CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

I.1. BACKGROUND OF LANGUAGE

In linguistics, Morphology is the study of meaning in individual units of language

means that a grammatical word belongs to one of the "closed" parts of speech
such as pronouns, numerals, and prepositions, which do not readily admit new
members. We have only to consider the failure of proposals for a gender neutral
pronoun for English, to see how difficult it is to create a new pronoun that is
actually adopted by speakers of a language. In linguistics and grammar, a pronoun
is a pro-form that substitutes a noun or noun phrase with or without a determiner,
such as you and they in English. A numeral is a symbol or group of symbols that
represents a number. In grammar, a preposition is a type of adoption, a
grammatical particle that establishes a relationship between an object (usually a
noun phrase) and some other part of the sentence, often expressing a location in
place or time.

On the other hands, Morphology is the identification, analysis and description of

the structure of words (words as units in the lexicon are the subject matter of
lexicology). While words are generally accepted as being (with clitics) the
smallest units of syntax, it is clear that in most (if not all) languages, words can be
related to other words by rules. For example, English speakers recognize that the
words dog, dogs, and dog catcher are closely related. English speakers recognize
these relations from their tacit knowledge of the rules of word formation in
English. They infer intuitively that dog is to dogs as cat is to cats; similarly, dog is
to dog catcher as dish is to dishwasher (in one sense). The rules understood by the
speaker reflect specific patterns (or regularities) in the way words are formed from
smaller units and how those smaller units interact in speech. In this way,
morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies patterns of word formation
within and across languages, and attempts to formulate rules that model the
knowledge of the speakers of those languages.

This contrasts with lexical words, which belong to the "open" parts of speech,
such as nouns, verbs, and adjectives. People coin new lexical words all the time; a
popular song or presidential speech is all it takes to add a new lexical word to the
language. That is, these parts of speech are "open" to new additions. A noun, or
noun substantive, is a word or phrase that refers to a person, place, thing, event,
substance or quality. A verb is a part of speech that usually denotes action (bring,
read), occurrence (to decompose (itself), to glitter), or a state of being (exist, live,
soak, stand). Depending on the language, a verb may vary in form according to
many factors, possibly including its tense, aspect, mood and voice. ... An adjective
is a part of speech which modifies a noun, usually making its meaning more
specific. Words and phrases are often created, or coined, by combining existing
words, or by giving words new and unique suffixes and/or prefixes.

If you ask most non-linguists what the primary thing is that has to be learned if
one is to know a language, the answer is likely to be the words of the language.
Learning vocabulary is a major focus of language instruction, and while everyone
knows that there is a certain amount of grammar that characterizes a language as
well, even this is often treated as a kind of annotation to the set of words the uses
of the Accusative, etc.

Obviously, a good deal of this is a matter of learning that cat, pronounced is a

word of English, a noun that refers to a feline mammal usually having thick soft
fur and being unable to roar. The notion that the word is a combination of sound
and meaning indeed, the unit in which the two are united was the basis of the
theory of the linguistic sign developed by Ferdinand de Saussure at the beginning
of the 20th century. All of these follow from the knowledge we have not just of the
specific words of our language, but of their relations to one another, in form and
meaning. The latter is our knowledge of the morphology of our language.
 CHAPTER II
THEORIES AND DISCUSSION

2.1. WORD
Word is written or spoken unit of language. In this case, there are three kinds of
words, they are lexeme, word-form and grammatical word.

2.1.1. THE LEXEME

A lexeme is an abstract unit of morphological analysis in linguistics, that roughly

corresponds to a set of forms taken by a single word. For example, in the English
language, run, runs, ran and running are forms of the same lexeme,
conventionally written as RUN. A related concept is the lemma (or citation form),
which is a particular form of a lexeme that is chosen by convention to represent a
canonical form of a lexeme. Lemmas are used in dictionaries as the headwords,
and other forms of a lexeme are often listed later in the entry if they are not
common conjugations of that word.

A lexeme belongs to a particular syntactic category, has a certain meaning

(semantic value), and in inflecting languages, has a corresponding inflectional
paradigm; that is, a lexeme in many languages will have many different forms.
For example, the lexeme RUN has a present third person singular form runs, a
present non-third-person singular form run (which also functions as the past
participle and non-finite form), a past form ran, and a present participle running.
(It does not include runner, runners, runnable, etc.) The use of the forms of a
lexeme is governed by rules of grammar; in the case of English verbs such as
RUN, these include subject-verb agreement and compound tense rules, which
determine which form of a verb can be used in a given sentence. While all these
words are different manifestation of the same abstract vocabulary item: DOG. The
abstract vocabulary items are written in capital letter. And if the core meanings of
some words are same, we can conclude that those words are from the same
lexeme.
2.1.2. WORD-FORM

Word is a particular physical realization of lexeme. Run, and runs are "the same
word", is called a lexeme. The second sense is called word form. We thus say that
run and runs are different forms of the same lexeme. Run and run talent, on the
other hand, are different lexemes, as they refer to two different kinds of entities.
The form of a word that is chosen conventionally to represent the canonical form
of a word is called a lemma, or citation form. Word-form refers to the number of
the letter of a word.

For example, word-form of run is r, u, and n.

While the physical realization of RUN is, run, runs, running, runner.

2.1.3. GRAMMATICAL WORD

A word can also be seen as a representation of a lexeme that is associated with a

certain morpho-syntactic properties (i.e. partly morphological and partly syntactic
properties) such as word class : noun, adjective, adverb, etc, tense : past present
and future; gender : male, female, numbers : singular plural etc. we have to
know that varb cannot be associated with gender, while noun, pronoun, adjective,
adverb cannot be associated with tense.

For example,

My father was teaching mathematic yesterday.

The grammatical of “was teaching” is verb, past continuous tense.

2.2. MORPHEME

In morpheme-based morphology, word forms are analyzed as arrangements of

morphemes. A morpheme is defined as the minimal meaningful unit of a
language. In a word like independently, we say that the morphemes are in-,
depend, -ent, and ly; depend is the root and the other morphemes are, in this case,
derivational affixes. In a word like dogs, we say that dog is the root, and that -s is
an inflectional morpheme. In its simplest (and most naïve) form, this way of
analyzing word forms treats words as if they were made of morphemes put after
each other like beads on a string, is called Item-and-Arrangement. More modern
and sophisticated approaches seek to maintain the idea of the morpheme while
accommodating non-concatenative, analogical, and other processes that have
proven problematic for Item-and-Arrangement theories and similar approaches.

Morpheme-based morphology presumes three basic axioms (cf. Beard 1995 for an
overview and references):

1. Baudoin’s SINGLE MORPHEME HYPOTHESIS: Roots and affixes have

the same status in the theory, they are MORPHEMES.
2. Bloomfield’s SIGN BASE MORPHEME HYPOTHESIS: As morphemes,
they are dualistic signs, since they have both (phonological) form and
meaning.
3. Bloomfield’s LEXICAL MORPHEME HYPOTHESIS: The morphemes,
affixes and roots alike, are stored in the lexicon.

On the other hands, a morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that has semantic
meaning. In spoken language, morphemes are composed of phonemes (the
smallest linguistically distinctive units of sound), and in written language
morphemes are composed of graphemes (the smallest units of written language).

The concept morpheme differs from the concept word, as many morphemes
cannot stand as words on their own. A morpheme is free if it can stand alone, or
bound if it is used exclusively alongside a free morpheme.
Types of Morphemes

A. FREE MORPHEMES

Free morphemes are unit of meaning which can stand alone or alongside another
free or bound morpheme. Those which can stand alone as words of a language,
whereas bound morphemes must be attached to other morphemes. Most roots in
English are free morphemes (for example, dog, syntax, and to), although there are
a few cases of roots (like -gruntle as in disgruntle) that must be combined with
another bound morpheme in order to surface as an acceptable lexical item. . . .

"Free morphemes can be further subdivided into content words and function
words. Content words, as their name suggests, carry most of the content of a
sentence. Function words generally perform some kind of grammatical role,
carrying little meaning of their own. One circumstance in which the distinction
between function words and content words is useful is when one is inclined to
keep wordiness to a minimum; for example, when drafting a telegram, where
every word costs money. In such a circumstance, one tends to leave out most of
the function words (like to, that, and, there, some, and but), concentrating instead
on content words to convey the gist of the message." Now take the word 'ant' as a
separate unit of meaning referring to a small insect. In that context 'ant' is a free
morpheme. Add another free morpheme in the form of 'hill' and we have a word
comprising two free morphemes - 'anthill'.

The unit 'ant' can also be classified separately as a bound morpheme in yet another
context. The term 'ant' can act as a prefix in the word 'antacid'. As such, it is a
bound morpheme because its meaning only exists in conjunction with the free
morpheme 'acid'.

A free morpheme is a These are usually individual words, such as

Free morphemes like town, and dog can appear with other lexemes (as in town
hall or dog house) or they can stand alone, i.e. "free".
For example,

Rebuild word consists of “re-“ + “build” == build is free morpheme.

In free morpheme, there are lexical and functional or grammatical.

Lexical and grammatical words often behave differently. Often grammatical

words to not make full use of all the sounds in a language. For example, in some
of the Khoisan languages, most lexical words begin with clicks, but very few
grammatical words do. In Mandarin Chinese, many grammatical words lack tone,
but every lexical word has a tone. Function words (or grammatical words) are
words that have little lexical meaning or have ambiguous meaning, but instead
serve to express grammatical relationships with other words within a sentence, or
specify the attitude or mood of the speaker. Words that are not function words are
called content words (or lexical words): these include nouns, verbs, adjectives,
and most adverbs, although some adverbs are function words (e.g., then and why).
Dictionaries define the specific meanings of content words, but can only describe
the general usages of function words. By contrast, grammars describe the use of
function words in detail, but treat lexical words in general terms only.

Function words might be prepositions, pronouns, auxiliary verbs, conjunctions,

grammatical articles or particles, all of which belong to the group of closed-class
words. Interjections are sometimes considered function words but they belong to
the group of open-class words. Function words might or might not be inflected or
might have affixes.

Function words belong to the closed class of words in grammar in that it is very
uncommon to have new function words created in the course of speech, whereas
in the open class of words (that is, nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs) new
words may be added readily (such as slang words, technical terms, and adoptions
and adaptations of foreign words). Each function word either gives some
grammatical information on other words in a sentence or clause, and cannot be
isolated from other words, or it may indicate the speaker's mental model as to
what is being said
 B. BOUND MORPHEMES

Bound morphemes are a unit of meaning which can only exist alongside a free
morpheme and also units of meaning which cannot be split into anything smaller.
However, they are different from free morphemes because they cannot exist
alone. They must be bound to one or more free morphemes. Almost all prefixes
and suffixes are bound morphemes.

Prefixes asymmetrical, subordinate

unnecessary, empower
Suffixes cowardice, minty
fruitful, swimming

Take for example the word 'elephant' which is a free morpheme. Although it is a
lengthy word, it cannot be split up into any smaller units of meaning within this
particular context. That is, the word 'elephant' refers to a large grey mammal with
a trunk and tusks which is indigenous to India and Africa.

Bound morphemes like "un-" appear only together with other morphemes to form
a lexeme. Bound morphemes in general tend to be prefixes and suffixes.
Unproductive, non-affix morphemes that exist only in bound form are known as
"cranberry" morphemes, from the "cran" in that very word.

Inflectional morpheme and derivational morpheme

a. Inflectional morphemes modify a word's tense, number, aspect, and so on,

without deriving a new word or a word in a new grammatical category (as
in the "dog" morpheme if written with the plural marker morpheme "-s"
becomes "dogs"). They carry grammatical information. Derivational
morphemes, by contrast, usually change the part of speech of the word.
Thus, the -ness of fullness is a derivational morpheme changing an
adjective to a noun.
As a somewhat simplified rule, inflectional morphemes change the
grammatical features of a word, but do not change the part of speech.
Thus, the -s of bricks is an inflectional morpheme indicating plurality.
 Both brick and bricks are nouns. English has eight categories of
inflectional morphemes; they mark plural, possessive, present, past,
present participle, past participle, comparative and superlative.

For example, -ing in drive (verb) + -ing = driving (verb), it does not
change the meaning and the word class.

b. Derivational morphemes is the one which change the meaning, the word
class, and sub word class. It also can be added to a word to create (derive)
another word: the addition of "-ness" to "happy," for example, to give
"happiness." They carry semantic information.

Other nouns can be derived from words belonging to other lexical categories with
the addition of class-changing derivational suffixes. For example, the suffixes
-ation, -ee, -ure, -al, -er, -ment are attached to certain (but not all) verb bases to
create deverbal nouns.
vex (verb) > vexation (noun)
appoint (verb) > appointee (noun)
fail (verb) > failure (noun)
acquit (verb) > acquittal (noun)
run (verb) > runner (noun)
adjust (verb) > adjustment (noun)
Still other suffixes (-dom, -hood, -ist, -th, -ness) form derived deadjectival nouns
from adjectives:
free (adjective) > freedom (noun)
lively (adjective) > livelihood (noun)
moral (adjective) > moralist (noun)
warm (adjective) > warmth (noun)
happy (adjective) > happiness (noun)
These derivational suffixes can also be added to (compound) phrasal bases like in
the noun stick-it-to-itiveness, which is derived from the phrase [ stick it to it ] +
-ive + -ness.

In morphology, a bound morpheme is a morpheme that cannot stand alone as an

independent word. A free morpheme is one which can stand alone. And most
English language affixes (prefixes and suffixes) are bound morphemes, e.g.,
-ment in "shipment", or pre- in "prefix".

Many roots are free morphemes, e.g., ship- in "shipment", while others are bound.

The morpheme ten- in "tenant" may seem free, since there is an English word
"ten". However, its lexical meaning is derived from the Latin word tenere, "to
hold", and this or related meaning is not among the meanings of the English word
"ten", hence ten- is a bound morpheme in the word "tenant".

Hypernyms ("bound morpheme" is a kind ofhypernym):

morpheme (minimal meaningful language unit; it cannot be divided into
smaller meaningful units)
Hyponyms (each of the following is a kind of "bound morpheme"):
combining form (a bound form used only in compounds)
affix (a linguistic element added to a word to produce an inflected or
derived form)

The compound root morpheme + derivational morphemes is often called the

stem. The decomposition stem + desinence can then be used to study inflection.

2.3. MORPHS AND ALLOMORPHS

2.3.1. MORPHS

Morph is physical realization or its actual phonetic representation of some

morpheme. For example, write: work [w3:k] -ed [t] the physical realizations are
called morphs.
2.3.2. ALLOMORPHS

Allomorphs are variants of a morpheme, e.g. the plural marker in English is

sometimes realized as /-z/, /-s/ or /-ɨz/. The morpheme plural-s has the morph "-
s", /s/, in cats (/kæts/), but "-es", /ɨz/, in dishes (/dɪʃɨz/), and even the voiced "-s",
/z/, in dogs (/dɒgz/). "-s". These are allomorphs.

In the exposition above, morphological rules are described as analogies between

word forms: dog is to dogs as cat is to cats, and as dish is to dishes. In this case,
the analogy applies both to the form of the words and to their meaning: in each
pair, the first word means "one of X", while the second "two or more of X", and
the difference is always the plural form -s affixed to the second word, signaling
the key distinction between singular and plural entities.

One of the largest sources of complexity in morphology is that this one-to-one

correspondence between meaning and form scarcely applies to every case in the
language. In English, we have word form pairs like ox/oxen, goose/geese, and
sheep/sheep, where the difference between the singular and the plural is signaled
in a way that departs from the regular pattern, or is not signaled at all. Even cases
considered "regular", with the final -s, are not so simple; the -s in dogs is not
pronounced the same way as the -s in cats, and in a plural like dishes, an "extra"
vowel appears before the -s. These cases, where the same distinction is effected
by alternative forms of a "word", are called allomorphs.

Based on the condition, allomorphs are divided into five, they are:

1. Phonological condition

Phonological condition means that the allomorph selected to represent the

morpheme in a particular context is one whose phonological properties are similar
to those of sounds found in neighboring allomorph of some other morphemes.
In phonological condition allomorph, the replacement of sound of a morpheme is
influenced by the sound of another morpheme (neighboring) which precedes or
follows. This process is due to assimilation.

The morph is [z] if it is preceded by voiced sounds : b, d, g, m, n, v etc (but not z,

v, ‫)צּ‬.

The morph is [s] if it is preceded by voiced sounds : p, t, k, f,

The morph is [iz] if it is preceded by voiced sounds : s, z, ʃ, ‫צּ‬, t ʃ , d‫צּ‬.

For example,

1. (the example of plural morphemes –es above has allomorph {s, z, and iz})
2. past morpheme –ed has allomorph [t, d, and id]

a. chose [t] after voiceless sound : p, k, s, f, ʃ, t ʃ, (except t)

e.g. stop [stop] + -ed {t}= stopped [stopt]

b. chose [d] after voiced sounds: b, g, v, ‫צּ‬, d‫( ]צּ‬except d)

e.g. grab [graeb] + -ed = grabbed [graebd]

c. chose [id] after sound t and d

e.g. wait [weit] + -ed = waited [weitid]

3. Negative morphemes in- has allomorph {im-, in-, and i }

a. Chose im- before bilabial sounds [m, p, b]

e.g. im- + possible == impossible

b. chose in- [in] before alveolar sounds [t, d, n, s, z]

e.g. in- + tolerant = intolerant [intolerәnt]

 c. chose in- [I ] + consistent [I konsistәnt]

2. Grammatical condition

The definition is the choice of grammatically conditioned allomorph is based on

the presence of a particular grammatical element. The choice of allomorph cannot
be always related to phonological condition. Phonological condition plays no role
in the selection of allomorph. Instead, the choice of allomorph may be depended
on the presence of a particular grammatical element. A special allomorph may be
required in a given grammatical context although there might not be any good
phonological reason for its selection.

Examples:

1. a. sweep – swept c. weep – wept

b. shake – shook d. take – took

2. a. tooth – teeth b. mouse – mice

My mother swept the floor of living room yesterday

Swept has two morphemes: sweep + past morpheme swept

3. Lexical Condition

Lexical condition allomorph is the choice of allomorph based on the presence of

particular words. In other cases, the choices of allomorph do not follow such rule:
phonology or grammar. For example, the plural form of the ox is not oxes but
oxen, and the plural form of child is not childs but children. The choice of
allomorph –en are obligatory if a certain word (e.g. ox and child)is present. The
choice of this allomorph is called lexical condition.
Example: datum – data, medium – media, curriculum – curricula, alumnus –
alumni, fungus – fungi, thesis – theses, phenomenon – phenomena, analysis –
analyses, formulae – formula.

4. Suppletion

Suppletion is the choice of allomorph shows no similarity in phonetics all in the

allomorph. There exist a few morphemes whose allomorphs show no phonetic
similarity.

For example,

a.Comparative morpheme of good is better

Superlative morpheme of good is best

b. Comparative morpheme of bad is worse

Superlative morpheme of bad is worst

c.Past morpheme of go is went

5. Zero Allomorph

Zero Allomorph is the allomorph which has no morph. Some allomorphs in

English have no additional sound or spelling. As we know that the past morpheme
in English are added by –ed for regular verb or change the sound or spelling like
read – read and sweep – swept, and the plural morpheme in English are added by
–es/s for regular noun or change the sound or spelling such as : book – books, and
 mouse – mice. There are some past verbs which have no morph such as the past
tense of cut is cut. This example is called zero allomorph.

The other examples are: put, hit, fish, deer, etc.

EMPTY MORPH

Usually the numbers of words building element of a ward have the same number
as the stem or root. For example, the number of person (root) has five element
[pә:sәn] and – has two elements [әl] and when they are combined into personal,
they have they have number of element: [pә:sәnә]. however some words have
surplus word-building elements such as sex [seks] + -al [әl] = sexual, there is a
surplus word-building element: this phenomena is called empty morph.

Example:

a. not empty morph

noun adjective

tribe [traip] + -al [әl] = treble [traibl]

medicine [medisin] + al [әl] = medicinal [medisinәl]

b. empty morph

sense [sens] + -al [әl] = sensual [sensjual]

fact [faekt] -al [әl] = Factual [faktjual]

CHAPTER III

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the explanation above we consider that learning morphology is

important how we learn about basic structure of words, know a change of word
class, kinds of morphemes, so that we understand its changes. Because as a
student that is learning English, we should know English from the basic level of
English. So that as a student we can like English so much if we have known what
English is, what the English structures are, the changes of words. At least we
should know where the particular basic words are from. A word that has been
combined in a sentence surely changes from its lexeme. So, in learning
morphology the students are expected to know the changes result.

We have seen above that the forms of words can carry complex and highly
structured information. Words do not serve simply as minimal signs, arbitrary
chunks of sound that bear meaning simply by virtue of being distinct from one
another. Some aspects of a words form may indicate the relation of its underlying
lexeme to others (markers of derivational morphology or of compound structure),
while others indicate properties of the grammatical structure within which it is
found (markers of inflectional properties).

All of these relations seem to be best construed as knowledge about the relations
between words however: relations between whole lexemes, even when these can
be regarded as containing markers of their relations to still other lexemes; and
relations between word forms that realize paradigmatic alternatives built on a
single lexemes basic stem(s) in the case of inflection. These relations connect
substantively defined classes in a way that is only partially directional in its
essential nature, and the formal connections among these classes are signalled in
ways that are best represented as processes relating one shape to another.