria Faulstich de Paiva:

This paper shows a study involving mechanical (flexural, shear, tensile
and compressive tests) and morphological characterizations of four different
laminates based on 2 epoxy resin systems (8552TM and F584TM). The results
show that the F584-epoxy matrix laminates present better mechanical properties
in the tensile and compressive tests than 8552 composites. Further it is observed
that PW laminates for both matrices show better flexural and inter laminar shear
properties.

Roberto J. Cano and Marvin B. Dow:

In this study, the unidirectional laminate strengths and moduli, of
notched (open-hole) and un notched specimens in tension and Compression
tests were performed and the properties of quasi isotropic polymer composite
laminates, and compression after impact strengths of five carbon fibre /
toughened matrix composites,.This investigation found that all 26 five materials
were stronger and more impact damage tolerant than more brittle carbon/epoxy
composite materials currently used in aircraft structures.

61

CHAPTER-3
FABRICATION OF MODEL
The fabrication process of the aircraft model can be sub-divided into 3 basic
steps viz.

3.1 Carving:
Carving of the aircraft model means precise shaping the wood into the desired
without using any powered tools. The wood used for the fabrication of the
model is the Balsa wood, which are lightweight, simple to construct and
inexpensive to gather materials for. Extreme accuracy has to be maintained in
making the model as the whole success of the project depends on it. Various
tools that were used are wooden files, sand paper, hacksaw blade, bench knives,
straight chisels, skew chisels etc.

3.2 Fixing:
The second stage of the fabrication is to fix the various parts of the aircraft more
or less like assembly. The parts that were fixed to the fuselage were the wings,
propeller, vertical stabilizer and the horizontal stabilizer. Various adhesives
were used in this process like fevicol, anabond and m-seal.

3.3 Primer Coating / Artwork:

Once the adhesives have dried then comes the final stage in fabrication process
the artwork. Before the model is painted primer coating has to be given to
model. A primer is a preparatory coating put on materials before painting.
Priming ensures better adhesion of paint to the surface, increases paint
durability, and provides additional protection for the material being painted.

62

Fig 3.1 FABRICATION OF MODEL

The above figure gives us a pictorial description as how the model looks with
primer coated over it. Once the primer has dried off the model has been painted
with the desired colors.

63

Fig 3.2 Tools for fabrication

64

3.4 Fabrication methods

There are numerous methods for fabricating composite components. Some
methods have been borrowed (injection molding, for example), but many were
developed to meet specific design or manufacturing challenges. Selection of a
method for a particular part, therefore, will depend on the materials, the part
design and end-use or application.
Autoclaves cure composites with heat and pressure and are important tools for
curing parts made with thermoset resins. Improvements in control software are
helping autoclave operators such as this one at Helicomb International (Tulsa,
Okla.) increase throughput by 35 to 40 percent. At the same time, new resin
formulations are being developed for out-of-autoclave cure processing.

Fig 3.3 Fabrication process

65

The most basic fabrication method for thermoset composites is hand layup,
which typically involves laying dry plies or prepreg plies by hand onto a tool to
form a laminate stack. Here, technicians at Liberty Aerospace (Melbourne, Fla.)
hand lay carbon/epoxy prepreg for a general aviation part.
There are numerous methods for fabricating composite components. Some
methods have been borrowed (injection molding, for example), but many were
developed to meet specific design or manufacturing challenges. Selection of a
method for a particular part, therefore, will depend on the materials, the part
design and end-use or application.
Composite fabrication processes involve some form of molding, to shape the
resin and reinforcement. A mold tool is required to give the unformed resin
/fiber combination its shape prior to and during cure. For an overview of mold
types and materials and methods used to make mold tools.
The most basic fabrication method for thermoset composites is hand layup,
which typically consists of laying dry fabric layers, or plies, or prepreg plies,
by hand onto a tool to form a laminate stack. Resin is applied to the dry plies
after layup is complete (e.g., by means of resin infusion). In a variation known
as wet layup, each ply is coated with resin and debulked or compacted after it
is placed.
Several curing methods are available. The most basic is simply to allow cure to
occur at room temperature. Cure can be accelerated, however, by applying heat,
typically with an oven, and pressure, by means of a vacuum. For the latter, a
vacuum bag, with breather assemblies, is placed over the layup and attached to
the tool, then evacuated using a vacuum pump before cure.

66

The vacuum bagging process consolidates the plies of material and significantly
reduces voids due to the off-gassing that occurs as the matrix progresses
through its chemical curing stages.
Many high-performance thermoset parts require heat and high consolidation
pressure to cure conditions that require the use of an autoclave. Autoclaves,
generally, are expensive to buy and operate. Manufacturers that are equipped
with autoclaves usually cure a number of parts simultaneously. Computer
systems monitor and control autoclave temperature, pressure, vacuum and inert
atmosphere, which allows unattended and/or remote supervision of the cure
process and maximizes efficient use of the technique.
When heat is required for cure, the part temperature is ramped up in small
increments, maintained at cure level for a specified period of time defined by
the resin system, then ramped down to room temperature, to avoid part
distortion or warp caused by uneven expansion and contraction.
When this curing cycle is complete and after parts are demolded, some parts go
through a secondary freestanding postcure, during which they are subjected for
a specific period of time to a temperature higher than that of the initial cure to
enhance chemical crosslink density.
Electron-beam (E-beam) curing has been explored as an efficient curing method
for thin laminates. In E-beam curing, the composite layup is exposed to a stream
of electrons that provide ionizing radiation, causing polymerization and
crosslinking in radiation-sensitive resins. X-ray and microwave curing
technologies work in a similar manner. A fourth alternative, ultraviolet (UV)
curing, involves the use of UV radiation to activate a photoinitiator added to a
thermoset resin, which, when activated, sets off a crosslinking reaction. UV
curing requires light-permeable resin and reinforcements.
67

An emerging technology is the monitoring of the cure itself. Dielectric

cure monitors measure the extent of cure by gauging the conductivity of ions
small, polarized, relatively insignificant impurities that are resident in resins.
Ions tend to migrate toward an electrode of opposite polarity, but the speed of
migration is limited by the viscosity of the resin the higher the viscosity, the
slower the speed. As crosslinking proceeds during cure, resin viscosity
increases. Other methods include dipole monitoring within the resin, the
monitoring of microvoltage produced by the crosslinking, monitoring of the
exothermic reaction in the polymer during cure and, potentially, the use of
infrared monitoring via fiber-optic technology.

3.5 Open molding

Open contact molding in one-sided molds is a low-cost, common process
for making fiberglass composite products. Typically used for boat hulls and
decks, RV components, truck cabs and fenders, spas, bathtubs, shower stalls and
other relatively large, noncomplex shapes, open molding involves either hand
layup or a semi-automated alternative, sprayup.
In an open-mold sprayup application, the mold is first treated with mold
release. If a gel coat is used, it is typically sprayed into the mold after the mold
release has been applied. The gel coat then is cured and the mold is ready for
fabrication to begin. In the sprayup process, catalyzed resin (viscosity from 500
to 1,000 cps) and glass fiber are sprayed into the mold using a chopper gun,
which chops continuous fiber into short lengths, then blows the short fibers
directly into the sprayed resin stream so that both materials are applied
simultaneously. To reduce VOCs, piston pump-activated, non-atomizing spray
guns and fluid impingement spray heads dispense gel coats and resins in larger
droplets at low pressure. Another option is a roller impregnator, which pumps
resin into a roller similar to a paint roller.
68

In the final steps of the sprayup process, workers compact the laminate by
hand with rollers. Wood, foam or other core material may then be added, and a
second sprayup layer imbeds the core between the laminate skins. The part is
then cured, cooled and removed from the reusable mold.
Hand layup and sprayup methods are often used in tandem to reduce
labor. For example, fabric might first be placed in an area exposed to high
stress; then, a spray gun might be used to apply chopped glass and resin to build
up the rest of the laminate.
Balsa or foam cores may be inserted between the laminate layers in either
process. Typical glass fiber volume is 15 percent with sprayup and 25 percent
with hand layup.
Sprayup processing, once a very prevalent manufacturing method, has
begun to fall out of favor. Federal regulations in the U.S. and similar rules in the
EU have mandated limits on worker exposure to, and emission into the
environment of VOCs and hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). Styrene, the most
common monomer used as a diluent in thermoset resins, is on both lists.
Because worker exposure to and emission of styrene is difficult and expensive
to control in the sprayup process, many composites manufacturers have
migrated to closed mold, infusion-based processes, which better contain and
manage styrenes.
Although open molding via hand layup is being replaced by faster and
more technically precise methods (as the following makes clear), it is still
widely used in the repair of composite parts. For more information about
Composites repair see the so-named article under "Editor's Picks."

69

3.6 Resin infusion processes

Ever-increasing demand for faster production rates has pressed the
industry to replace hand layup with alternative fabrication processes and has
encouraged fabricators to automate those processes wherever possible.
A common alternative is resin transfer molding (RTM), sometimes
referred to as liquid molding. RTM is a fairly simple process: It begins with a
two-part, matched, closed mold that is made of metal or composite material.
Dry reinforcement (typically a preform) is placed into the mold and the mold is
closed. Resin and catalyst are metered and mixed in dispensing equipment, then
pumped into the mold under low to moderate pressure through injection ports,
following predesigned paths through the preform. Extremely low-viscosity resin
is used in RTM applications for thick parts to permeate preforms quickly and
evenly before cure. Both mold and resin can be heated, as necessary, for
particular applications. RTM produces parts without an autoclave. However,
when cured and demolded, a part destined for a high-temperature application
usually undergoes postcure. Most RTM applications use a two-part epoxy
formulation. The two parts are mixed just before they are injected.
Bismaleimide and polyimide resins also are available in RTM formulations.
Light RTM is a variant of RTM that is growing in popularity. In Light RTM,
low injection pressure, coupled with vacuum, allow the use of less-expensive,
lightweight two-part molds or a very lightweight, flexible upper mold.
The benefits of RTM are impressive. Generally, the dry preforms and
resins used in RTM are less expensive than prepreg material and can be stored
at room temperature. The process can produce thick, near-net shape parts,
eliminating most post-fabrication work. It also yields dimensionally accurate
complex parts with good surface detail and delivers a smooth finish on all
exposed surfaces.
70

It is possible to place inserts inside the preform before the mold is closed,
allowing the RTM process to accommodate core materials and integrate
molded in fittings and other hardware into the part structure. Moreover, void
content on RTMd parts is low, measuring in the 0 to 2 percent range. Finally,
RTM significantly cuts cycle times and can be adapted for use as one stage in
an automated, repeatable manufacturing process for even greater efficiency,
reducing cycle time from what can be several days, typical of hand layup, to just
hours or even minutes. A recent variant of RTM, called high-pressure RTM
(HP-RTM), is gaining attention for its potential to quickly produce automotive
parts. Typically designed as a completely automated system including mold
shuttles, the ability to rapidly fill a mold loaded with a preform with a very fast
curing resin shows promise for high production.
In contrast to RTM, where resin and catalyst are premixed prior to
injection under pressure into the mold, reaction injection molding (RIM) injects
a rapid-cure resin and a catalyst into the mold in two separate streams. Mixing
and the resulting chemical reaction occur in the mold instead of in a dispensing
head. Automotive industry suppliers combine structural RIM (SRIM) with rapid
preforming methods to fabricate structural parts that dont require a Class A
finish. Programmable robots have become a common means to spray a chopped
fiberglass/binder combination onto a vacuum-equipped preform screen or mold.
Robotic sprayup can be directed to control fiber orientation. A related
technology, dry fiber placement, combines stitched preforms and RTM. Fiber
volumes of up to 68 percent are possible, and automated controls ensure low
voids and consistent preform reproduction, without the need for trimming.

71

3.7 Vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding (VARTM)

It

refers to a variety of related processes that represent the fastest-

growing new molding technology. The salient difference between VARTMtype processes and RTM is that in VARTM, resin is drawn into a preform
through use of a vacuum only, rather than pumped in under pressure. VARTM
does not require high heat or pressure. For that reason, VARTM operates with
low-cost tooling, making it possible to inexpensively produce large, complex
parts in one shot.
In the VARTM process, fiber reinforcements are placed in a one-sided
mold, and a cover (typically a plastic bagging film) is placed over the top to
form a vacuum-tight seal. The resin typically enters the structure through
strategically placed ports and feed lines, termed a manifold. It is drawn by
vacuum through the reinforcements by means of a series of designed-in
channels that facilitate wetout of the fibers. Fiber content in the finished part
can run as high as 70 percent.
Current applications include marine, ground transportation and
infrastructure parts. A twist on the VARTM process is the use of two bags,
termed double-bag infusion, which uses one vacuum pump attached to the inner
bag to extract volatiles and entrapped air, and a second vacuum pump on the
outer bag to compact the laminate. This method has been employed by The
Boeing Co. (Chicago, Ill.) and NASA, as well as small fabricating firms, to
produce aerospace-quality laminates without an autoclave.

72

3.8 Resin film infusion (RF)

It

is a hybrid process in which a dry preform is placed in a mold on top

of a layer, or interleaved with multiple layers, of high-viscosity resin film.

Under applied heat, vacuum and pressure, the resin liquefies and is drawn into
the preform, resulting in uniform resin distribution, even with high-viscosity,
toughened resins, because of the short flow distance.

3.9 High-volume molding methods

3.9.1 Compression molding
It is a high-volume thermoset molding process that employs expensive
but very durable metal dies. It is an appropriate choice when production
quantities exceed 10,000 parts. As many as 200,000 parts can be turned out on a
set of forged steel dies, using sheet molding compound (SMC), a composite
sheet material made by sandwiching chopped fiberglass between two layers of
thick resin paste. To form the sheet, the resin paste transfers from a metering
device onto a moving film carrier. Chopped glass fibers drop onto the paste, and
a second film carrier places another layer of resin on top of the glass. Rollers
compact the sheet to saturate the glass with resin and squeeze out entrapped air.

Fig 3.4 composite layers

73

The resin paste initially is the consistency of molasses (between 20,000

and 40,000 cps); over the next three to five days, its viscosity increases and the
sheet becomes leather-like (about 25 million cps), ideal for handling.
When the SMC is ready for molding, it is cut into smaller sheets and the
charge pattern (ply schedule) is assembled on a heated mold (121C to 262C or
250F to 325F). The mold is closed and clamped, and pressure is applied at
24.5 to 172.4 bar (500 to 2,500 psi). As material viscosity drops, the SMC flows
to fill the mold cavity. After cure, the part is demolded manually or by integral
ejector pins.
A typical low-profile (less than 0.05 percent shrinkage) SMC formulation for a
Class A finish consists, by weight, of 25 percent polyester resin, 25 percent
chopped glass, 45 percent fillers and 5 percent additives. Fiberglass thermoset
SMC cures in 30 to 150 seconds and overall cycle time can be as low as 60
seconds. Other grades of SMC include low-density, flexible and pigmented
formulations. Low-pressure SMC formulations that are now on the market offer
open molders low-capital-investment entry into closed-mold processing with
near-zero VOC emissions and the potential for very high-quality surface finish.
Automakers are exploring carbon fiber-reinforced SMC, hoping to take
advantage of carbons high strength- and stiffness-to-weight ratios in exterior
body panels and other parts. Newer, toughened SMC formulations help prevent
microcracking, a phenomenon that previously caused paint pops during the
painting process (surface craters caused by outgassing, the release of gasses
trapped in the microcracks during oven cure).

74

Composites manufacturers in industrial markets are formulating their own

resins and compounding SMC in-house to meet needs in specific applications
that require UV, impact and moisture resistance and have surface-quality
demands that drive the need for customized material development.

3.9.2 Injection molding

It is a fast, high-volume, low-pressure, closed process using, most
commonly, filled thermoplastics, such as nylon with chopped glass fiber. In the
past 20 years, however, automated injection molding of BMC has taken over
some

markets

previously held

by thermoplastic

and

metal

casting

manufacturers.
In the BMC injection molding process, a ram- or screw-type plunger forces a
metered shot of material through a heated barrel and injects it (at 5,000 to
12,000 psi) into a closed, heated mold. In the mold, the liquefied BMC flows
easily along runner channels and into the closed mold. After cure and ejection,
parts need only minimal finishing. Injection speeds are typically one to five
seconds, and as many as 2,000 small parts can be produced per hour in some
multiple-cavity molds.
Parts with thick cross-sections can be compression molded or transfer molded
with BMC. Transfer molding is a closed-mold process wherein a measured
charge of BMC is placed in a pot with runners that lead to the mold cavities. A
plunger forces the material into the cavities, where the product cures under heat
and pressure.

75

3.9.4 Filament winding

It is a continuous fabrication method that can be highly automated and
repeatable, with relatively low material costs. A long, cylindrical tool called a
mandrel is suspended horizontally between end supports, while the head
the fiber application instrument moves back and forth along the length of a
rotating mandrel, placing fiber onto the tool in a predetermined configuration.
Computer-controlled filament-winding machines are available, equipped with
from 2 to 12 axes of motion.
In most thermoset applications, the filament winding apparatus passes the fiber
material through a resin bath just before the material touches the mandrel.
This is called wet winding. However, a variation uses towpreg, that is,
continuous fiber pre-impregnated with resin. This eliminates the need for an
onsite resin bath. In a slightly different process, fiber is wound without resin
(dry winding). The dry shape is then used as a preform in another molding
process, such as RTM.
Following oven or autoclave curing, the mandrel either remains in place to
become part of the wound component or, typically, it is removed. One-piece
cylindrical or tapered mandrels, usually of simple shape, are pulled out of the
part with mandrel extraction equipment. Some mandrels, particularly in more
complex parts, are made of soluble material and may be dissolved and washed
out of the part.
Others are collapsible or built from several parts that allow its disassembly and
removal in smaller pieces. Filament-winding manufacturers often tweak or
slightly modify off-the-shelf resin to meet specific application requirements.
Some composite part manufacturers develop their own resin formulations.

76

In thermoplastics winding, all material is in prepreg form, so a resin bath

is not needed. Material is heated as it is wound onto the mandrel a process
known as curing on the fly or in-situ consolidation. The prepreg is heated,
layed down, compacted, consolidated and cooled in a single, continuous
operation. Thermoplastic prepregs eliminate autoclave curing (cutting costs and
size limitations) and reduce raw material costs, and the resulting parts can be
reprocessed to correct flaws.
Filament winding yields parts with exceptional circumferential or hoop
strength. The highest-volume single application of filament winding is golf club
shafts. Fishing rods, pipe, pressure vessels and other cylindrical parts comprise
most of the remaining business.

3.10 Pultrusion
Its

like RTM, has been used for decades with glass fiber and polyester resins,

but in the last 10 years the process also has found application in advanced
composites applications. In this relatively simple, low-cost, continuous process,
the reinforcing fiber (usually roving, tow or continuous mat) is typically pulled
through a heated resin bath and then formed into specific shapes as it passes
through one or more forming guides or bushings. The material then moves
through a heated die, where it takes its net shape and cures. Further
downstream, after cooling, the resulting profile is cut to desired length.
Pultrusion yields smooth finished parts that typically do not require post
processing. A wide range of continuous, consistent, solid and hollow profiles
are pultruded, and the process can be custom-tailored to fit specific applications.

77

3.11 Tube rolling

It is a longstanding composites manufacturing process that can produce
finite-length tubes and rods. It is particularly applicable to small-diameter
cylindrical or tapered tubes in lengths as great as 20 ft/6.2m. Tubing diameters
up to 6 inches/152 mm can be rolled efficiently. Typically, a tacky prepreg
fabric or unidirectional tape is used, depending on the part. The material is
precut in patterns that have been designed to achieve the requisite ply schedule
and fiber architecture for the application. The pattern pieces are laid out on a flat
surface and a mandrel is rolled over each one under applied pressure, which
compacts and debulks the material. When rolling a tapered mandrel e.g., for
a fishing rod or golf shaft only the first row of longitudinal fibers falls on the
true 0 axis. To impart bending strength to the tube, therefore, the fibers must be
continuously reoriented by repositioning the pattern pieces at regular intervals.

3.12 Automated fiber placement (AFP)

The fiber placement process automatically places multiple individual
prepreg tows onto a mandrel at high speed, using a numerically controlled,
articulating robotic placement head to dispense, clamp, cut and restart as many
as 32 tows simultaneously. Minimum cut length (the shortest tow length a
machine can lay down) is the essential ply-shape determinant. The fiber
placement heads can be attached to a 5-axis gantry, retrofitted to a filament
winder or delivered as a turnkey custom system. Machines are available with
dual mandrel stations to increase productivity.
Advantages of fiber placement include processing speed, reduced
material scrap and labor costs, parts consolidation and improved part-to-part
uniformity. Often, the process is used to produce large thermoset parts with
complex shapes.
78

3.13 Automated tape laying (ATL)

ATL an even speedier automated process in which prepreg tape, rather
than single tows, is laid down continuously to form parts. It is often used for
parts with highly complex contours or angles. Tape layup is versatile, allowing
breaks in the process and easy direction changes, and it can be adapted for both
thermoset and thermoplastic materials. The head includes a spool or spools of
tape, a winder, winder guides, a compaction shoe, a position sensor and a tape
cutter or slitter. In either case, the head may be located on the end of a multiaxis
articulating robot that moves around the tool or mandrel to which material is
being applied, or the head may be located on a gantry suspended above the tool.
Alternatively, the tool or mandrel can be moved or rotated to provide the head
access to different sections of the tool. Tape or fiber is applied to a tool in
courses, which consist of one row of material of any length at any angle.
Multiple courses are usually applied together over an area or pattern and are
defined and controlled by machine-control software that is programmed with
numerical input derived from part design and analysis. Capital expenditures for
computer-driven, automated equipment can be significant.
Although ATL generally is faster than AFP and can place more material
over longer distances, AFP is better suited to shorter courses and can place
material more effectively over contoured surfaces.

3.14 Centrifugal casting

Pipe from 1 inch/25 mm to 14 inches/356 mm in diameter is an
alternative to filament winding for high-performance, corrosion-resistant
service. In cast pipe, 0/90 woven fiberglass provides both longitudinal and
hoop strength throughout the pipe wall and brings greater strength at equal wall
thickness compared to multiaxial fiberglass wound pipe.
79

In the casting process, epoxy or vinyl ester resin is injected into a 150G
centrifugally spinning mold, permeating the woven fabric wrapped around the
molds interior surface. The centrifugal force pushes the resin through the layers
of fabric, creating a smooth finish on the outside of the pipe, and excess resin
pumped into the mold creates a resin-rich, corrosion- and abrasion-resistant
interior liner.
Fiber-reinforced thermoplastic components now can be produced by
extrusion, as well. Breakthrough material and process technology has been
developed with long-fiber glass-reinforced thermoplastic (ABS, PVC or
polypropylene) composites to provide profiles that offer a tough, low-cost
alternative to wood, metal and injection-molded plastic parts used in office
furniture, appliances, semitrailers and sporting goods. A huge market has
emerged in the past decade for extruded thermoplastic/wood flour (or other
additives, such as bast fibers or fly ash) composites. These wood plastic
composites, or WPCs, used to simulate wood decking, siding, window and door
frames, and fencing.

80

CHAPTER-4
TESTING
4.1 WIND TUNNEL
The "Wind tunnel" is a facility, by artificially producing airflow relative
to a stationary body, that measures aerodynamic force and pressure distribution
to simulate the actual flight of airplane or orbiting plane in the air.

4.2 TYPES:
Wind tunnels are often denoted by the speed in the test section relative to
the speed of sound. The ratio of the air speed to the speed of sound is called the
Mach number.
Tunnels are classified as
Subsonic (M < 0.8),
Transonic (0.8 < M < 1.2) ,
Supersonic (1.2 < M < 5.0) , or
Hypersonic (M > 5.0).

81

OPEN CIRCUIT SUBSONIC WIND TUNNEL:

Fig 4.1 Open Circuit Wind Tunnel

4.3 Honey comb:

Honey comb along with the wire mesh protects the wind tunnel from
foreign objects. It also provides laminar flow for the wind tunnel test section.

4.4 Effuser:
It converts the available pressure energy to kinetic energy which is
located upstream of the test.

4.5 Test section:

The models to be tested are placed inside the test section by means of
supports and balances. The instruments necessary for recording the data are also
fixed in the wind tunnel.

82

4.6 Diffuser:
Diffuser is locates at the downstream of the test section, it converts the
kinetic energy to pressure energy.

4.7 Propeller driving unit:

A fan or a propeller is fitted with electric motor to drive airflow to the test
section.

4.8 Measurement of aerodynamic forces

Ways that air velocity and pressures are measured in wind tunnels:

Air velocity through the test section (called the throat) is determined
by Bernoulli's principle. Measurement of the dynamic pressure, the static
pressure, and (for compressible flow only) the temperature rise in the airflow

Direction of airflow around a model can be determined by tufts of yarn

attached to the aerodynamic surfaces

Direction of airflow approaching an aerodynamic surface can be visualized

by mounting threads in the airflow ahead of and aft of the test model

Dye, smoke, or bubbles of liquid can be introduced into the airflow upstream
of the test model, and their path around the model can be photographed

4.9 Force and moment measurements:

With the model mounted on a force balance, one can measure lift, drag, lateral
forces, yaw, roll, and pitching moments over a range of angle of attack. This
allows one to produce common curves such as lift coefficient versus angle of
attack.

83

The force balance itself creates drag and potential turbulence that will
affect the model and introduce errors into the measurements. The supporting
structures are therefore typically smoothly shaped to minimize turbulence.

4.10 Flow visualization:

In general, flow visualization is an experimental means of
examining the flow pattern around a body or over its surface. The flow is
"visualized" by introducing Yarn Tufts, smoke or pigment to the flow in the
area under investigation. The primary advantage of such a method is the ability
to provide a description of a flow over a model without complicated data
reduction and analysis. Smoke flow visualization involves the injection of
streams of vapor into the flow. The vapor follows filament lines (lines made up
of all the fluid particles passing through the injection point). In steady flow the
filament lines are identical to streamlines (lines everywhere tangent to the
velocity vector). Flow visualization can thus reveal the entire flow pattern
around a body.

4.11 TUFT WANDS:

The least expensive method for flow visualization is a tuft wand. This method is
very much versatile and at the same time the flow pattern around the test object
is visible. A long tuft on a pole is useful for tracking the flow near the object.
Flow visualization foe the moment is possible if the trace particles location can
be identified at any time in the flow field.

84

4.12 MODEL TESTING IN WIND TUNNEL

The wind tunnel is calibrated initially. The model is mounted in the wind
tunnel force balance with the help of a strut fixed at its center of gravity. After
ensuring that all the connections are proper the tunnel is started with an initial
velocity. The velocity is increased gradually; the lift and drag values are noted
simultaneously for corresponding velocities. The model is tested with landing
gear and then without the landing gear. In order to fix a retractable landing gear
mechanism we have proposed another wing with a thicker airfoil. The model
with a newly proposed wing is tested in the wind tunnel and the corresponding
values are noted. From the tabulations it is observed that the drag in the airplane
is reduced to a certain percentage without the landing gear. The flow over the
wings is observed in all the three cases by tuft flow visualization technique.

4.13 DIFFICULTIES FACED DURING TESTING

The propeller in the airplane did not run during the testing due to its
misalignment during fabrication. We used a white tape to tighten and hence we
could rectify the problem. The strut fixed to the airplane was slightly improper
causing certain vibrations; hence we welded the strut to a plate and then fixed
the model.

85

CHAPTER-5
WING INSTALLATION
5.1 Objective
the procedure for installing left and right wing is the same with the expectation
that some of the parts are handled.where the parts are handled the part number
for the left hand wing is called up first, and then the parts for the right wing
follows it in bracket.
Although not absolutely necessary, it is recommended that you to manufacture
two wing supports so that wing assembly may be supported while positioning
and riveting the wing skin to frame
Total assembly for each wing is approximately 30 hours.

5.2 Installation of wing components

Mark to position of pitot tube doubler 880 on bottom wing skin 690-3l.
Drill 3 holes 4.5mm, and cut out.
Install pitot tube 87 and doubler 880 with screws AN526-838RB,
washers AN960-8 and nuts MS20365-832.
Install the pitot line 881 through grommets AN931-6-10 in the wing and
connect it to the pitot tube 878 with 882-2.
Install navigation light cable 1600-L2J1 and strobe light cable 1600L4E16 through grommets AN931-6-10 in the centre ribs of the wing.
Tie the pitot line 881-11 together with the to electrical ables, clip them to
the cable tie base 229-560,with tie warps MS3347-5.
Install and tighten the fitting AN832-3D and nut AN924-3D through
doubler 691-10.

86

Fig 5.1 Rear beam assemby 699L(699R)

87

Fig 5.2 AFT RIB ASSY 698-7L(698-7R)

88

5.3 Assemble the wing tips

Draw a line .34 from the edge of the wing tip. Locate the wing tip
assembly 925L(925R) on the end of the wing, and use a hole finder to
locate screw holes in end rib. Make sure ring tips is positioned far enough
and the wing so that the holes a line that you have drawn and drill holes.
Posiiton paper template on the outboard edge of the wing tip 925-L.
Drill a 1.25hole with a holes saw, and then file the hole to 1.38to
hallow strobe light to fit through.
Put the strobe light through the hole. Mark and then drill three hole no.12
and install rivetus A6K75
Fit the stroke and position light base plate to the wing tip 925-L with
screws.
Fit the strobe and position light assembly 156/003 to the base plate,with
screw.
Connect the plug to the iring socket, and attach wing tip assembly 925-L
to wing assembly, with screws 8Z*1/2.

5.4 WING ASSEMBLY

We chose to assemble the wing using the sawhorse method. It goes something
like this:
Level both sawhorses so that they are level and parallel.
Lay main spar across.
Install ribs.
Install rear spar.
Verify vertical and horizontal alignment of ribs using "plumb bob"
method.
89

 Attach aft top skin to rear spar using 3/32" cleco's.

Align ribs to vertical axis and secure aft top skin to ribs using 1/8"
cleco's.
After this aft top skin is clecoed into its location you have essentially locked in
the alignment of the wing assembly.

Start by aligning the centerline mark of the rib through the 3/32" holes in the
spar web. It is not critical at this point to have the rib aligned top to bottom we
will take care of that in a minute.The wingtip skin (white part) is composite
with coordination holes drilled using a fixture. Ribs and spars (black parts) join
the skin via these holes, which act as mates. Additional fastener holes are added
later and act as contacts. In conventional aircraft assembly, these parts would be
positioned relative to each other by another fixture; fastener holes would be
drilled through all the parts, using this fixture as a guide, while the parts were
clamped, and fasteners would be put through these holes.

Fig 5.3 Drilling holes

90

Proper design of a new process also includes adequate understanding of

the process it is intended to replace, so that the new one will do everything
necessary that the original one did, only better.
5.5 PROCEDURE:
Now align the edge of the web spacers to our marks and center them
vertically
Clamp rib into position making sure that the rib is aligned for a smooth
transition of the spar cap to the rib flange as described
Turn the spar assembly over and drill all holes, insert 3/32" Cleco in #2
and #5 holes
Do this for all rear ribs not including the root rib. Check all of your
alignments now. After this there is no more adjustment.
When attaching the rear spar to the ribs I used two pieces of thick scrap
material and clamped it to the ribs. This in effect clamped the rear spar
into location for drilling.

Fig 5.4 Rear spar attachment

This picture shows how the bow in the main spar affects the shape of the
rear spar attachment. No worries here because when you attached the aft skin
things will straighten out easily.
91

It is alright to drill the rear spar mounting holes to final size for the
rivets. After the rear spar is fitted remove all of the ribs and the rear spar. Deburr all holes, including those in the front of the rear ribs.
Now using the same technique drill and fit all the front ribs to the spar
using only the 3/32" cleco's making sure there is a smooth transition from spar
caps to rib flanges as shown in Detail K on page W-14. Remove and de-burr.
Re-attach the rear ribs and rear spar, again only putting a 3/32" cleco into
holes #2 and #5. Attach the front ribs by first relaxing the cleco in hole #2 and
inserting the front rib. Rotate the rib into position over the cleco in position #5
and again relax the cleco allowing the rib to clamp into position. Repeat for all
ribs.

5.5 Critical point

Using two very good and sturdy sawhorses lay the spar across them with
the rear ribs pointing vertically. Position the first sawhorse on the root section
of the main spar and the second in the bay between ribs 9 and 10.
Using the wire plumb bob method align the two 1/4" alignment holes in
the rear ribs. If you can get the majority of the ribs positioned so that the wire
will hang straight from the top hole to the bottom hole you are good. Clamp the
spar into position from the back or bottom side. Using a good quality square,
align the rear ribs to be square with the spar. Use a straight piece of aluminum
from the root rib to the main spar to clamp into place.
With the spar and ribs aligned you can now hang the top aft skin into
position. Align the skin to the rear spar and using several clamps secure
it. Make sure you have the rear edge of the skin flush to the rear edge of the
rear spar. Using 3/32" cleco's drill and secure into position

92

CHAPTER-6
RESULTS
6.1OBSERVATIONS

WING 1: WITH PROPELLER AND LANDING GEAR

LIFT(N)

DRAG(N)

VELOCITY(m/sec)

L/D

1.5

0.2

7.5

2.8

0.3

10

9.33

3.2

0.4

15

4.4

0.5

20

8.8

5.8

0.7

25

8.28

6.6

0.8

30

8.25

7.2

0.9

35

Table 6.1

LIFT vs DRAG
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
0

93

WING 1: WITHOUT LANDING GEAR

LIFT(N)

DRAG(N)

VELOCITY(m/sec)

L/D

1.6

0.1

16

2.9

0.2

10

14.5

4.1

0.3

15

13.6

5.5

0.4

20

13.75

6.8

0.5

25

13.6

7.3

0.6

30

12.16

8.2

0.7

35

11.71

Table 6.2

LIFT vs DRAG
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0

94

WING 2: WITHOUT LANDING GEAR

LIFT(N)

DRAG(N)

VELOCITY(m/sec)

L/D

1.7

0.1

17

0.2

10

15

4.3

0.3

15

14.23

5.6

0.11

20

14

7.1

0.5

25

14.2

9.4

0.7

30

13.42

11.6

0.8

35

14.5

Table 6.3

LIFT vs DRAG
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0

Graph 6.3
95

10

12

14

6.2DRAG DIFFERENCE:

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

Wing 1 with
landing gear
Wing 2
Without
landing gear

Graph 6.4

96

6.3 Material specification

6.3.1Carbon fabric construction data-Hexcel fibers
Style

Weave

Count
warp

Count fill

Warp
yarn

Fill yarn

Fabric weight (g/m2)

GSM

F3A282

Plain

11.5

11.5

AS4GP
3K

AS4GP
3K

5.70

193

F3A286

4H Satin

11.5

11.5

AS4GP
3K

AS4GP
3K

5.64

191

F3B262(GP) Plain

AS4CGP
3K

AS4CGP
3K

4.72

160

F3B262(J)
F3B282(J)

8
12.5

8
12.5

AS4CJ 3K
AS4CGP
3K

AS4CJ 3K
AS4CGP
3K

4.72
5.72

160
194

F3B284(GP) 2/2 twill

F3B286(GP) 2/2 twill

12.5
12.5

12.5
12.5

AS4CJ3K
AS4CGP
3K

AS4CJ3K
AS4CGP
3K

5.72
5.76

194
195

F3B284(J)
4H Satin
F3B286(GP) 4H Satin

12.5
12.5

12.5
12.5

AS4CJ3K
AS4CGP
3K

AS4CJ3K
AS4CGP
3K

5.76
5.70

195
193

F3B286(J)

Plain

12.5

12.5

AS4CGP
3K

AS4CGP
3K

5.70

193

F4M282

Plain

12.5

12.5

IM7GP
6K

IM7GP
6K

5.80

197

F4M466

5H Satin

16

16

IM7GP
6K

IM7GP
6K

8.40

285

Plain
Plain

Table 6.4 Carbon fabric construction data-Hexcel fibers

97

6.3.2 PAN Carbon fibers data

Fiber

Availability

Tensile

Tensile

Elongatio GSM

Produce name

Strength

Modul

(Ksi)

us

(%)

(msi)
H excel

AS2C

3K

644

32.0

1.90

1.80

AS4

3K,6K,12K

647/626/6

33.5

1.80

1.78/1.7

49
AS4C

3K,6K,12K

647/626/6

33.5

1.80

1.78

34
AS4D

12K

689

33.5

1.80

1.79

AS7

12K

700

35.0

1.80

1.79

IM6

12K

833

40.5

1.90

1.76

IM7

6K,12K

770/822

40.0

1.80/1.90

1.78

IM8

12K

885

44.0

1.80

1.78

IM9

12K

890

44.0

1.90

1.80

IM10

1K,3K,6K,12 1010

44.0

2.10

1.79

545

33.5

1.60

1.76

620

37.0

1.70

1.76

K
Cytec

T300

3K,6K,12K

T650/3 12K
5

Table 6.5 PAN Carbon fibers data

98

Fig 6.1 cross sectional view of carbon fiber wing

99

fig 6.2 Ribs and spar

100

Conclusion
From this we have implemented a new methodology for implementing
carbon fiber materials in light sport aircraft. This will increase the elasticity
and high withstanding temperature.This will attain the pilot to reach the
maximum G-level.
Thus it may be concluded that if the Thorpedo T211 aircraft is provided with
provisions for retractable landing gear, drag reduction occurs. The reduction
would directly affect the fuel consumption, carbon emission and the range of
aircraft. Fuel consumption will be reduced which would help to improve the
range. CO2 emissions are also reduced thus good for environment

101

REFERENCE
Brady, George S., Henry R. Clauser, and John A. Vaccari. Materials Handbook.
McGraw-Hill, 1997.
Kroschwitz, Jacqueline I. and Mary Howe-Grant, ed. Encyclopedia of Chemical
Technology. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1993.
Ebbesen, T.W. "Carbon Nanotubes." Physics Today (June 1996): 26-32.
American Carbon Society website. http://www.ems.psu.edulcarbon .
Carbon Composites website. http://www.carb.com .
Chris Cavette
Investigations for Mechanical Properties of Metal Matrix Composite Prepared
by Combining FDM, Vacuum Moulding and Stir Casting
-Rupinder Singh, Sunpreet Singh and Sardar Singh
Hysteresis Heating of Polypropylene Based Composites
-Ravi Shukla, JohnneyMertens and S Senthilvelan
Frictional Heat Generation in Selective Ceramic Reinforced Polymer
Composites - Effect of Particle Size
C. Gurunathan, R. Gnanamoorthy and S. Jayavel

102