Piston Manufacturing

Pistons are integral to the internal combustion process that drives engines. In brief, the
process involves rapid movement of the piston to compress air, which is then ignited by a spark
plug. Prolonged exposure to these high operating temperatures and pressures poses a significant
stress on the piston material. This paper explores elements in the piston manufacturing process
that serve to enhance the fatigue limit and wear resistance of the material. The paper begins by
establishing the relationship between microstructure and material properties and highlighting the
use of phase diagrams to analyze the types of microstructures that form in a material. The phase
diagram for the Al-Si system is then introduced, followed by a description of the microstructures
that are produced in the casting process. Emphasis is placed on how precipitates and defects
within the microstructure affect the materials fatigue behaviors. The paper then describes the
use of alloying elements and post manufacturing heat treatment to modify the materials
microstructure and impart beneficial properties to the piston, namely increased temperature
resistance and strength. The paper concludes by discussing areas for further research.
We begin with some background on microstructure and phase diagrams. The motivation
being that many material properties, such as hardness, ductility, and strength, are controlled by
the propagation of defects within a material, which is, in turn, related to the arrangement of
grains within the material at a microscopic level (microstructure). Furthermore, when a material
fails it is generally due to the initiation and propagation of cracks within the microstructure.
Cracks readily propagate through materials in the absence of microstructural barriers such as
particulates and grains boundaries. A uniform distribution of grains within the microstructure is
thus desirable, as the particles behave as obstacles to micro crack propagation and increase
fatigue strength. This begs the questions: how exactly do grains form and what factors affect
their development?
Grains crystallize when a metal undergoes a phase change (ie. when a molten metal is
allowed to cool in a mold). The structures that form (dendrites, particles) depend on the alloy
composition and the process conditions (temperature and duration). Phase diagrams provide
information on the phase composition and phase stability of a material as a function of
temperature and time. Temperature is along the y-axis and weight percent composition is along
the x-axis. (More details in Figure 1 below) Therefore, phase diagrams can be used to understand
what type of microstructure is produced when an alloy of a certain composition is processed at a
particular temperature for a specified duration of time. More specifically, phase diagrams
provide information on: what phases form the relative amounts of each phase, the
composition of phases, and how elements are distributed within the microstructure. (Sigworth)
This information is vital in understanding the properties of the finished material.
Figure 1 below depicts an equilibrium phase diagram for a generic binary eutectic system of
material and , from Introduction to Phase Diagrams (Alloy Phase Diagram Database ASM
International, 1 Jan. 2015. Web. 10 Mar. 2015.)

Important features on the diagram

have been labeled including the
eutectic composition and
temperature and hypereutectic and
hypoeutectic regions. An alloy of
eutectic composition will solidify
Hypoeutectic
Hypereutectic
into and solid phases
simultaneously at the eutectic
temperature. This simultaneous
deposition results in microstructures
made up of distinctively shaped particles of one phase in a matrix of the other phase, or alternate
layers of the two phases. If the alloy has a composition different than the eutectic composition,
the alloy will begin to solidify before the eutectic temperature is reached. If the alloy is
hypoeutectic, some dendrites of will form in the liquid before the remaining liquid solidifies at
the eutectic temperature. If the alloy is hypereutectic, the first (primary) material to solidify will
be dendrites of . The microstructure produced by slow cooling of a hypoeutectic and
hypereutectic alloy will consist of relatively large particles of the primary constituent, consisting
of the phase that begins to freeze first surrounded by relatively fine eutectic structure. (Okamato)
Components and often have different properties, and the relative amounts of each phase (as a
result of the alloys composition) as well as how the components are distributed within the
microstructure (as a result of processing parameters) influences the materials properties.
Since most piston alloys are
composed of Aluminum and Silicon, we
will refer to the equilibrium phase diagram
for the binary Al-Si system depicted below.
When the Al-Si alloy solidifies, the
aluminum forms into dendrites and the
silicon phase forms particles. When the
eutectic point is reached, the Al-Si phases
nucleate and grow. At room temperature,
hypoeutectic alloys consist of a soft and
ductile primary aluminum phase and a
hard and brittle eutectic silicon phase.
Figure 2 above depicts the equilibrium phase
Hypereutectic alloys usually contain
diagram of binary Al-Si system, from, An
coarse, angular primary silicon particles as
Overview of the Development of Al-Si-Alloy
well as a eutectic silicon phase. (Ye 288).
Based Material for Engine Applications, by
Eutectic

Eutectic Composition

Haizhi Ye (Journal of Materials Engineering and

Performance 12.3 (2003): 288-97)

Figure 3. From left to right: the microstructure of hypoeutectic (1.65 12.6 wt% Si), eutectic
(12.6 wt% Si), and hypereutectic (>12.6 wt% Si) Al-Si alloys, from, An Overview of the
Development of Al-Si-Alloy Based Material for Engine Applications, by Haizhi Ye (Journal of
Materials Engineering and Performance 12.3 (2003): 288-97)

The Al-Si alloy can be formed into pistons through casting, forging, or other
metallurgical processes. The gravity die casting process is the most common as it involves
simpler and less expensive processes and is thus the focus of this paper. During the casting
process, the alloy is heated up to about 700oC and then poured into the die through a sprue. The
material is then allowed to cool in the die. The most commonly used alloys for piston
manufacturing are alloy A332 (9.5% Si, 3% Cu, and 1% Mg) and alloy A390 (17%Si, 4.5% Cu,
and 6% Mg). Noting the 12.6% weight silicon eutectic composition, alloy A332 produces a
hypoeutetic microstructure and alloy A390 produces a hypereutetic microstructure. Both
microstructures, in the as cast condition, contain brittle particles that weaken the material.
The casting process can also result in defects that weaken the mechanical properties of
the material. The most common defect in cast Al-Si alloys is porosity, the presence of holes in
the material. Pores introduce weakness because not only do pores act as sites of concentrated
stress, they also cannot sustain an external load. Pores arise if the Al-Si alloy solidifies faster
than hydrogen gas bubbles can escape. (Ye 289) Cooling time is thus a significant factor in the
development of porosity, with a slower cooling time resulting in less porous parts. Furthermore,
as the Al-Si alloy solidifies it develops dendritic structures that interact with each other. This
dendritic interaction increases the viscosity of the alloy and reduces the fluidity (castability) of
the melt, which has deleterious effects on the manufactured parts structural properties.
Failure in Al-Si alloys commonly results from the initiation and propagation of micro
cracks in the material in locations of high stress concentration. The dendrites and silicon particles
that develop in the alloy promote microcracks by introducing brittleness, while the pores
produced in the casting process behave as targets for micro crack initiation. Regions in the
aluminum matrix that are free from particles and precipitates also promote microcrack formation,
but by slightly different means. These regions are prone to developing dislocation slip under
external stress. When the slips accumulate at surfaces and grain boundaries, a localized strain is
produced, which can then initiate a microcrack. (Ye 288)

The mechanical properties of cast Al-Si alloys can be improved by processes that
increase the strength of the soft matrix, create a finer more uniform grain dispersion, reduce
porosity, and increase castability of the melt.
The addition of alloying elements strengthens the material by inhibiting fatigue crack
initiation. Both the difference in diameter of alloying elements and the more finely dispersed
particles serve to block the propagation of dislocation slip. The particles also reduce large
localized strains by allowing external loads to be more evenly distributed throughout the
material. Common alloying elements used in Al-Si alloys include magnesium, copper, nickel,
and phosphorus. Magnesium strengthens the material through precipitation of fine Mg2Si in
matrix. Copper can additionally strengthen the alloy by precipitation of AlCu2 or modification of
the brittle Al-Fe-Si phases. Nickel can enhance Al-Si alloys strength and hardness at elevated
temperature when combined with copper. Phosphorus refines primary silicon phase in
hypereutectic alloy. (Ye 292)
Heat treatment also enhances piston performance by increasing the strength and hardness
of the material through modifying its microstructure. The T5 treatment in particular is commonly
used in piston manufacturing and involves artificially aging the specimen from as cast
conditions. During the process of age hardening, particles precipitate out of the super saturated
matrix. These precipitates interact with existing dislocations in the material, thereby impeding
dislocation movement and increasing the hardness and strength of the alloy. (Abdulwahab et al)
Cooling rate and applied pressure are two processing parameters that can be controlled to
improve the microstructure of cast parts. The cooling rate can be adjusted to slow the
solidification of the molten alloy and allow hydrogen gas bubbles to escape, thereby reducing
porosity. Agitating or applying external pressure to the melt during the solidification process
breaks up dendrite formation and serves to enhance castability of the melt. An additional benefit
is that each broken dendrite becomes a separate crystal thus creating a material with more finely
dispersed grains. (Ye 295)
The techniques highlighted above are just a few ways that piston manufacturing has
evolved over the years to optimize piston performance. Considering the high operating
temperatures and pressures pistons are subjected to, it is vital that piston material demonstrate
high fatigue and wear resistance. From a microstructural standpoint, failure results from the
initiation and propagation of microcracks at locations of high stress. For Al-Si pistons, these
problem areas include brittle silicon particles, pores, dendrites, as well as particle free regions of
the matrix. Alloying elements, post processing heat treatment, and optimal processing parameters
can be employed to modify the materials microstructure and enhance its material properties.
Research continues to be conducted on how to improve Al-Si alloys microstructure to optimize
piston performance. Researchers are investigating the optimal temperature and duration of heat
treatments as well as optimal chemical composition of piston alloys. Still more research is being
conducted on how to improve the casting process and reduce the number of casting defects.

Bibiolography
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Conditions on Microstructure and Wear Behaviour of Al4Cu2Ni2Mg Alloy."
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Warmuzek, Ma. "Introduction to Aluminum-Silicon Casting Alloys." Aluminum-silicon Casting
Alloys an Atlas of Microfractographs. Materials Park, OH: ASM International, 2004.
Print.
Ye, Haizhi. "An Overview of the Development of Al-Si Alloy Based Material for Engine
Applications." Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance 12.3 (2003): 288-97.
Print.