2011 H1 PHYSICS (8866)

Measurements

Measurements

SI Units
Errors and uncertainties
Scalars and vectors

Learning Outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a)

recall the following base quantities and their units: mass (kg), length (m), time (s),
current (A), temperature (K), amount of substance (mol).

(b)

express derived units as products or quotients of the base units.

(c)

Show an understanding of and use the conventions for labelling graph axes and table
columns as set out in the ASE publication SI units, Signs, Symbols and
Abbreviations, except where these have been superseded by Signs, Symbols and
Systematics ( The ASE Companion to 5-16 Science, 1995 )

(d)

use the following prefixes and their symbols to indicate decimal sub-multiples or
multiples of both base and derived units: pico (p), nano (n), micro (), milli (m), centi
(c), deci (d), kilo (k), mega (M), giga (G), tera (T).

(e)

make reasonable estimates of physical quantities included within the syllabus.

(f)

show an understanding of the distinction between systematic errors (including zero

errors) and random errors.

(g)

show an understanding of the distinction between precision and accuracy.

(h)

assess the uncertainty in a derived quantity by simple addition of actual, fractional or

percentage uncertainties

(i)

distinguish between scalar and vector quantities, and give examples of each.

(j)

add and subtract coplanar vectors.

(k)

represent a vector as two perpendicular components.

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(a)

Measurements

recall the following base quantities and their units: mass (kg), length (m), time
(s), current (A), temperature (K), amount of substance (mol).

Physical Quantities & SI units

A physical quantity defines some measurable feature of many different items. It
consists of a number and a unit.
Example:

Area of the school compound,

Unit

A = 5 000 m2
Physical Quantity

Numerical magnitude

Numbers are not physical quantities. Without a unit, numbers cannot be a measure
of any physical quantity.
All physical quantities consist of a numerical magnitude and a unit.
Physical quantities are the building blocks of Physics in terms of which the laws of
Physics are expressed.
There are 2 types of physical quantities:
(1)
base (fundamental) quantities
(2)
derived quantities
Base Quantities & Units
A base quantity is chosen and arbitrarily defined rather than being derived from a
combination of other physical quantities.
Base unit is the standards assigned to each of these basic quantities and to no
others. It is not derived from other units, i.e. independent of other units.
Base units are units from which all other units can be defined
The seven base quantities and their SI units are:
Base Quantity / Symbol
Length, l
Mass, m
Time, t
electric current, I
temperature, T
amount of substance, n
*luminous intensity, Iv

Unit Symbol
m
kg
s
A
K
mol
cd

SI Unit
metre
kilogram
second
ampere
kelvin
mole
candela

* luminous intensity is not in the syllabus

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(b)

Measurements

express derived units as products or quotients of the base units.

A derived quantity is defined based on combination of base quantities and has a
derived unit that is the product and/or quotient of these base units.
Example

velocity =

displaceme nt
time

Base quantities

Derived quantity

Unit of velocity = unit of distance / unit of time

= m / s = m s1
Derived unit

Example
Force = mass x acceleration
unit of F

= unit of m x unit of a
= kg m s-2

Example
Potential Energy = mgh
= unit of (m x g x h)
= kg m s-2 m
so, SI unit of energy, J, can be expressed as kg m2 s-2
unit of PE

Worked Example 1 (J93/I/2, J83/II/28)

What are the SI base units of specific heat capacity?
Solution
Specific heat capacity, c, of a substance is defined as the thermal energy required by a unit
mass of the substance (e.g.1 kg) to experience a unit rise in temperature (e.g. by 1 K).
Unit of c

unit of thermal energy

J
kg m2 s-2
=
=
=
(unit of mass) x (unit of temperature change)
kg . K
kg . K

= m2 s-2 K -1
More on homogeneity of equations
A physical equation is true irrespective of the system of units used for the physical
quantities mentioned in the equation. Note that:
- Each term of the equation has the same units
- Only quantities of the same units can be added, substracted or equated in an
equation
- The equation is said to be homogeneous or dimensionally correct if all the terms
in it has the same base units.
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Measurements

Consider the following equation

s = ut +

1 2
at
2

Unit for s =
Unit for ut =
Unit for at2 =
Note that all the three terms have the same unit. Therefore, we can conclude that the
equation is homogeneous.
An equation which is not homogeneous must be physically wrong. On the other hand, if
the units for the various terms in an equation are the same, it does not imply that the
equation is physically correct. Cases where an equation can be homogeneous and yet
incorrect are:
a. Incorrect Coefficient (s)

l
l
is dimensionally correct and physically correct, but T = 3
g
g
dimensionally correct but physically wrong.
T = 2

is

b. Missing terms
The relationship between s, u, t and a may just be written as s =

1 2
at which is
2

incomplete and wrong even though the equation is homogeneous

c. Extra Terms
An equation may be wrongly written with an extra term which has the same units
l
l
as the other terms for e.g. T = 2
+
g
g
The correctness of a physical equation is determined experimentally. To test for the
homogeneity of physical equations, the units of the terms on the right hand (RHS) of the
equation must be equal to the units of the terms on the LHS.
Worked Example 2 (N82/II/29)
At Temperatures close to 0 K, the specific heat capacity of a particular solid is given by
c = aT3, where T is the thermodynamic temperature and a is a constant. Find the units of a
in terms of SI based units.
Solution

JJ Physics Dept

c
unit of c
m2 s-2 K-1
unit of a

=
=
=
=

aT3
unit of (aT3)
unit of a unit of K3
m2 s-2 K-4

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Measurements

Worked Example 3
The experimental measurement of the specific heat capacity c of a solid as a function of
temperature T is to be fitted to the expression c = T + T3.
What are the possible units of and expressed in SI base units?
Solution

c = T + T3
For the equation above to be dimensionally correct or homogeneous,
the base units of the terms on the L.H.S. of the equation must be the same
as the base units of the terms on the R.H.S.

Base unit of c = base unit of T = base unit of T3

= (unit of ) (unit of T )

m2 s-2 K-1

unit of = m2 s-2 K-2

3
Also base unit of c = base unit of T
3
= (unit of ) (unit of T ) unit of = m2 s-2 K-4

m2 s-2 K-1

Worked Example 4
Which of the following units are not equivalent to that of force?
A.
Pa m2
B.

W m1 s

C.
D.

J m s1
kg m s2

Solution

A)
B)
C)
D)

Pa m
W m-1 s
J m s-1
kg m s-2

Working
kg m-1 s-2 x m2
kg m2 s-3 x m-1 s
kg m2 s-2 x m s-1

Base units
kg m s-2
kg m s-2
kg m3 s-3

Answer is C.

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Measurements

Worked Example 5
The critical density of matter 0 in the universe may be written as

0 =

3H
8 G

H = Hubble constant
G = gravitational constant (unit: N m2 kg2)

What are the SI base units of H ?

0 =

3H
8 G

Solution

H=

80G
3

-3
2 -2
unit of H = ( kg m )( N m kg )

-3
-2 2 -2
= ( kg m )( kg m s m kg )
-2
=s

Worked Example 6
The energy E of a damped oscillator of mass m varies with time t is given by
bt

E = kA2 e 2m
What are the units of k and b?
Solution

A = amplitude (unit: m)
k, b = constants

-bt/2m
is a number and hence has no unit
e
Power has no unit and hence

bt
=1
2m

(unit of b).s
=1
kg

unit of b = kg s-1
unit of E = (unit of A2 ) ( unit of k )
( unit of k ) = J m-2 = ( kg m2 s-2 ) m-2 = kg s-2

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(c)

Measurements

Show an understanding of and use the conventions for labelling graph axes
and table columns as set out in the ASE publication SI units, Signs, Symbols
and Abbreviations, except where these have been superseded by Signs,
Symbols and Systematics ( The ASE Companion to 5-16 Science, 1995 )
A table of ordered pairs is used to represent a relationship. In a table, it is
conventional to have the independent variable to be recorded as the leading
column in a table, e.g. pre-selected physical quantity such as length.
The second and subsequent columns should be the dependent variable(s), e.g.
readings recorded from experiment or calculated values from previous columns. e.g.
Pendulum length
L / cm
20.0
40.0
60.0

Independent variable

Time taken for 20 oscillations

t1 / s
10.3
15.7
20.9

t2 / s
10.5
15.8
21.2

Period, T = ( t1 + t2 ) / 40
T/s
0.520
0.788
1.05

Dependent variable

Notice the pendulum length readings are recorded with the same number of
decimal places (d.p.) according to the type of the measuring instrument i.e. the
metre rule.
The time taken by a stopwatch however was only recorded to 1 d.p. throughout
instead of the usual 2 to 3 d.p. as indicated in the time instrument. This is because
the time readings recorded must take into account of the human reaction time of ~
0.2 s in starting and stopping the stopwatch.
The period of one oscillation is a calculated value ( processed data ) taken from
records of the time taken for 20 oscillations, hence, the values recorded will have the
same number of significant figures (s.f.) as its raw score ( raw data ).
A graph is an infinite set of order pairs plotted on a Cartesian plane, representing a
relationship between the elements of the ordered pair. It is conventional to plot the
independent variable on the horizontal axis ( x-axis ) and the dependent variable on
the vertical axis ( y-axis ).

To find the x-intercept of a graph, y = 0 is substituted into the graph or equation

to solve for x.
To find the y-intercept of a graph, x = 0 is substituted into the graph or equation
to solve for y.

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Measurements

T/s
30.0

Dependent variable

False
origin

25.0
x
x

20.0

Reference
triangle

15.0
x
10.0

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

L / cm

Independent variable
The selected scales of the axes should be easy to read and large enough to enable
the curve(s) (Curve refers to both curves and straight lines) to occupy at least half of
the graph grid. The selected scale should usually be in multiples of 1, 2, 5 or 10
unit(s). A false origin is sometimes used in order to accommodate the curve into the
graph.
When determining the gradient of the curve at a particular point or straight line, the
chosen reference triangle should fall within the recorded data points and be at least
half the size of the curve. The chosen points should not coincide with any of the
recorded data points from the experiments. Label these chosen points for easy
checking.
(d)

use the following prefixes and their symbols to indicate decimal sub-multiples or
multiples of both base and derived units: pico (p), nano (n), micro (), milli (m),
centi (c), deci (d), kilo (k), mega (M), giga (G), tera (T).
Prefixes are used to simplify the writing of very large or very small orders of
magnitude of physical quantities.
Fraction / multiple
10-12
10-9
10-6
10-3
10-2
10-1
103
106
109
1012

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Prefix
pico
nano
micro
milli
centi
deci
kilo
mega
giga
tera

Symbol
p
n

m
c
d
k
M
G
T

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Measurements

Examples
1500 m = 1.5 x 103 m = 1.5 km
0.00077 V = 0.77 x 10-3 V = 0.77 mV
100 x 10-9 m3 = 100 x (10-3)3 m3 = 100 mm3
(e)

make reasonable estimates of physical quantities included within the syllabus.

The following are examples of the estimated values of some physical quantities:
Diameter of an atom ~ 10-10 m
Diameter of a nucleus ~ 10-15 m
Air pressure ~ 100 kPa
Wavelength of visible light ~ 600 nm
Resistance of a domestic lamp ~ 1000
Mass of a car ~ 2000 kg
Maximum speed of a car on an expressway ~ 90 km h-1
(f)

show an understanding of the distinction between systematic errors (including

zero errors) and random errors.
Measuring any physical quantity requires a measuring instrument. The reading will
always have an uncertainty. This arises because
a) Experimenter is not skilled enough
b) Limitations of instruments
c) Environmental fluctuations
As a result, measurements can become unreliable if we do not use good measurement
techniques. Some of the common practices to minimise the errors made in
measurements are as follows:
a) Taking average of many readings
b) Avoid parallax errors
c) Take readings promptly
Analogue & Digital displays
Often, when we measure a quantity with an instrument, we can make an estimate of
the uncertainty by using the following rule:
Uncertainty of a Reading = Half the smallest scale division

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Measurements

For example, take a look at the following analogue scales:

2.2

2.3

2.4

Reading
= 5.7
Uncertainty = 0.1

Reading
= 2.36
Uncertainty = 0.01

Even when instruments with digital displays are used, there are still uncertainties
present in the measurements. So for example, a digital ammeter may show the current
to be 358 mA. This does not mean that the current is 358 mA exactly.
For digital displays, the uncertainty is usually provided by the manufacturer.
Errors & Uncertainties
Errors or uncertainties fall generally into 2 categories:
a) Random errors
b) Systematic errors
Random Errors
Random error is one that occurs without a fixed pattern resulting in a scatter of
readings about a mean value.

x
x
x
x

x
x

The readings are equally likely to be higher or lower than the MEAN value.
Random errors are of varying sign (higher or lower than average) and magnitude and
cannot be eliminated. Averaging repeated readings is the best way to minimize
random errors.
Examples: Measuring the diameter of a wire due to its non-uniformity

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Measurements

Systematic errors
Systematic error is one that occurs with a fixed pattern resulting in a consistent overestimation or under-estimation of the actual value.

The readings are consistently higher or lower than the ACTUAL value. Systematic
error is consistent in both magnitude and sign and results in readings taken being
faulty in one direction.
Systematic errors cannot be reduced or eliminated by taking the average of
repeated readings.
It could be reduced by techniques such as making a
mathematical correction or correcting the faulty equipment.
Examples: zero error of a measuring instrument, a clock running too fast or too
slow.
(h)

assess the uncertainty in a derived quantity by simple addition of actual,

fractional or percentage uncertainties

If we denote the uncertainty or error of P as P, then we write the measured quantity as

P + P
Mean
Value

Fractional error of P =

P
P

Percentage error of P =

P
100%
P

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Absolute
error

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Measurements

Worked Example 7
The length of a piece of paper is measured as 297 1 mm.
Its width is measured as 209 1 mm.
(a)
(b)

What is the fractional uncertainty in its length?

What is the percentage uncertainty in its length?

Solution
Note :
Mean
Value

(a)
(b)

297 + 1 mm
Absolute
error

1
= 0.00337
297
1
x 100% = 0.337 %
Percentage uncertainty in its length =
297
Fractional uncertainty in its length =

Note:

(g)

Rule of thumb: answers should always be rounded off to 3 significant figures

(3.S.F.) except for absolute errors, which are always rounded off to 1.S.F.
MARKS will be deducted for expressing the answers to an incorrect number of
significant figures!
The average value is always rounded off to the number of decimal figures of
the absolute error when expressed in scientific notation.

show an understanding of the distinction between precision and accuracy.

Measurements are often described as precise or accurate. In layman terms, these 2
terms are used interchangeably to mean the same thing. In Physics, it is possible to
have precise but inaccurate measurements and accurate measurements that are not
precise.
Suppose we do some experiments to find g, the acceleration of free fall.
expected result is 9.81 m s-2. The results obtained are shown below:

JJ Physics Dept

The

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Measurements

No. of readings, n

Value of reading, x
Expected 9.81
8.63, 8.78, 8.82, 8.59, 8.74, 8.88

( precise, not accurate )

9.64, 9.81, 9.95, 10.02, 9.77, 9.68

( accurate but not precise )

9.76, 9.79, 9.83, 9.85, 9.88, 9.90

( accurate & precise )

7.65, 8.92, 10.00, 9.12, 8.41, 9.45

(neither precise nor accurate)

To summarise,
Precision:
A set of measurements is precise if
a) the measurements have a small spread or scatter
b) there are small random errors in the measurements
Accuracy:
A set of measurements is accurate if
a) the measurements are close to the actual value
b) there are small systematic errors in the measurements

Determining Uncertainty in Derived Quantities

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Measurements

Addition & Subtraction

Suppose A and B are measured with uncertainties A and B respectively.
If C = A + B, find the uncertainty in C.

C = A + B
If D = A B, find the uncertainty in D.

D=

A + B

Multiplication and Division

If E = AB, find the uncertainty in E.

E A B
=
+
E
A
B
If F =

A
, find the uncertainty in F.
B

F A B
=
+
F
A
B
Generalising:
If A = Bn, then
If A = Bm Cn ,

then

If A = Bm / Cn ,

then

A
B
=n
A
B
A
B
C
=m
+n
A
B
C
A
B
C
=m
+n
A
B
C

Worked Example 8
Given X = (1.0 0.2) cm and Y = (5.0 0.2) cm, find D and the associated uncertainties if
(a)

D=X+Y

D = X + Y = 6.0 cm

D = X + Y = 0.2 + 0.2 = 0.4 cm

Therefore, D = (6.0 + 0.4) cm

(b)

D=YX

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Measurements

D = Y X = 4.0 cm

D = Y + X = 0.2 + 0.2 = 0.4 cm

Therefore, D = (4.0 + 0.4) cm
(c)

D = 2Y 3X

D = 2Y 3X = 7.0 cm

D = 2(Y) + 3(X) = 2(0.2) + 3(0.2) = 1.0 cm

1 cm (to 1 sig. fig)

Therefore, D = (7 + 1) cm
(d)

D=

Y-X
4
D=

Y-X
= 1.0 cm
4

= (Y + X)
= (0.2 + 0.2) = 0.1 cm

Therefore, D = (1.0 + 0.1) cm

(e)

D = XY

D X Y
=
+
D
X
Y
0.2
0.2
= 0.24
=
+
1.0
5.0

Average D = X Y = (1.0) (5.0) = 5.0 cm

D =

D
D
D

= 0.24 x 5.0 = 1.2 cm2 1 cm (to 1 sig. fig)

2

Therefore, D = (5 + 1) cm2

(f)

D = 4XY

D X Y
=
+
D
X
Y
=

0.2 0.2
= 0.24
+
1.0 5.0

D = 4(1.0)(5.0) = 20 cm2
D = 0.24 x 20 = 4.8 cm2 5 cm (to 1 sig. fig)
2

D = (20 5) cm2

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(g)

D = X2Y

Measurements

X Y
D
=2
+
D
X
Y
= 2(

0.2
0.2
)+
1.0
5.0

= 0.44

2
2
3
Average D = X Y = (1.0) (5.0) = 5.0 cm

D =

D
D
D

= 0.44 x 5.0 = 2.2 cm3 2 cm (to 1 sig. fig)

3

Therefore, D = (5 + 2) cm3

Worked Example 9
In a simple pendulum experiment to determine g the equation used is where
T = (2.16 0.01) s and l = (1.150 0.005) m.

T = 2

Find the value of g and its uncertainty.

l
g

Solution
Note:

T was the original subject of the equation but since we are interested in g, before
we form the error equation, we have to make g the subject of the equation first.

T = 2
g=
g=

l
g

4 2 l
T2

4 2 (1.150)
2.16 2

g = 9.73 m s-2

g l
T
=
+2
g
l
T
g 0.005
0.01
=
+2
g
2.16
1.150

g
= 0.0136
g
g = 0.132 = 0.1 m s-2 (to 1 sig. fig)

g = (9.7 0.1) m s-2

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Measurements

Worked Example 10 (N89/II/2)

The length of a piece of paper is measured as 297 1 mm. Its width is measured as
209 1 mm. What is the area of one side of the piece of paper?
State your answer with its uncertainty.
Solution
Area of the paper = 297 x 209 = 6.21 x 104 mm2

A l b
= +

A
l
b

A
1
1
=
+
4
297 209
6.21 x 10

A = 506 = 0.0506 x 104 mm2 0.05 x 10 mm (to 1 sig. fig)

4

Therefore, A = (6.21 + 0.05 ) x 104 mm2

Worked Example 11
In an experiment to measure the Youngs modulus of a wire, E, the following measurements
were made:
Length of wire, l
Diameter of wire, d
Mass, M
Extension, e
Acceleration of free fall, g

If E is calculated as

E=

3.025
0.84
5.000
1.27
9.81

0.005 m
0.01 mm
0.002 kg
0.02 mm
0.01 m s-2

4Mgl
, calculate E with its associated uncertainty.
ed 2

Solution

E=

4Mgl
4(5.000)(9.81)(3.025)
=
= 2.11 x 1011 Pa
2
-3
-3 2
ed
(1.27 x 10 )(0.84 x 10 )

E=

4Mgl
ed 2

E M g l e
d
=
+
+
+
+2
E
M
g
l
e
d
E 0.002 0.01 0.005 0.02
0.01
=
+
+
+
+ 2
= 0.0426298
E 5.000 9.81 3.025 1.27
0.84
E = 0.0426298 x 2.11 x 1011
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Measurements

E = 8.78 x 109 Pa
E = 0.09 1011 Pa (to 1 sig. fig)
E = (2.11 0.09) x 1011 Pa

Note (REPEATED):
Rule of thumb: non-exact answers should always be rounded off to 3 significant
figures (3.S.F.) except for absolute errors, which are always rounded off to
1.S.F. MARKS will be deducted for expressing the answers to an incorrect
number of significant figures!
The average value is always rounded off to the number of decimal figures of
the absolute error when expressed in scientific notation.
(i)

distinguish between scalar and vector quantities, and give examples of each.
Scalars and vectors are both physical quantities (they have both a number and a
unit).
A scalar quantity consists of a magnitude only.
Examples: mass and charge
A vector quantity consists of a magnitude and a direction.
Examples: displacement and force
Examples
Scalars
Distance
speed

Vectors
displacement
velocity

time
frequency
density

acceleration
force
momentum (encountered in the topic of
Dynamics)

Note:

A vector can be placed anywhere in a diagram as long as it keeps its same length
and direction.
Two vectors with the same length but different directions are different.
Directions for vectors must be given clearly without ambiguity.

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Measurements

3 different ways to give directions clearly are:

Compass points, e.g. due east, 75o north of west, 20o east of south
Bearings, e.g. bearing of 090o, 345o, 160o
X-Y plane, e.g. positive x-axis, 75o above the negative x-axis, 70o below the
positive x-axis

i)
ii)
iii)

i)
ii)

i) 75o north of west

ii) Bearing of 345o
iii) 75o above the -ve x-axis

75

40o

(j)

Due East
Bearing of 090o

i) 40o south of east or

ii) Bearing of 130o
iii) 40o below the +ve x-axis

add and subtract coplanar vectors.

Dealing with Vectors

When vectors are added however, the result is NOT just the sum of the numbers
(magnitudes). The directions of the vectors must be considered, especially when
they point in different directions.
Vectors Addition by Scaled Drawing
Examples

R
R

B
A
B

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Measurements

Vectors Addition by Triangle Law

Worked Example 12
Find R.

120 m
40o

84o

100 m
Solution

= 180 84 = 96
sin 96 sin 40
=
120
R
R2 = 1002 + 1202 2(100)(120) cos 40 R = 77.6 m

R is 77.6 m at an angle of 84.0o north of east (other possible answers?)

Vectors Subtraction
Example :

P - Q = P + (- Q)

P
P+(-Q)

-Q

Q
P
(k)

represent a vector as two perpendicular components.

When 2 perpendicular vectors are added, they give a resultant as shown:

V+H=R

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Measurements

Finding the components of a vector is the reverse process of vector addition.

Instead of combining 2 vectors into one, a vector can be split into 2 components, the
horizontal component and the vertical component.

Rx = H = R cos
Ry = V = R sin

tan =

V
H

H
Worked Example 13
Find the horizontal and vertical components of the forces A, B & C.

A (400 N)

B (500 N)

35o

25o
20o
C (200 N)
Solution
Vector
A

Horizontal / N
- 400 cos 25o

Vertical / N
400 sin 25o

500 cos 35o

500 sin 35o

- 200 cos 20o

Total

- 141

- 200 sin 20o

387

Note:

Check that your calculator is in the correct mode i.e. radian or degree if
you cannot get the final answer for the computation of trigonometric
functions.

Worked Example 14 (N87/I/3, J94/I/1)

Which of the following pairs contains one vector and one scalar quantities?
A.
displacement; acceleration
B.
force; kinetic energy
C.
power; speed
D.
work; potential energy

Ans : B

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Measurements

Worked Example 15 (N90/I/1)

Which list contains only scalar quantities?
A.
mass, acceleration, temperature, kinetic energy
B.
mass, volume, kinetic energy, temperature
C.
acceleration, temperature, volume, electric charge
D.
moment, velocity, density, force

Ans : B

Worked Example 16 (N90/I/1)

(a)
Two vectors A and B are at right angles to each other. Draw a vector diagram to
show how the sum of the vectors could be found.
(b)

A car changes its velocity from 30 m s1 due East to 25 m s1 due South.

(i) Draw a vector diagram to show the initial and final velocities and the
change in velocity.
(ii) Calculate the change in speed.
(iii) Calculate the change in velocity.

Solution

a)

JK JK
A+ B

JK
A

JK
vi

bi)
JJK
vf

JK
B
bii)

Change in speed = 25 30 = -5 m s-1

biii) Change in velocity = ( 252 + 302 )0.5

= 39.1 m s-1
-1

angle = tan (25 / 30)

= 39.8

JJK
JK
v f + (vi )

JJK
vf

JJJK
vi

The change in velocity is 39.1 m s-1 at an angle of 39.8 south of west.

(other possible answers?)

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Measurements

Note (IMPORTANT):
Change in a physical quantity = Final physical quantity Initial physical quantity:
For scalars, one can simply take the difference in the magnitude; For vectors, one
need to consider the directions involved!
In the previous example, speed is a scalar whereas velocity is a vector!

Link to mathematical requirements found in O Level 4016 Mathematics (2010) Syllabus:

Acknowledgements
-

Updated by Chong K.W. , 2011

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