Healing, medicine and spirituality in the Europe of the Stone Age

Sickness, injury, or even psychological guidance isnt something that is needed only be the man
of today. Even though the growth of modern medicine is noteworthy mostly from the 19st
century, we could assume that this function was present from the earliest stages of human
history. In this article, well take a look at a few possibilities, or theories, on how the healing of
the Stone Age could have occurred.

The presence of the healer

At the beginning of this chapter, one answer to an unasked question is due. How can we name
those individuals, practicing the art of healing? For the lack of a better expression, and also,
since many aspects are similar to those of shamanism, I have decided call the healers shamans.
One of the most important functions the shamans were obligated to do in the society was healing
- not just spiritual healing, or healing of psychosomatic diseases, but also trauma, and severe
injuries. Based on multiple archaeological finding, as well as research of the skeletal remains, we
could assume that also more complicated medical procedures (like surgery) were practiced in the
Stone Age.
Another question is, what can be included under the term medicine. Based on the idea of A.
Cartwright (Carwright 2006, 2), under such term we could find all the practices, procedures, and
preparations, that are aimed at improving, restoring and retaining the health of one individual, or
a social group. Based on this definition, we could include here all practices ranging from surgery,
through shamanic chanting, to worship and sacrifice.
Even if we cant be sure, we could assume, that in the oldest eras of human history, such
specialists were present in most of the social groups, maybe merged to a single person - a healer,
a witchdoctor, or a shaman, so someone who was held in respect, maybe feared, but his authority
as such must have been undisputed. The scientific explanation of sicknesses is an invention of
the modern age, so its not hard to imagine, that the secret of healing was preserved, and held in
well protected by the few who could work with it. We could also draw a simple parallel based on
the society of today - if you are not feeling well, or even worse - if you are in a serious condition,
would you entrust your life to the hands of a non-professional? Or would you try to find the best
you can, someone you can trust? And trust is the foundation of respect.
But how do we determine the presence of such a specialist in an area? In this paper we will
concentrate on the funerary findings. With the help of anthropology, we could find the evidence
directly on the bones of the deceased - broken bones that have been healed properly, the usage of

healing herbs, deformities, that required constant treatment, all of that and more could serve as
an indicator, that someone was taking care of the current population.

Healing procedures of the Stone Age

Birth assistance
One of the oldest and at the same time most useful medical procedures was birth assistance that
could have determined the survival of the tribe. One of the oldest known examples comes from
the well-known 3-person funeral at Doln Vstonce, Moravia, discovered in 1986 by B. Klma
(Klma 1987, 241 - 253) (pict. 1). The grave belonging to the gravettien, respectively pavlovien
settlement contained 3 skeletal remains, all of them ranging from 16 - 23 years, juvenilis/adultus.
The youngest person was a girl of a subtle build, placed in the middle. The anthropological
analysis has shown serious pathological deformities on her body, some of them visible on the
first view. The right thigh-bone, as well as the spine was bended to an unnatural position, and the
whole body axis was shifted to the left. All of the limbs on the left side were significantly shorter
than their right counterparts (Klma 1987, 247). The medical conditions didnt stop there - visible
were also scratches on the enamel of the molars and eyeteeth, inflammation in the cavities of the
left superciliary arch and scoliosis. As possible causes we could assume, based either on the
theory of J. Jelnek, that the girl suffered spine-scoliosis from early age, or on the theory of G.
Kaiser, that she was paralyzed on one half of the body. Also interesting is the fact, that between
her teeth was found a piece of charred animal bone, bearing the signs of cutting, and pressure,
maybe used for calming the pain (Klma 1987, 247).
Two male skeletons were also found, one on each side of the remains of the girl. The taller from
the duo was placed on his belly, near the left side of the female, with his head facing to the right.
His left hand was placed on the hand of the young girl, creating and impression of him holding
her, but it is not certain, if this was the original placement of the limbs. The other man, lying
noticeable further from the girl, was leaning on her, with both his hands pointing towards her lap.
Similar to the previous example, also here we cant determine if the placement of the hands was
original or not (Klma 1987, 244).
The skulls of all three individuals were covered by a mixture of mud and red powder. By both of
the men, this mixture was hardened, also containing perforated fox, and wolf teeth, maybe
intended as a form of a death mask. Another interesting fact is, that a similar mixture of mud and
red powder was found under the pelvis of the girl in the middle, maybe pointing to a presence of
a child, whose skeletal remains were not preserved (Klma 1987, 247).
One of the interpretations, originally created by the lead archaeologist behind this discovery, B,
Klma (Klma 1987, 247), later supported by V. Podborsk (Podborsk 2006, 124) was, that
what we see here is an evidence of failed birth assistance. The two men - an shaman and his

assistant failed to help deliver the child, which caused the death of the newborn, as well as the
mother. Such an outcome could have been taken as an lost authority of the healers, thus resulting
also in their own death. Even though we cant be certain, the placement of the bodies, as well es
the funerary items, could support this theory.
Although there have been found multiple other child graves from the later periods, this one
remains the only one that can be interpreted as a direct evidence of birth assistance.

1. 3- person burial at Doln Vstonice (Klma 1987, fig. 5)

Trepanations
This specific form of a medical procedure entails the removal of a fully grown bone piece of the
skull, thus exposing the pituitary gland, or the hypophysis. If you think that such a surgery
sounds dangerous, and you were wondering, how it could have been possible, here are a few
interesting facts (Cartwright 2006, 5):
-

a large percentage (more than 80%) of the patients survived, as the traces of post-surgery
ossification process is showing
- there are 4 most used forms of trepanation known:
1. the most favorite form consisted of the continuous scratching-away the bone mass,
using an sharp tool (more than 80% of all cases)
2. marking the oval, or circular area on the skull, which borders were continually scratched,
or cut, till the bone wall was separated, and the circular piece could have been removed
3. the last two methods were similar, thats why Ill list them together - the skull bone was
either drilled, or cut, till the square shaped fragment of the skull could have been
removed. The survival rate by those two forms was minimal.
- most of the trepanations (95%) were done on male patients
- some skulls show the signs of multiple trepanations, made during longer time periods
- the amount of trepanation culminate in the Neolithic period, till then their numbers start
to decrease
- over 60% of all trepanations were executed on the left side of the skull. The second most
common area was the forehead. Trepanations of the right side were uncommon.
- between 6 - 10% off all skulls from the Neolithic (worldwide) bear some signs of
trepanation
What was the exact purpose of trepanation of the Stone Age is currently not known. We can only
assume that it was used as cure for mental illnesses, which sadly cant be proved based on the
skeletal remains.
Currently the oldest evidence of trepanation is known form eastern Europe, the funerary site
Vasiljevka II (pict. 2), dated between 7300 - 6220 BC, late Mesolithic (Lillie 1998, 854). Similar
find is the trepanned skull from the site Ensisheim (pict 3), dated between 5200 - 4900 BC (Alt
1997, 360). In both cases was the trepanation hole almost completely healed, pointing at the
survival of the patient.
As an example from Eneolithic we could mention the skull with a double trepanation from the
site Pritschna (pict. 4), central Germany, dated to 2800 - 2200 BC, belonging to the Corded
Wire culture (Schafberg 2001, 100).

2. Trepanned skull from the site Vasiljevka II (Lillie 1998, fig.1)

3. Trepanned skull from the site Ensisheim (Alt 1997, 360)

4. Trepanned skull from the site Pritschna (Schafberg 2001, 100)

Amputations
For a long time, we didnt have any direct evidence of the possibility of Stone Age amputations,
although some non-direct findings could have pointed it out. One of those were the palm prints
with missing fingers from the Spanish cave Gargas (pict. 5), dated to 20 000 BC, aurignacien
(Leori Gourhan 1967, 107 122, Ortner 2003, 168). Here we are still in the area of
speculations, since we cant determine, if the missing fingers were intentionally removed, were
lost in an accident, or were just artistic expressions.

5. Palm prints from the cave Gargas. The variations marked with a cross are just hypothetical, and
were not found (Leori Gourhan 1967, fig 1)

Currently the only know example of amputations was discovered between the years 2003 - 2005,
on the French site Buthiers-Boulancourt. Here, the skeletal remains of a man were discovered,
placed in the orientation east - west, in a squatting position, dated through the radiocarbon
method between 4900 - 4700 BC, Linear pottery culture, Neolithic. What was interesting about
this man was his left arm, on which the bones of his forearm were missing. Osteological
analysis, as well as 3D reconstruction has proven that the humerus was missing its acetabulum
(cotyloid cavity). More to that, the place was showing signs of intentional cutting, but in the area,
where the bone is especially thick and robust (pict. 6). The edges of the cut have shown signs of
a continual ossification, and the creation of a new cortical bone.
The interpretation of this find was as follows: the man probably suffered and injury, either during
a fight, or by accident, that partially separated his forearm. Through surgery was the hand was
separated completely, the patient survived, and his arm has healed (Buquet Marcon 2009, 14).

6. The left humerus bearing the signs of cutting (Buquet Marcon 2009, 14)

Dentistry
Even dentistry was not unknown to the men of the Stone Age, although currently there is only
one known example. The Danish site Langeland contained the remains of a man, dated between
3200 - 1800 BC. One of his upper molars, still attached to his upper jaw showed evidence of
intentional drilling. The calcium analysis of the enamel indicated, that the procedure must have
taken place during the life of the individual.
With the help of experimental archaeology a similar situation could have been simulated on a
recent tooth. With the help of a primitive drill, created from a silex point secured on a wooden
stick, powered by a bow string, a similar result could have been achieved in less than 5 minutes
(Cartwright 2006, 7).

Acupuncture
This traditional medical craft, currently known mostly from Far East countries, not surprisingly,
doesnt influence the structure of the bones, and therefore is almost impossible to determine its
presence solely from the skeletal remains. Why include this chapter, one could ask. In some
cases, tattoos can be considered as a specific form of acupuncture, if they are properly placed in
certain areas, currently also used in the eastern medicine. One of the greatest examples is the

famous frozen mummy found in the Alps, commonly known as tzi. Based on recent studies,
more than 60 tattoos were discovered on his body, mostly consisting of multiple lines, or dots.
Many scientist see them as a way to relief pain from the chronic arthritis he was suffering
(Engeln 2008, 117). Similarly interesting is the actual placement of the pictures on his skin (pict.
7, 8). All of them are placed in areas that are known, a used in the Chinese acupuncture of today
- some are described as meridians of the bladder, gall-bladder and liver - and used for healing of
hip arthritis and indigestion; and others, placed on the ankles and knees, help with the problems
with the musculoskeletal system (Dorfer 1999, 1024).

7. The placement of the tattoos on tzi (http://www.iceman.it/en/tattoos, downloaded

30.3.2015)

8. The tattoos of tzi (http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/d-brief/files/2015/01/tattoos1.jpg,

downloaded on 30.3.2015)

Healing herbs
The using of healing herbs has been well known, and connected with the practices of the shaman
all across the world, so we could assume, that is was not different also in the Stone Age. The
shaman as the healer, holding vast knowledge over all of the herbs and roots, is also one of the
most commonly depicted stereotypes in the popular media. Even though, since the usage of
organic materials is often hard to prove through archaeology of the Stone Age, many of such
theories will always remain in the realm of speculations. An example of non-direct evidence
could be the presence of poppy seeds (Papaver somniferum) found on multiple archaeological
sites belonging to the linear pottery culture in Switzerland. M. D. Merlin, who dedicated his
research to finding the origins of the poppy seeds, based on findings from Neolithic and early
Bronze Age, thinks that it could have originated in the central Europe, from where it spread out
to multiple Mediterranean areas (Merlin 1984, 282 283). Opium, processed from the poppy
seeds, was proven to have narcotic, sedative, and euphoric effects on the individual using it, thus

imaging its usage during the shamanic practices, or by using it to ease pain, would be easy
(Cartwright 2006, 9).
Here, we can briefly return to the already mentioned ice man mummy tzi. Between his
belongings were found two lumps of birch bracket (Piptoporus betulinus), a mushroom known
for its cleansing, antibacterial, and immunity enhancing properties. The analysis of tzis
digestion system has proven the presence of the eggs of the parasite Trichirus trichiura. The fact,
that he was carrying exactly the medicine required for his condition indicates that he knew the
connection between his medical issues, and the means of treatment (Capasso 1998, 1864).

Shaman as a psychologist
Since many of the shamanic acts were done in the spiritual realm, we could find some parallels
to many present day healers, practicing their craft as an alternative to modern medicine. The
sickness, in the shamanic universe could be caused either be maleficent spirits, or by the
traveling of the soul.
J. Achterberg (Achterberg 1994, 148) divided the methods used by the shaman into two
categories:
1. Preverbal - with the help of suggestion, pictures, or words the shaman was able to
convince the sick person, that his or hers condition is improving, comparable to the
modern placebo effect.
2. Transpersonal - based on the theory, that it is possible to transfer the consciousness from
one person to another, and thus achieve certain physiognomic changes, or improvements.
While the first method is commonly used by the modern medicine even today, the second one
remains in the realm of faith.
Another thing, that could seem hard to comprehend for the man of today was, that the functions
of the shaman could not worked separately. The world, where shamanism existed, was different
from our own, the sacral and the profane worldview were two sides of the same coin - one could
have not worked without the other. The idea of the world tree survived to this day - where in the
middle lays the land of man, the branches are the upper realms, home of the high spirits, and the
roots represented the underworld, home of the demons and monster. A tree is a single unit, not
one of the parts could have survived without the other two. Same goes for the shaman - to be
able to fulfill his craft, in this case healing, he must have known the whole story behind every
injury, every sickness, and every problem the person experienced. It is not hard to imagine, that
during this procedure, the shaman was also in the position of a guide, or some form of an ancient
psychologist.
Many of the shamans were experiencing sicknesses and deformations of their own - physical, as
well as mental, that they were forced to suppress during the whole life. The shamanic sickness -

the torture of the spirits, that should force the future shaman to take up his craft, as well as the
shamanic initiation - the process, where it was believed, that the spirits take the body of the
shaman apart, and then put it back together as a sign of a his new resurrection, could also serve
as an example of the self-healing powers of the shaman, his strong will, and certainly added a lot
to the respect and trustworthiness he gained from other tribe members (Demetrio 1978, 72).

An interesting example of presumed shamanic healing methods is the finding of a small bone figurine,
discovered in the female grave of the Inuit tribe Sadlermiut. The sculpture contained three holes - one in
the area of the face, the second one in the chest, and the third in the area of the pelvis. What was
interesting was the comparison with the skeleton of the deceased woman, whose jaw was visibly
deformed, probably because of cancer. The pelvis was also asymmetrical and was probably causing
problems during walking. In the chest area were no visible anomalies, but the scientists argue, that the
possibility of some form of internal organ cancer (lung cancer and salivary glands cancer are typical for
this tribe) comes in question. The figurine could have therefore been a shamanic tool, used for healing the
deceased woman. (Ryan - Young, 2010, 68)

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