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CERTIFICATE.................................................................................................... ii
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS................................................................................... iv
Table of Contents................................................................................................. v
List of Figures................................................................................................... vii
List of Symbols, Abbreviations and Nomenclature.....................................................viii
1.
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION........................................................................................... 2
Problem Statement..................................................................................2
Organisation of report.............................................................................. 3
2.
CHANNEL EQUALIZATION..........................................................................4
INTRODUCTION TO CHANNEL EQUALIZATION............................................5
FUNDAMENTALS OF EQUALIZATION...........................................................7
Introduction............................................................................................. 7
Operating modes of an adaptive equalizer..............................................7
ADAPTIVE EQUALIZATION..........................................................................8
Communication system with an adaptive equalizer.................................8
SURVEY ON EQUALIZATION TECHNIQUES................................................10
Linear Equalizer..................................................................................... 10
Non-linear Equalizer............................................................................... 11
3.
Introduction........................................................................................... 18
Learning Process.................................................................................... 19
4.
REFERENCES................................................................................................. 26
List of Figures
Figure 2-1: Inter-Symbol Interference...............................................................................5
Figure 2-2: Propagation paths in an open-air radio transmission channel........................6
Figure 2-3: Communication system with an adaptive equalizer.......................................9
Figure 2-4: Equalizer located at the receiver end of the channel....................................10
Figure 2-5: Classification of the Equalizers....................................................................11
Figure 3-1: Model of an ANN.........................................................................................15
Figure 3-2: Single-layer Feed-Forward Network............................................................16
Figure 3-3: Multi-layer Feed-Forward Network.............................................................16
Figure 3-4: Recurrent Network.......................................................................................17
Figure 3-5: Three layer Neural Network with two inputs and single output...................20
Figure 4-1: Block diagram of Adaptive Equalizer..........................................................23
ISI
Inter-Symbol Interference
ANN
MLP
Multi-Layer Perceptron
BPA
Back Propagation
TDMA
LTE
DFE
MLSE
LMS
RLS
Chapter 1
1. INTRODUCTION
PROBLEM STATEMENT
ORGANIZATION OF REPORT
INTRODUCTION
In a communication system, the task of a receiver is to retrieve
the information send by the transmitter via a transmission
medium called as channel. To accomplish this task, it tries to
extract the parameters related to the transmitted information
from the received signal. The channel is central to the operation
of a communication system. Its properties determine both the
information-carrying capacity as well as the quality of service
offered by the system. Before reaching the receiver, the
transmitted signal is passes through the channel, or we can say
that the transmitted signal convolves with the channel.
Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI) caused by multipath in band-limited (frequency
selective) time dispersive channel distorts the transmitted signal, causing bit errors
at the end of the receiver. ISI has been recognized as the major obstacle to high
speed data transmission over wireless channels. Channel Equalization is a
technique used to combat inter-symbol interference.
Problem Statement
Digital communication systems are designed to transmit high
speed data over communication channels. During this process
the transmitted data is distorted, due to the effects of linear and
nonlinear distortions. So the communication system requires
signal processing techniques to improve the link performance in
mobile radio environments. Channel equalization is one of the
technique which is used to improve the quality of the received
signal and performance (i.e., to minimize the instantaneous bit
error rate) of the link over small-scale times and distances.
In mobile radio channels due to Inter-Symbol Interference, frequent
changes and multipath causes time dispersion of the digital
information.
Also
by
the
effect
of
Inter-symbol
Interference,
complex
decision
regions
with
nonlinear
decision
boundaries.
Our main goal is to design and simulate an artificial neural
network based channel equalizer and compare its performance
with existing techniques.
Organisation of report
The report is organized as follows: To get the depth of this topic, Chapter 2
introduces the fundamentals of channel equalization its requirement in field of
digital communication. Chapter 3 gives the brief introduction of the artificial
neural network, which includes the details about the mathematical model of a
neuron, different neural network architectures and the learning process of neural
network, Chapter 4 presents literature survey and state of art followed by
conclusions with future scope of the work.
Chapter 2
2. CHANNEL EQUALIZATION
INTRODUCTION TO CHANNEL EQUALIZATION
FUNDAMENTALS OF EQUALIZATION
ADAPTIVE EQUALIZATION
SURVEY ON EQUALIZATION TECHNIQUES
Multipath Propagation
Within telecommunication channels multiple paths of propagation commonly
occur. In practical terms this is equivalent to transmitting the same signal
through a number of separate channels, each having a different attenuation and
delay.
Consider an open-air radio transmission channel [Fig 2-2 (a)] that has three
propagation paths: Direct, Earth Bound, Sky Bound. Fig 2-2 (b) describes how
a receiver picks up the transmitted data. The direct signal is received rstly
whilst the earth and sky bound are delayed. All three of the signals are
attenuated with the sky path suffering the most. Multipath interference
between consecutively transmitted signals will take place if one signal is
received whilst the previous signal is still being detected. This would occur if
the symbol transmission rate is greater than 1/ where, represents
transmission delay. Because bandwidth efficiency leads to high data rates,
multi-path interference commonly occurs.
FUNDAMENTALS OF EQUALIZATION
Introduction
In a broad sense, the term equalization can be used to describe any signal
processing operation that minimizes ISI. In radio channels, a variety of adaptive
equalizers can be used to cancel interference while providing diversity [1]. Since
the mobile fading channel is random and time varying, equalizers must track the
time varying characteristics of the mobile channel, and thus are called adaptive
equalizers.
Operating modes of an adaptive equalizer
The general operating modes of an adaptive equalizer include:
a. Training (first stage)
In this first stage a known fixed-length training sequence is sent by the
transmitter so that the receiver's equalizer may average to a proper setting. The
training sequence is designed to permit an equalizer at the receiver to acquire
the proper filter coefficients in the worst possible channel conditions. The
training sequence is typically a pseudorandom binary signal or a fixed,
prescribed bit pattern. Immediately following the training sequence, the user
data is sent. The time span over which an equalizer converges is a function of
the equalizer algorithm, the equalizer structure, and the time rate of change of
the multipath radio channel. Equalizers require periodic retraining in order to
maintain effective ISI cancellation.
b. Tracking (second stage)
In second stage, immediately following the training sequence, the user data is
sent. As user data are received, the adaptive algorithm of the equalizer tracks
the changing channel and adjusts its filter characteristics over time. It is
commonly used in digital communication systems where user data is
segmented into short time blocks. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
7
wireless systems are particularly well suited for equalizers. In TDMA data in
fixed-length time blocks, and the training sequence usually sent at the
beginning of a block.
ADAPTIVE EQUALIZATION
Consider a time varying channel where the receiver attains equalization by
adjusting several parameters continuously that is based on the measurements
taken on the channel characteristic. This process of continuously assessment done
in time varying natured channel is called as adaptive equalization. For example, in
mobile channels are random and time varying and often affected by signal fading,
the equalizers used in this case should possess the capability of tracking these time
varying channel to reduce interference. In simple words we can say that, an
adaptive equalizer is an equalizer that automatically adapts to time-varying
properties of the communication channel.
Adaptive equalizers compensate for signal distortion attributed to Inter-Symbol
Interference (ISI), which is caused by multipath within time-dispersive channels.
Typically, they are employed in high-speed communication systems, which do not
use differential modulation schemes or frequency division multiplexing. The
equalizer is the most expensive component of a data demodulator and can
consume over 80% of the total computations needed to demodulate a given signal.
Communication system with an adaptive equalizer
Fig 2-3 shows a block diagram of a communication system with an adaptive
equalizer in the receiver. If x (t) is the original information signal, and f(t) is the
combined complex baseband impulse response of the transmitter, channel, and the
RF/IF sections of the receiver, the signal received by the equalizer may be
expressed as
y (t )=x ( t ) f ( t ) +n b (t)
2- 1
Where,
If the impulse response of the equalizer is heq(t), then the output of the equalizer is
d^ ( t )=x ( t ) f ( t ) heq ( t ) +nb ( t ) h eq (t)
2- 2
x ( t ) g ( t )+ nb ( t ) heq (t)
Where, g(t), is the combined impulse response of the transmitter, channel, RF/IF
sections of the receiver, and the equalizer.
The complex baseband impulse response of a transversal filter equalizer is given
by
heq ( t )= c k ( tn T s )
2-3
to
g ( t )=f ( t ) heq ( t ) = (t)
2-4
2-5
Where, Heq(f) and F(f) are Fourier transforms of heq(t) and f(t), respectively.
Equation (2.5) indicates that an equalizer is actually an inverse filter of the
channel. If the channel is frequency selective, the equalizer enhances the
frequency components with small amplitudes and attenuates the strong
frequencies in the received frequency spectrum in order to provide a flat,
composite, received frequency response and linear phase response. For a timevarying channel, an adaptive equalizer is designed to track the channel variations
so that equation (2.5) is approximately satisfied.
Equalization is the process to remove ISI and noise effects from the channel. It is
located at the receiver end of the channel as shown in below figure. It is an inverse
filter placed at the front end of the receiver. The transfer function of the equalizer
is just an inverse of the transfer function of the channel [Fig 2-4Error: Reference
source not found]. Equalization is an iterative process of reducing the mean
10
square error i.e. the difference between desired response and output of filter used
in equalizer.
11
12
Chapter 3
13
INTRODUCTION TO ANNs
What are ANNs?
Working on artificial neural network has been motivated right from its inception
by the recognition that the human brain computes in an entirely different way
from the conventional digital computer. The brain is a highly complex, nonlinear
and parallel information processing system. It has the capability to organize its
structural constituents, known as neurons, so as to perform certain computations
many times faster than the fastest digital computer in existence today. The brain
routinely accomplishes perceptual recognition tasks, e.g. recognizing a familiar
face embedded in an unfamiliar scene, in approximately 100-200 ms, whereas
tasks of much lesser complexity may take day son a conventional computer.
A neural network is a machine that is designed to model the way in which the
brain performs a particular task. The network is implemented by using electronic
components or is simulated in software on a digital computer. A neural network is
a massively parallel distributed process or made up of simple processing units,
which has a natural propensity for storing experimental knowledge and making it
available for use. It resembles the brain in two respects:
Knowledge is acquired by the network from its environment through a
learning process.
Inter neuron connection strengths, known as synaptic weights, are used to
store the acquired knowledge.
The procedure used to perform the learning process is called a learning algorithm,
the function of which is to modify the synaptic weights of the network in an
orderly fashion to attain a desired design objective.
Why do we use Neural Networks?
Neural networks, with their remarkable ability to derive meaning from
complicated or imprecise data, can be used to extract patterns and detect trends
14
STRUCTURE OF ANN
Mathematical Model of a Neuron
A neuron is an information processing unit that is fundamental to the operation n
of a neural network. The three basic elements of the neuron model are [Fig 3-6]:
15
v k = w kj x j
3-6
j=1
And
y k = ( v k + k )
3- 7
Network Architectures
There are three fundamental different classes of network architectures:
16
17
The function of hidden neuron is to intervene between the external input and
the network output in some useful manner. By adding more hidden layers,
the network is enabled to extract higher order statistics. The input signal is
applied to the neurons in the second layer. The output signal of second layer
is used as inputs to the third layer, and so on for the rest of the network.
c. Recurrent Networks
A recurrent neural network has at least one feedback loop. A recurrent network
may consist of a single layer of neurons with each neuron feeding its output
signal back to the inputs of all the other neurons [Fig 3-9]. Self-feedback
refers to a situation where the output of a neuron is fed back into its own input.
The presence of feedback loops has a profound impact on the learning
capability of the network and on its performance.
Learning Process
By learning rule we mean a procedure for modifying the weights and biases of a
network. The purpose of learning rule is to train the network to perform some
task. They fall into three broad categories:
a. Supervised learning
The learning rule is provided with a set of training data of proper network
behaviour. As the inputs are applied to the network, the network outputs are
compared to the targets. The learning rule is then used to adjust the weights
and biases of the network in order to move the network outputs closer to the
targets.
18
b. Reinforcement learning
It is similar to supervised learning, except that, instead of being provided
with the correct output for each network input, the algorithm is only given a
grade. The grade is a measure of the network performance over some
sequence of inputs.
c. Unsupervised learning
The weights and biases are modified in response to network inputs only.
There are no target outputs available. Most of these algorithms perform
some kind of clustering operation. They learn to categorize the input patterns
into a finite number of classes.
1
1+exp (x )
3-8
1exp (x )
1+exp (x )
3-9
The presence of nonlinearities is important because otherwise the inputoutput relation of the network could be reduced to that of single layer
perceptron.
a. The network contains one or more layers of hidden neurons that are not part of
the input or output of the network. These hidden neurons enable the network
to learn complex tasks.
b. The network exhibits a high degree of connectivity. A change in the
connectivity of the network requires a change in the population of their
weights.
Learning Process
To illustrate the process a three layer neural network with two inputs and one
output, which is shown in the Error: Reference source not found, is used.
Signal z is adder output signal, and y = f(z) is output signal of nonlinear element.
Signal y is also output signal of neuron. The training data set consists of input
signals (x1 and x2) assigned with corresponding target (desired output) y. The
network training is an iterative process. In each iteration weights coefficients of
nodes are modified using new data from training data set. Symbols wmn represent
20
Fig 3-10: Three layer Neural Network with two inputs and single output
y 1=f 1 (w11 x 1 +w 21 x2 )
3- 10
3- 11
y 3=f 3 (w 13 x 1+ w23 x 2 )
3- 12
3- 13
3- 14
y 6=f 6 (w 46 y 4 +w 56 y 5 )
3- 15
The desired output value (the target), which is found in training dataset. The
difference is called error signal of output layer neuron.
,,
= y y
3- 16
4=w46
3- 17
21
5=w 56
3-18
3=w 34 4 + w35 5
3-19
2=w 24 4 + w25 5
3-20
1=w14 4 + w15 5
3-21
When the error signal for each neuron is computed, the weights coefficients of
each neuron input node may be modified. In formulas below df(z)/dz represents
derivative of neuron activation function.
The correction wij(n) applied to the weight connecting neuron j to neuron i is
defined by the delta rule:
}{
}{
w ij ( n ) = i y j (n)
3- 22
22
Chapter 4
23
Introduction
24
especially
in
severely
distorted,
nonlinear
processing
interconnected
elements
systems
in
(neurons)
which
many
simultaneously
simple
process
information, adapt and learn from past patterns [12, 13, 14 and
15]. Although only capable of performing simple operations
themselves, when organized into layers, neurons are collectively
capable of performing highly sophisticated operations.
Attractive properties of ANN that are relevant to the equalization
problem
at
hand
include
massive
parallelism,
adaptive
25
There are many research papers that agree on the fact that linear transversal
equalizers are not capable of equalizing highly nonlinear channels. Gibson et.al
[16] has explicitly mentioned that: When the channel is non-minimum phase, the
decision boundary of equalizer is highly nonlinear and deviates markedly from
any decision boundary which can be formed by a linear transversal equalizer.
Considering equalization as a geometric classification problem
rather than an inverse filter problem, our main objective
becomes the separation of the received symbols in the output
signal space whose optimal decision region boundaries are
generally highly nonlinear. The idea here is to classify the
received signal vectors by partitioning the signal space into some
decision regions. With this approach to equalization, complete
channel inversion is unnecessary, and the problem is tackled
using classification techniques.
In some aspects Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) can be used in
this field for achieving better performance than existing classical
methods. Since Artificial Neural Networks are well known for their
ability of performing classification tasks by forming complex
nonlinear decision boundaries, Neural equalizers based on neural
network have been recently receiving considerable attention in
order to increase receiver robustness.
Conclusion
In this report, neural network architectures and learning methods for solving the
problem of channel equalization has been proposed. The approach in future
research could be design a neural network structure and implementation of an
algorithm for it which can able to equalize time-varying channels with faster
26
27
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29