Unraveling Threads of Red

The Value of Raveled Yarn Beyond Aesthetics

EmilyWormleyFelix

ARTH796f|Fall2014

UnravelingThreadsofRed:TheValueofRaveledYarnBeyondAesthetics
EmilyWormleyFelix|M.A.Fibers|ARTH796fFall2014

Raveling,unraveling,unpicking,andunweavingareallwordstodescribethesame
actionofpullingthreadsoutofawovencloth.Throughouthistory,therearemanyexamplesof
groupsofpeopleravellingyarnandusingittoreweaveintonewclothorgarments.1 Sucha
taskislaboriousandtimeconsuming,leadingonetowonderjustwhatreasonsacommunity
mighthavefordevotingthemselvestotheact.Theimageofanindividualmeticulously
unravelingredthreadisfundamentallypowerfulespeciallywhenyouconsidertheimplication
thatitisanabstractwayofcorrectingtheirculturalidentitywithintheruleofanotherculture.
Tousethisraveledyarnistorecontextualizethesethreadsintosomethingnew.Incultures
undercolonialrule,particularlyAfricanandSouthwesternNativeAmericancommunities,
unweavingtheredthreadsofanalreadyassembledclothfromanothercountryallowedthese
culturestotrulyspeakaboutthemselves.
InthispaperIamattemptingtodiscoverthesignificanceofravelingimportedredcloth
inparticular.TwoseparateculturesonoppositesidesoftheplanettheNavajointheUnited
StatesandmanysmallSouthAfricancommunitiesdevelopedunpickingtechnology
independently,butformanyofthesamereasons.Iwillexploretheirmotivationsbyfirst
establishingthetradethatallowed,andevenencouraged,thisdevelopment.Ithenconsider
thesignificanceofhowtradeimpactedtheculturalexchangesbetweencommunitiesof
people,themanydifferentvaluesofimportedcloth,andsubsequentlytheroleofthefabrics
madefromtheraveledredyarn.Last,Iconsidertheunderlyingnotesofdefianceand
rebellioninherentintheact,takingintoconsiderationthoseculturesundercolonialrule.

JessicaHemmings,"AppropriatedThreads:TheUnpickingandReweavingImportedTextiles,"in
Silk
Roads,OtherRoads:Proceedingsofthe8thBiennialSymposiumoftheTextileSocietyofAmerica
,Session
16(Northampton:TextileSocietyofAmerica,2003),119.

Inmythologyandlegendsfromoralculturesthereareafewexamplesofindividuals
alwayswomenravelingyarn.PenelopefromHomers
Odyssey
wasayoungwoman
weavingaburialshroud(seefig.1).Herhusband,Odysseus,wasawayintheTrojanWarfor
twentyyears,andduringthattimeshewasfacedwithmanysuitorsaselectionthatshe
didntwanttomake.Soshesaidshewouldchooseonewhenshefinishedthecloth,and
unpickedeachdaysweavingeverynighttokeepthisfromhappening.2 TheNativeAmerican
legendoftheoldwomanandblackdoginacavedescribesthewomanweavingarugfrom
pineneedlesshefindsinthewoods.Whenshegetsuptostirhersoup,herblackdogrips
outanyprogressshemade.Shethenstartsherweavingalloveragain.Thelegendstates
thatthishasbeengoingonforever.3
Whatthesetwoexamplesrevealistherelationshipbetweenweavingandtime.
Penelopesunravelingofherweavingessentiallystopstime.4 Theoldwomanandherdog
canbelookedatasacreationstory,oralargercycle.Iftheblackdogeverstopsundoingher
workandshefinisheshergarment,timewillstop.Itisheractofweavingwhichkeepstime
going.5
Theassociationbetweentimeandweavingisnttoomuchofastretchwhenone
considersthetimeittakestoproperlysetupaloomandweaveacloth.Weavingisfarmore
importantbeyondsurfacevalueinculturesthroughoutSouthAmericaaswellasaroundthe
world.Manyevenlinktheactofweavingwiththeirentirecosmologicalworldview.6 Thatsaid,
itsnotdifficulttounderstandwhyanindividualorentirecommunitywouldwanttospendthe

JessicaHemmings,"RaveledYarnsandOtherRevelationsinNavajoBlankets,"
Fiberarts,
(Jan.Feb.
2004),11.
3

VincentP.Ward,"TheOldWomanintheCave:HowTroubleBecomesTransformation,"
http://www.vwardphd.com/TheStoryofChange.en.html(accessedOctober14,2014).
4
Hemmings,119.
5

VincentP.Ward,"TheOldWomanintheCave:HowTroubleBecomesTransformation,"
http://www.vwardphd.com/TheStoryofChange.en.html(accessedOctober14,2014).
6

JaneRehl,WeavingMetaphors:BeyondtheImage(Lecture,SavannahCollegeofArtandDesign,
Savannah,GA,Fall2014).

timetounravelanalreadywovencloth,tothenusethethreadstomaketheirowndesigned
fabric.Thesignificancecangomuchdeeperbeyondthephysicalact.
Locationsaroundtheworldthatdevelopedunweavingofclothalwaysdidsoasa
resultofaccesstoimportedgoods.Therefore,eventhoughtheseculturesmayhavebeenso
dissimilarinnearlyeveryaspectoftheirdaytodaylives,thenecessityofclothasabasic
humanneedledthemtodevelopstrikinglysimilartechniques.Whatsmore,goodsand
servicesarenttheonlybyproductofthedevelopmentoftransportationbetweenlocations.
Thesharingofknowledgeisyetanotherimportantsideeffectthatcouldhaveinfluencedthe
riseofunweavingthreadfromclotharoundtheworld.

UnravelingAroundtheWorld
Itisbelievedthatasearlyas400BContheIslandofCosinAncientGreece,awoman
namedPamphilaunraveledheavysilkfromChinaandrewoveittounderstandhowitwas
made.7 ThecityofPalmyrainAncientSyriahadareputationforunravelingimportedsilk.The
silkthreadswerethenrewoventosuittheirlocalstyle.8 TheMoorsinAfricawouldpurchase
bluedyedclothfromCambaytoweavewiththeirhandspunwhitecottontosellforgold.9 By
the12thcentury,EuropeanswereunpickingandreweavingChinesesilkproductstoweave
intotheirownEuropeansilk.10
IntheUnitedStates,slaveswouldpullthethreadsoutoftheirownersdiscarded
stockingsandfabricremnantstowraparoundtheirheads.11 DuringtheRomanEmpire,upper

Ibid.
MildredConstantineandLaurelReuter,
WholeCloth
(NewYork:MonacelliPress,1997),24.
9

JessicaHemmings,"AppropriatedThreads:TheUnpickingandReweavingImportedTextiles,"in
Silk
Roads,OtherRoads:Proceedingsofthe8thBiennialSymposiumoftheTextileSocietyofAmerica
,Session
16(Northampton:TextileSocietyofAmerica,2003),119.
10

GenevieveChinandSindhuMommaneni,TheSilkIndustryinJapaninthe1800s,StudentPapersfrom
HistoryofScience211,http://www.smith.edu/hsc/silk/papers/chin.html(accessedOctober14,2014).
11
Hemmings,119.
8

classRomanwomenpurchasedChinesesilkstohavethemunwound,thethreadthenused
toweaverevealinggauzeorbeautifultapestries.12
InAfrica,therearemanydocumentedexamplesofraveledyarnsbeingusedtoweave
specialclothforritualuseandtomarkdistinctionsbetweenclassesofpeople.Centuriesold
WestAfricanweaverswouldtakeimportedEuropeanandAsianfabricapartthreadbythread.
AlthoughsilkisdocumentedasbeingimportedtoAfricainthemid18thcentury,itmayhave
beenthereasearlyasthe16thcentury.13 Theunraveledyarnwasmostlyusedtomake
colorfulstripwoventextileslikethe
Kente
clothoftheAsante(seefig.2)andEwe,andthe
BunuYoruba
AsoIpo
,sometimescalled
AsoOke
.Theseclothsweregenerallyregardedas
prizedheirlooms.
A1730DanishenvoytoAfricanotedtheOpokupurchasedsilktaffetaandfabricofall
colorstounravelandmixwiththeirindigenouscotton.Theywouldthengetcolorfulfabricof
theirown.14 TheAsanteofGhanahavelikelybeenunravelingsilkclothsincethe17thcentury.
Theywouldincorporatetheimportedthreadstoweavetheirowncolorfultextiles,whichcame
fromplaceslikeItalyandIndia.15 Theyfirstusedimportedsilkasweftyarn,butasitbecame
moreavailabletheywouldoccasionallyuseitforthewarp.BypurchasingtheEuropean
predyedsilkcloth,theywerentjustlimitedtoblueandwhiteanymore.Theycouldnow
incorporatelightblue,red,yellow,black,andgreenintotheirclothdesigns(seefig.3),which
increasedthevalueoftheclothaswell.16 A1817BritishenvoytoAfricawrotethatthechiefs
wereinageneralblazeofsplendor,demonstratingthespecialcolorandmaterialofthecloth
wovenfromtheraveledsilkthreadsthathelpedthemvisuallystandoutfromtherestofthe

12

MildredConstantineandLaurelReuter,
WholeCloth
(NewYork:MonacelliPress,1997),24.
Hemmings,121.
14
Hemmings,119.
15
JohnPictonandJohnMack,
AfricanTextiles:Looms,WeavingandDesign
(London:publishedforthe
TrusteesoftheBritishMuseumbytheBritishMuseum,1989),29.
16
Hemmings,121.
13

community.17 Beforesilk,theAsanteandotherneighboringculturesweremainlyknownfor
theirblueandwhitewovencottoncloth.18
TheEweofAfricawereneighborswiththeAsantebutwerelesseconomically
dominant.Whilebothcommunitiesbeganweavingwiththeirnativewhiteandbluedyed
cotton,theyalsobeganusingimportedclothonceitwasavailablebytrade.TheEweare
accusedofappropriatingtheinlaytechniqueoftheAsante,althoughinsteadofsilktheEwe
wereusingimportedcottonbecausethecostwasmuchlower.AuthorsAdlerandBernard
describeintheirbook,
AfricanMajesty:TheTextileArtoftheAshantiandEwe
:theEwe
desiredtomimicthecolouroftheircourt,andwithoutthemeanstoimportsilks,developeda
sophisticatedexpressionwithcotton.19 Theywovedenseblanketsfromthiscottondyedin
redandyellow,whichlikelycamefromEuropeandIndia. 20
TheAwketeofNigeriahavealegendabouttheoriginoftheiruniqueAkwetecloth.
Thelegenddescribesalegendaryweaver,DadaNwakwata,whodesignedclothpatternin
herdreams.Uponwaking,shewouldunravelimportedEuropeansilktomakehercloth,but
wouldworkinsecrettokeepothersfromseeinghowshedidit.21 Shedidletherdeafand
muteneighborseewhatshewasdoing,andherneighboreventuallycommunicatedwith
othershowtheprocesswasbeingdone.Thisisalsoastoryaboutthepassingonoforal
tradition,bycommunicatingnotwithwords,butwithshowingthemovementsandgesturesof
herweaving.22

17

Ibid.,119.
Ibid.,120.
19
Ibid.,121122.
20
Ibid.,121.
21
Ibid.,120
22
SniaSilvaCreativityRevisited:NarrationandEmbodimentinAfricanArt,MuseumAnthropology
Review,http://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/mar/article/view/1236/2033(accessedNovember2,
2014).
18

TheKalabariwomenofNigeriawouldbuypatternedfabricfromIndiaforunpickingas
well.Theywouldcutandtakeoutthetinythreadstomakenewdesignsfromtheabstracted
cloth.Thesetextiles,called
peletebite
,areuniqueinthattheyarenotcomplete
recontextualizationsoftheimportedcloth.Insteadoftakingthefabricapartentirely,they
woulduseitasastructurefromwhichtobuild.Theystillcreateandwearthesetextilestoday.
23

Allada,acoastalporttowninthecountryofBenin,wasakingdomheavilybasedon

tradeduetotheirlocation.AlladawovenclothswerepraisedandtradedthroughoutAfricafor
theircolorful,brocadedimages.AnAlladaclothgiventoaRoyalAfricanCompanyfactoryin
Apain1682wasdescribedasbeingmadefromthethreadofwoolclothfromBritain.In
1660,aGermanmerchantcalledAlladaclothmulticolored.Thepicturethesedescriptions
paintisoneofbrocadeinimpressivecolor,notbatikorpaintedcloth.Thus,eventhoughwe
donthaveanimageofthisAlladacloth,wecanassumeitwasatleastpartiallymadefrom
importedandunraveledEuropeanwool.24
AnothercommunityinBenin,theBnYoruba,wouldunravelredwoolclothtousein
elaboratebrocadeaswell.Theycalledthiscloth
AsoIpo
,whichliterallymeansclothfrom
redcloth.25 DuringthelaterBritishcolonialperiod,Bnweaversgottheredwoolfrom
unravelingwovenfromhospitalblankets,duetothedifficultyofproducingreddyeintheright
saturation.26
AsoIpo
waswovenbybothmenandwomen,andasaclothisinteresting
becauseofitsboldgeometricpatternsandthicknessduetobeingadoublesided,withared
andtanpatternononesideandsolidwhiteontheother(seefig.4).Ithassignificantritual

23

MildredConstantineandLaurelReuter,
WholeCloth
(NewYork:MonacelliPress,1997),24.

ColleenE.Kriger,
ClothinWestAfricanHistory
(Lanham:Rowman&LittlefieldPublishers,Inc.,2006),37.
25

ColleenE.Kriger,MappingtheHistoryofCottonTextileProductioninPrecolonialWestAfrica,In
African
EconomicHistory
33(2005),107.
26

ElishaP.Renne,AsoIpo,RedClothfromBunu,
AfricanArts
25,no.3(1992),66.
24

importance,likelybecauseofthesetraits.27 TheBunuYorubawerewestoftheNigerRiver,
whichmakesitplausiblethattheyhadeasieraccesstotheredcloth.28
Ontheothersideoftheworld,intheSouthwesternUnitedStates,theNative
Americancommunitiesdevelopedtheirownversionofraveledyarntextileswhichcametobe
verywellknown.ThecolonialeranomadicNavajowoveprolificallyandwithanenthusiasm
thatwasreportedinSpanishjournals.Theirblanketsbecamefamousfortechnicalquality,
strength,andbeauty.29 TheNavajo,alongwiththePueblo,wouldimportredflannelcalled
bayeta
.ThePuebloalsousedraveledyarnoccasionally,butnotascommonlyastheNavajo.
30

OccasionallytheNavajowouldadoptPueblotechniquesofweavingcottonblanketsand

mantas,aswellastraditionalPueblostyles,totradebackwiththePueblofor
bayeta
.31
ItisunknownwhentheSouthwesternweaversraveled
bayeta
forthefirsttime.There
isapatchworkcloakdatedaround1750byfiberanddyeanalysis(seefigure5).Theuseof
raveledyarnwasverifiedforthiscloak,andtodateistheearliestknownexampleofthe
techniqueinintheregion.32 HistoricalevidenceprovesthattheNavajowereusingraveled
yarnintheyear1788.Theyarnwasusedtoborderadressinred.Itisknownthatatthe
timetheydidnothaveaccesstoreddye.This
bayeta
likelymadeitswaytothemfromthe
Spanish.33
StudiesoftheseNavajoblanketsmadewithraveledyarncanbemademore
comprehensivebyanalyzingthetwistdirection,ply,dyesource,typeofwool,yarnthickness,

27

Ibid.,64
Ibid.,66
29

CaseyReed,RaveledYarninNavajoTextiles,MaterialInsight,
http://materialinsight.com/RaveledYarn.htm,(accessedOctober21,2014).
30

JoeBenWheat,
BlanketWeavingintheSouthwest
(Tucson:UniversityofArizonaPress,2003),4.
31

CaseyReed,RaveledYarninNavajoTextiles,MaterialInsight,
http://materialinsight.com/RaveledYarn.htm,(accessedOctober21,2014).
32
JoeBenWheat,
BlanketWeavingintheSouthwest
(Tucson:UniversityofArizonaPress,2003),80.
33
Ibid.,74.
28

andspecklingofthedye(whichcanindicatethedyeingprocess,suchaswhetherornotthe
yarnwasdyedbeforeweavingortheclothwasdyedafterweaving).34

TheSignificanceofTradeforClothandCulturalExchange
Theestablishmentoftradearoundtheworldasearlyasthe11thcenturyhadan
enormousimpactontheculturalexchangesbetweencommunitiesofpeopleseparatedby
largemassesoflandandocean.Inaddition,imperialinvasionandcolonialruleenhanced
tradeinawaythatsmallerandmoreremotecommunitiesaccesstoimportedclothand
differentweavingtechnologies.
OneofthefirstmajorlandtraderoutesfortextilerelatedproductswastheSilkRoad,
whichbecameamethodoftransportationaroundthe1stcentury.ItranfromtheEasternside
ofChinathroughIndiaandArabia.35 Alongwiththetradeofsilkgoodswasthespreadof
knowledgeandwhatJessicaHemmingscallsculturalexchange.36 Japan,amajorsupplierof
silkinthe17thand18thcenturies,wasclosedtotradewiththeWestbecauseofthefearof
insurgenceofChristianity,howeverin1853anAmericandemandedtheestablishmentof
traderelationsandJapaneventuallygavein.AssilktradefromJapanopenedtradewiththe
Westinthemid19thcentury,demandbecamestrongandtheWestwaswillingtopayvery
highprices.Theresultwasaneventualdeclineinthequalityofthesilkbeingproducedas
resourceswerestretchedtoaccommodatethedemand.37

34

JessicaHemmings,"RaveledYarnsandOtherRevelationsinNavajoBlankets,"Fiberarts,(Jan.Feb.
2004),11.
35
OliverWild,TheSilkRoad,Dr.OliverWild:ResearchScientist,http://www.ess.uci.edu/~oliver/silk.html,
(accessedNovember3,2014).
36

JessicaHemmings,"AppropriatedThreads:TheUnpickingandReweavingImportedTextiles,"in
Silk
Roads,OtherRoads:Proceedingsofthe8thBiennialSymposiumoftheTextileSocietyofAmerica
,Session
16(Northampton:TextileSocietyofAmerica,2003),119.
37

GenevieveChinandSindhuMommaneni,TheSilkIndustryinJapaninthe1800s,StudentPapersfrom
HistoryofScience211,http://www.smith.edu/hsc/silk/papers/chin.html(accessedOctober14,2014).

PriortocolonizationandincreasedaccesstotradedgoodsinAfrica,cottonfiber,
threadandwoventextileswerethemostwidelymadeandexchangedclothinWestAfrica.
Themostcommoncolorswerewhiteandblue,thebluedyecomingfromthenativeIndigo
plant.38 Bantans,whichwereclothswovenwithcottonspunwithfine,wildsilkfibers
unspinnableontheirown,werealsomade,whichborearesemblancetosilk.Thesecloths
werehighlyvaluedinearlyAfricantradeacrosstheregion.39
ClothtradebetweenEastAfricaandWesternIndiabeganasearlyasthe11thcentury.
40

ThecoastsofAfricabecametradehubs,whereAfricancommoditieslikeivory,wood,

minerals,gems,andevenslaveswereexchangedformanufacturedproductsfromtheships
cominginfromthePersianGulf.41 TradebetweenEurope,IndiaandAfricaallowed
communitiesnearthecoastliketheAkwetetohaveaccesstoweaving,dyeingandspinning
techniquesfrommanyotherculturestoinformtheirowntechnologicalandaesthetic
development.42
TheSouthernpeoplesofAfricacametorelyonimportedclothasaresult.For
example,inthe16thcentury,EastAfricawasdependentonclothfromKhambhat(alsoknown
asCambay).APortugueseauthorwhovisitedtheregionsaid,Allthiscoastdressesinthese
clothandhasnoothers.43 Aroundthesametime,in1582,atraderslistofmerchandiseto
Nigeriaincludedcoarseredcloth.ItcouldhavereachedtheBnpeoplethroughBeninand
NortheastYoruba,orbytransportacrosstheNigerRiver.Itcouldalsohavebeenobtained

38

ColleenE.Kriger,MappingtheHistoryofCottonTextileProductioninPrecolonialWestAfrica,
African
EconomicHistory
33(2005),9899.
39
Ibid.,99.
40
MarkHorton,Artisans,Communities,andCommodities:MedievalExchangesbetweenNorthwestern
IndiaandEastAfrica,
ArsOrientalis
34(2004):63.
41
Horton,63.
42
Hemmings,122.
43
Horton,67.

fromtheIdah,fromaredclothsaidtohavebeencalled
ukpo
butwhichwaslikelyimportedas
well.44
Merchantdocumentsfromthelate17thcenturyreflectthattheAfricanswouldrequest
quitelargeamountsoftradeitemsfromtheGuineacoastincludingcotton,wool,andsilk
textilesofvaryingtypes,tobecarriedinbyDutchships.Ofnotewasredwool,calledscarlet
clothandsometimesredperpetuanasonthedocuments. 45
Fromlookingatthemanyexamplesoftradedocumentsfromtheregionandthetypes
ofclothbeingpurchased,wecandeducejustwhatkindofdemandexistedforcertain
importedcloths.InthewordsofColleenE.Kriger,Theseexamplesofchangeand
differentiationinWestAfricanconsumerpreferences,andthefactthatpeoplewerebuying
textilesforavarietyofpurposes,complicateandenrichourpictureofprecolonialcommodity
marketsandthepeoplewhocreatedthem.46
Whatwerealltheseimportedtextilesbeingusedfor?Mostofthedocumentation
pointstotheideathattheimportedclothswereprizedfortheiruniquequalitiesofcolorand
material.Thevarietyandsaturationofcolorinherentinimportedtextileswasnotcommonin
Africa.Forexample,itwasnotedinthejournalofFranciscodeAlmeidaduringtheSeventh
PortugueseIndiaArmadain1506thattherulersofMogadishuworeelaborateclothesmade
fromimportedmaterialslikesilkandEgyptianlinen.47 TheredclothsthatmadeittoBn
wereraveledforusein
AsoIpo
cloth,whichwasusedinceremonialritualsandreservedfor
thosewhoheldpoliticalpower.48

44

ElishaP.Renne,AsoIpo,RedClothfromBunu,
AfricanArts
25,no.3(1992):66.

ColleenE.Kriger,
ClothinWestAfricanHistory
(Lanham:Rowman&LittlefieldPublishers,Inc.,2006),
3638.
46

ColleenE.Kriger,MappingtheHistoryofCottonTextileProductioninPrecolonialWestAfrica,
African
EconomicHistory
33(2005),108.
47
Horton,68.
48

JessicaHemmings,"AppropriatedThreads:TheUnpickingandReweavingImportedTextiles,"in
Silk
Roads,OtherRoads:Proceedingsofthe8thBiennialSymposiumoftheTextileSocietyofAmerica
,Session
16(Northampton:TextileSocietyofAmerica,2003),121.
45

10

WhenWesternpowersbegantotakeoverWestAfrica,thelocalweavingindustry
begantothriveastradeoftextilesflourishedinexchangeforslavesandotherresources.
Thisinfluxofclothtradeenhancedaccesstothetextilesofmanydifferentcultures,including
thePortuguese,Spanish,English,Dutch,andFrench.49 Itcanbeassumedthatbecauseof
theirexposuretotheweavingtechnologiesandcolorsofsuchavarietyofcultures,therewas
influencethatboretheunravelingofEuropeancotton,rayonandAsiansilk,whichledtothe
colorfulstripweavingofAsanteandEwe
Kentecloth,
sodifferentfromtheirusualwhiteand
bluecottontextiles.50 Again,thesewerenoteverydaytextiles.Thehandmade
Kente
was
prizedandregardedasanheirloom.51
Inthelater20thcentury,theredwoolclothbecamemuchmoredifficulttoobtain.Asa
result,thedemandfor
AsoIpo
declinedbecausetheclothwastooexpensive.Otherreasons
includesocialandreligiouschangeswhichalteredthewaytheseoncespecialtextileswere
viewed,andthustheirperceivedsignificanceintheculture.52
IntheUnitedStates,tradeandculturalrelationshipswereasignificantaspectofthe
developmentoftextiledesigns.TheNavajowereespeciallydependentonthe
bayeta
and
quicklyadaptedtotherapidpaceofachangingclothtradelandscape.Atthepeakof
productionfortheirfamousNavajoblankets,therewasathrivingtradeofimportedtextilesin
thearea.Thiscantellusalotaboutthecuriosity,adaptabilityandcreativityoftheNavajoat
thetime. 53 Infact,theirraveledwoolblanketseventuallybecamemostknownastrade
blankets,notjustbecausetheyweretradedforothergoods,butlikelyalsobecausethe
originsoftheblanketsthemselvesreliedontrade.
49

EsiDogbe,UnraveledYarns:Dress,Consumption,andWomensBodiesinGhanaianCulture,
Fashion
Theory:TheJournalofDress,BodyandCulture
7,no.3(2003):
382.
50

Ibid.
51
Ibid.
52

ElishaP.Renne,AsoIpo,RedClothfromBunu,
AfricanArts
25,no.3(1992):66.
53

JessicaHemmings,"RaveledYarnsandOtherRevelationsinNavajoBlankets,"Fiberarts,(Jan.Feb.
2004),11.

11

ThehistoryofravelingredflannelintheUnitedStatesasweknowitbeginsaround
1540.FabricswerebroughtintotheSouthwesternUnitedStatesfromCoronados
Entrada
.
Onlyafewoftheclothstheybroughtcouldbeproperlyraveled.Patterned,multicoloredcloths
wouldnotprovidelengthsofyarnlongenoughinonecolor.Undyedselvageswerealsoa
hindrancetoalonglengthofonecolor.Onlyopenweave,solidcolorsliketheboltsofwool
flannelfabriccouldbeeasilyunraveled.54 Thisfabric,asnotedearlierinthispaper,called
bayeta
or
baize
,soonbecametheirpreferredsourceofredcolor.55
TradefromMexicancitiesthatimportedthisclothmadethenewcolormoreavailable
totheNavajoandneighboringpeoples.ThecochinealdyecamefromSpainsnewly
conqueredcoloniesinMexicoandSouthAmerica.ItwassenttoEuropewhereitwasusedto
dyewoolduringthe18thand19thcenturies.TheEuropeansalsoacquiredLacfromIndiato
dyewoolredaswell.56 ThewoolwouldthenbetradedwithSpainandbroughttothePueblo
andNavajofromMexico.57 Versionsof
bayeta
werealsomanufacturedinFrance,Spain,
England,theNetherlands,throughoutEurope,andasimilarclothfromTurkeycalled
alepn
(madefromsilkandwool,whichiseasilyraveled)wasimportedtoMexicoandthenthe
Southwestinthe1800s.58
Bytheendofthe19thcentury,theEastCoastoftheUnitedStatesbeganreplicating
Europeantextilemillsandusingnaturalreddyestodyetheirownwool.TheU.S.millswould
thenshiptheirclothandotherproductsviatheSantaFetrail,andlaterbyrailwhenthe
railroadwasbuiltin1880thatservicedNewMexico.AtfirsttheNavajouseditasa

54

JoeBenWheat,
BlanketWeavingintheSouthwest
(Tucson:UniversityofArizonaPress,2003),69.

CaseyReed,RaveledYarninNavajoTextiles,MaterialInsight,
http://materialinsight.com/RaveledYarn.htm,(accessedOctober21,2014).
56
Ibid.
57

JessicaHemmings,"AppropriatedThreads:TheUnpickingandReweavingImportedTextiles,"in
Silk
Roads,OtherRoads:Proceedingsofthe8thBiennialSymposiumoftheTextileSocietyofAmerica
,Session
16(Northampton:TextileSocietyofAmerica,2003),120.
58
Wheat,71.
55

12

supplementtoMexicantrade
bayeta
,buteventuallytheU.S.madetextilesdisplacedthe
Mexicantradeentirely.NotonlyweretheSouthwesterncommunitiesbeingshippedU.S.
madecloth,butredclothfrommanyotherdifferentpartsoftheworldwasalsoshippedtothe
EasternUnitedStatesandtradedalongwiththeclothmanufacturedthere.59
ItisarguedthattheEasternmillsoftheU.S.werethebestsourceof
bayeta
forthe
NavajobecausethesemillshiredimmigrantEuropeandyerswhohadmasteredtheprocess.
TheyhadalsoreplicatedtheEuropeanmills.60 However,asnotedabove,theEastern
bayeta
wasalsocombinedwithimportedredfabricfromothercountries,soitsdifficulttosaysince
thereweresomanyvaryingqualitiesavailable.
Bythe19thcentury,
bayeta
wasthemaintextileproductinNewMexico.Thereislittle
documentationintheformofinvoicesorjournalentriesabouttheexactnatureofclothtrade
witheithertheU.S.,EuropeanorMexicantextilemills.Nowalmost100yearslater,wecan
onlylookatliteraturebasedoninterviewsdonebyresearchersinthe1930slikeCharles
AveryAmsdenandGladysA.Reichard.61
ItslikelythatNavajoweavershadsavedyarnfrompasttradeandcontinuedtouse
theMexicanandEuropeanyarnmixedintothenewersupply.Itsalsopossiblethattraders
hadboltsofbothlacandcochinealdyedflannelnexttosyntheticdyedflannel,andall
varietiesweresoldtotheNavajoatthesametime,providingamixtureofmanydifferenttypes
ofredwoolyarn.62
Onceraveled,theNavajowouldoftenplytwostrandsoftheyarntogetherbefore
weaving.TheywouldutilizetheinherentdirectionsoftheSandZspunfactoryyarnfor

59

CaseyReed,RaveledYarninNavajoTextiles,MaterialInsight,
http://materialinsight.com/RaveledYarn.htm,(accessedOctober21,2014).
60
Ibid.
61
Ibid.
62

CaseyReed,NavajoTextileCertificationDyeandFiberAnalysis,MaterialInsight,
http://materialinsight.com/NavajoBlanket.htm(accessedOctober21,2014).

13

plyingtogether,thespinningdirectionoftheyarninvariablydeterminedbythevarious
sourcesfromwhichthe
bayeta
came(seefigs.6and7).63 Thisprocesswasrepeatedforuse
inNavajoblanketsforwellover100years.64
Itislikelythattheyarnswerepliednotonlyforstrengthorinpreferenceforyarnsize
intheirweaving,butalsobecausethemanydifferenttypesof
bayeta
fabricyieldmany
differentshadesandthicknessesofyarn.65 Thismightbetheexactreasontoplytheyarnto
getamoreconsistentsizeacrossonetextile.Thereismuchtolearnjustfrominvestigating
thedyesources,yarn,andfibers.66 Toourbenefit,analysisofthesepliedyarnscancontribute
toknowledgeabouttraderoutehistoryandmanufacturingprocesses.Therefore,scientific
analysisisthenecessaryfirststepinfiguringouttheexactoriginoftheredwoolclothusedin
aNavajotextile.Forexample,sometestedyarnsarefoundtocontainwoodthatisonlygrown
inIndonesia,tradedinEuropebytheDutch,thenimportedtotheNavajoviatheU.S.or
Mexico 67 Anotherexampleisthatoftrackingtime.Sincesyntheticdyewasdevelopedinthe
mid19thcentury,muchlaterthannaturaldyewasdiscovered,theoldestpossiblecreation
dateofaclothcanbeanalyzedbythedateofthepatentfortheparticularsyntheticdye.68
Bytestingthedyesandmaterialsfoundintheseraveledyarns,wecanhavealook
intotraderoutesandconnectionsbetweenpeoples.Furthermore,itgivesusvaluableinsight
intotherelationshipsbetweenfamiliesacrosstime,suchaswhentheyarnfromcochineal
dyedwoolispliedwithyarndyedwithanewersyntheticdye.AccordingtoCaseyReed,The
possibilitiesbecomeresearchableandopendoorsofculturalandhistoricalinsightasthedata

63

CaseyReed,RaveledYarninNavajoTextiles,MaterialInsight,
http://materialinsight.com/RaveledYarn.htm,(accessedOctober21,2014).
64
JoeBenWheat,
BlanketWeavingintheSouthwest
(Tucson:UniversityofArizonaPress,2003),69.
65
Ibid.,87.
66
Reed.
67

CaseyReed,NavajoTextileCertificationDyeandFiberAnalysis,MaterialInsight,
http://materialinsight.com/NavajoBlanket.htm(accessedOctober21,2014).
68
Ibid.

14

builds.69 Coulditbethatthisactofplyingyarnfromvaryingsourceswasdonewithintention,
asanactofmaterialexploration,oreventheircosmologicalworldview?

TheManyValuesofRaveledYarn
Itiswithoutadoubtthatunpickingthreadsfromapreviouslywovenclothtakestime,
patience,andrequiresanendgoalinmindthatissignificantenoughtojustifytheprocess.
Thereisvalue,then,intheresultofthattimeinvestment,beyondanyaestheticoreconomic
reasoningthatmayhaveinitiatedtheprocessinthefirstplace.
Aesthetically,colorandmaterialarethemostobviousreasonstouseraveledcloth.
Clothinwovenformiseasytofoldandtransportintrade.InhabitantsofPalmyrainAncient
Syria,wholivedalongtheSilkRoad,importedthewovensilktoravelforuseintheirown
textiles.Thatwaspurelyanaestheticdecision,especiallyconsideringtheclothwasraveled
andrewovenforthehigherclass.70 TheelitewomeninRomewhounraveledChinesesilksto
makerevealingclothingandtapestriesweresurelydoingitforreasonsofaesthetics,or
perhapsevenforthevalueinhavingfabricappropriatedfromanexoticclothfromfaraway.71
When
bayeta
wasnolongereasilyavailabletotheNavajo,theybeganusingtheredtrade
blanketswithwhichtheyarefamouslyassociated,orevenredflannelunderwearandscraps
tobeunpickedandrewoven.Thiscanbeattributedtotheirdesiretocontinuetheaesthetic
theyhadbeendevelopingfordecades. 72 Onthesurface,itcanbededucedthatthemain
reasonsforthevalueoftimeinvestmentinunpickingredclothamongtheAfricanandNative
Americancommunitiesisaesthetic.

69

Ibid.

MildredConstantineandLaurelReuter,
WholeCloth
(NewYork:MonacelliPress,1997),24.
71
Ibid.
72
Ibid.
70

15

Todelveabitdeeperintothoseaestheticreasonscanuncoversomemore
appropriatetruthsrelatingtocultureandsymbolismintheimportedcloth.Forone,color
symbolismwasanoteworthyobjectiveforthecolorredinparticular,whichcouldbewhythat
colorwasimportedsomuchbybothAfricanandNativeAmericancultures.Forinstance,the
Pueblofirstbeganusingtheraveledyarntoembroiderceremonialclothing(seefig.8).73 It
wasforspecialoccasions,typicallydecoratedmoreelaboratelythannormaleverydaywear.
Becauseofthisreason,itsunderstandablethattheywouldwanttoaccentuatetheoccasion
withcolorthatwouldstandoutandmakeastatement.
InAfrica,thelustforredwasntsostrongbecausetheydidnthavereddyelocally.In
fact,theydid.Buttheyprizedthesaturationoftheimportedredwoolbecausethewool
absorbedthedyemuchbetterthantheplantfibersnativetoAfrica.Thesaturationofabright
redhasvisualpower,hencewhyitwasassociatedwithdifferentcultureselaborateand
complexweavestructuresofsuchimpressivequality.74 Thatsalsowhy
AsoIpo
isassociated
withchiefsandusedinfuneraryceremonies.Infact,theaccesstobrightredwool
transformedveryimportantceremonialtextiletraditionsinAfrica.75
TheYoruba
AsoIpo
,theclothfromredcloth,wasadoptedintotheEgungun
Masqueradeaspartofthemaincostume.Thepurposeofthecostume,enhancedbythe
brightredcloth,wastoembodyageneralizedancestralspiritinaceremonymeantfor
connectingwiththecollectiveancestors.76

73

JoeBenWheat,
BlanketWeavingintheSouthwest
(Tucson:UniversityofArizonaPress,2003),69.

ColleenE.Kriger,
ClothinWestAfricanHistory
(Lanham:Rowman&LittlefieldPublishers,Inc.,2006),36.
75
Ibid.
76

ElishaP.Renne,AsoIpo,RedClothfromBunu,AfricanArts25,no.3(1992):66.
74

16

RedflannelwasverypromptlyusedthroughoutBenincultureassoonasitwas
available.Anythingredwashighlyvalued,evenabovegoldandsilver.TheBeninKingis
saidtohaverestrictedthecolorredtobewornonlybythosewithhispermission.77
Thecolorsymbolisminherentintheredimportedclothisnotableespeciallyintheuse
oftheraveledredthreadinclothsmeantforfuneraluse.InmostAfricancommunities,
especiallybeforeaccesstoredcloth,whitewasusedduetocosmologicalbeliefs.Acolonial
officerin1926documentedthattheBunuYorubawereweavingburialclothinred,white,and
evenyellowunraveledfromEuropeancloth.78
TheuseofredcolorinsomeAfricancommunitiescanbeseenasametaphorfor
successandsocialorpoliticalstatus.Atthesametime,itcanbeassociatedwithsuffering
andpain,consideringthatoftensuccessisduetomuchwork.Yetothercommunities
consideritfearsome,associatingitwiththedestructivenessofdeath.79 Regardless,itisa
powerfulcolorwithmanypowerfulassociations,anditsavailabilitycertainlyhelpedtransform
howthesecommunitiesmentionedinteractedwithit.

Theliteralvalueofbothredclothandclothmadewithincorporatedraveledredyarn
canbeareasoninitself.Textileshavelongbeenusedasaformofliteralcurrency.Thereis
valueintheinherentabilityofclothtotransporteasily.Clothisdurableandcanwithstanda
journeyonaship,isntasheavyasmetallikegoldorsilver,andcanbeeasilydividedinto
smallersectionsjustlikemoney.Beforepapermoney,clothwasusedascurrencyinAfrica.80
AccordingtoEsiDogbe,AssociateProfessorofPanAfricanLiteratureattheUniversityof
Louisville,Asacommodity,clothwasprocuredfromEuropeantradersinexchangeforgold,

77

Kriger,36.
Renne,66.
79
Renne,69.
80

EsiDogbe,UnraveledYarns:Dress,Consumption,andWomensBodiesinGhanaianCulture,
Fashion
Theory:TheJournalofDress,BodyandCulture
7,no.3(2003):
382383.
78

17

ivoryandslaves.81 Especiallyvaluablewasthehandloomed
Kente
and
AsoIpo
.Allwere
consideredgoodcloth,andtheyweremadesupplementingtheirindigenouscottonthread
withimportedthreadsofbrightcolors.82
In1517DuarteBarbusasaidthatthemerchantsofSufala(theSoutheastcoastof
Africa)unraveledimportedIndianclothfromCambayandwoveitwiththeirlocalwhitecotton
tomakecolorfultextiles.Withthisthreadandtheirownwhitetheymakemuchcoloured
cloth,andfromitgainmuchgold.83 TheMoorsinAfricawouldalsopurchaseclothfrom
Cambaytoweavewiththeirwhitecottontosellforgold.84
Withclothbeingcurrency,havingaccesstohighqualityclothscanbesignificantin
termsofpersonalandpoliticalstatus.Inshort,clothatonepointwasentirelyrelatedto
personalsuccess.Iwouldarguethateventoday,havingaccesstocertaintypesofclothcan
giveothersanimpressionofyoursocialandeconomicstatus,althoughatthesametimeit
canbeusedasafacadetoshieldtherealityofyourstatusaswell.AmongtheGapeoplein
Africa,familymemberswouldtearstripsofadeceasedwomansclothanddistributeitto
relativestosymbolizehereconomicindependence.85 Thiswasapublicdisplayforthe
preservationofheraccomplishments.
In1817aBritishenvoyinAfricanotedtheAsantechiefswereinageneralblazeof
splendorwiththeirexpensiveraveledsilktextiles,stunninginbothcolorandpattern(see
figs.9and10).86 InYoruba,
AsoIpo
wasrestrictedinproductiontotheprestigious.Only
thosewhocouldaffordtospendmoneyontheexpensivetextilesfromothercountrieswere

81

Ibid.,383.
Ibid.
83
MarkHorton,Artisans,Communities,andCommodities:MedievalExchangesbetweenNorthwestern
IndiaandEastAfrica,
ArsOrientalis
34(2004):75.
84
J
essicaHemmings,"AppropriatedThreads:TheUnpickingandReweavingImportedTextiles,"in
Silk
Roads,OtherRoads:Proceedingsofthe8thBiennialSymposiumoftheTextileSocietyofAmerica
,Session
16(Northampton:TextileSocietyofAmerica,2003),119120.
85
Dobe,383.
86
Hemmings,119.
82

18

abletocommissionotherstoweaveitforthem.87
AsoIpo
alsoplayedaroleinmaintaining
familyrank.Oftenitwashungfromthedoorwaysofprominentchiefswhentheydied(seefig.
11).88 Theyfoundincrediblevalueintheaspectthattheclothwasexotic,fromanotherplace
farawayandverydifferentfromtheirown.Thesereasonsalonegobeyondjusttheaesthetic
reasonsforwantingtextilesmadefromraveledyarnfarbeyondcolorornecessity.89 Itwasa
visiblypowerfulsocialandpoliticaltool.
In
CraftandtheKinglyIdeal:Art,TradeandPower
byMaryHelms,shenotesthat
importedproductscanholdtransformativepower.Theseproductsstillholdthequalitiesof
theiroriginalcraftsmanshipfromaplacefaraway,andthosequalitiescantranslatetothe
ideathattheindividualwhopossessestheimportedproduct(mostofthetimeonewhoholds
politicalorsocialpower)isdemonstratingthattheypossesstheuniquequalitiesofthepeople
fromthisfarawayplace.90 Inthisway,theyhaveconnectionstothewild,andperhapsquite
dangerous,worldoutsideoftheirown.91 Thisgarnersrespectamongtheirpeople,thatthey
shouldtrustthispowerfulpersonwithworldlyconnections.
Onarelatednote,arecentlyunearthedNavajoblanketcontainedasmallredrepair
patchononeedgewhichhasbeendeterminedtobeliketheweaverssignature(seefig.12).
92

Byusingraveledredthreadagainsttheindigoandwhitehuesoftheblanket,theweaver

wasperhapsindicatingheraccesstothecovetedandvaluablematerial,andpossiblyeven
suggestingherimportanceinNavajosociety.
Althoughtheliteralandsocialvaluesofthespeciallymadeclothwithbrightred
raveledyarnswasagoodmotivation,traditionbecamejustasimportantaftertheprocesswas
87

ElishaP.Renne,AsoIpo,RedClothfromBunu,AfricanArts25,no.3(1992):68.
Ibid.
89
Ibid.
90
MaryHelms,
CraftandtheKinglyIdeal:Art,Trade,andPower
(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,1993),
49.
91
Ibid.,41.
92
Hemmings,120.
88

19

inheritedintothemessageoftheweavings.Theactofravelingyarntoweave,afterall,isa
powerfulone.Traditionkepttheactalive,sometimesevenwhentheredclothforunraveling
wasdifficulttoprocure.Asmentionedbefore,theNavajowouldresorttounpickingthreads
fromflannelunderwearinatimeofneed.Itwouldhavebeeneasiertoskiptheprocess
altogether,butthenecessityoftraditionkeptthemgoingbackfortheraveledthread.Ina
similarvein,bythetimetheBnwerecolonizedtheywereweaving
AsoIpo
fromredwool
colonialhospitalblanketstokeeptheirtraditionalive.Itwasdifficultotherwisetoproducea
reddyeofthedesiredcolorusingtheirlocalresources.93
EventhoughsyntheticreddyewasintroducedtotheHopisby1872,theNavajo
remaineddependentonravelingcommercialcloth.Whiletheyhadaccesstothedyesand
couldlikelyhavepurchasedredcommercialyarninstead,theycontinuedtoweavewiththe
raveledyarn.94 Infact,weknowthatraveledyarnwassavedfromgenerationsbefore.This
providesinsightintothetraditionofravelingyarnnotonlypurelyoutofaestheticsor
economics,butasabridgebetweengenerations.AccordingtoCaseyReed,Knowingthe
yarnwassavedfromdecadesbeforecertainlybringstherichethnologicalandhistorical
qualitiestothefocus,notjustthemonetaryvalue.Itmayhavebeenhergrandmothersyarn
orfromherolderbrothersorfathersclothing.95 Justasculturalandhistoricalinformationcan
begainedbylookingintotheage,materialsources,andmanufacturingprocessofthedyed
yarnsinNavajotextiles,wecanalsogleanfamilytiesandotherculturalrelationships.96

93

Ibid.,121.
JoeBenWheat,
BlanketWeavingintheSouthwest
(Tucson:UniversityofArizonaPress,2003),66.
95

CaseyReed,NavajoTextileCertificationDyeandFiberAnalysis,MaterialInsight,
http://materialinsight.com/NavajoBlanket.htm(accessedOctober21,2014).
96
Ibid.
94

20

Empowerment,DefianceandRebellion
ThereisaMarxisttheoryonmasscultureasatoolorsystemofdominancemeantto
controlthelowerclasses.TheDeconstructionistpointofviewisthatindividualscreatetheir
ownmeaningandinterpretationfromthatwhichisavailabletothem,dependingontheirown
lifestylechoices.97 Thisisimportantespeciallytotextileswhosefunctionistoclothethebody.
Clothingequalssocialidentity,andinmanycasessexualidentity.Tocreateyourown
clothingfromimportedclothtranslatedaestheticallytomeetyourpersonalneedsand
reconstructedtosuityouridentityisaformofempowerment.98
TheWestAfricanwomenweaverswerecreativeandresilient.Notonlydidthey
controlthetradeoftextiles,theywerealsofashiondesignersandmakerswhowould
cannibalizeclothesandappropriatematerialfromglobalclothandfashiontomake
somethingnewandtruertotheiridentity.99 EsiDogbewrites,Duringthecolonialperiod,the
artofresculptingandbeautifyingthebodyinmanyAfricansocietiesoftentransfixedand
scandalizedEuropeanmissionariesaswellascolonialofficials.100 Itraisesanevocative
imageofwomenweaversmethodicallyunpickingthesmallthreadsfromwovenredclothand
appropriatingthemintotheirowndesiredpatterns.Theactitselfoftakingapartastructureso
seeminglycompletefabric,asymbolofabundance,itswholenessbeingslowlytakenaway,
butthenreimaginedintosomethingarguablygreater.
IntheNativeAmericanmythoftheoldwomanandtheblackdog,manythinkthe
inherentmessageisthattheunravelingispartofcreation.101 Thethreadsconnectingusare
constantlywoventogetherandsubsequentlyunraveled.Sometimesthethingssurrounding
97

EsiDogbe,UnraveledYarns:Dress,Consumption,andWomensBodiesinGhanaianCulture,
Fashion
Theory:TheJournalofDress,BodyandCulture
7,no.3(2003):
379.
98
Ibid.,380382.
99
Ibid.,378379.
100
Ibid.,380.
101
VincentP.Ward,"TheOldWomanintheCave:HowTroubleBecomesTransformation,"
http://www.vwardphd.com/TheStoryofChange.en.html(accessedOctober14,2014).

21

usseemtobecomingapart,butithasallhappenedbeforeandwillhappenagain. 102 It
evokesafeelingofuncertainty,butalsoofcomfort.InthewordsofpsychotherapistVincent
Ward,Alwaystheworldhasrecoveredfromitsunraveling.103
Sometimesexperiencingandevenfacilitatingdisordercanbehowwefindorderina
systemorcommunity.104

SomecommunitiesinSoutheastAfricahavedevisedwhat
anthropologistHeinrichSchurtzcallsRitualsofRebellion.105 Thispracticechallengessocial
order,butatthesametimeisintendedtopreserveandstrengthentheestablishedorder.106
Itcanbeanonviolentwaytoexpressyourfreedominarestrictiveenvironmentwithout
reciprocation,butmoreasaformofcreativeexpressionwithinthesocialestablishment.It
canprovideachancetoadaptandtakechances,ortoinfuserealitywithactuality.107
Forthoseparticularcommunitiesthatdevelopedtheunravelingprocessundercolonial
rule,Iwouldarguethatthistheoryholdstrue.Theimageofanindividualmeticulously
unravelingredthreadisfundamentallypowerfulespeciallywhenyouconsidertheimplication
thatitisanabstractwayofcorrectingtheirculturalidentitywithintheruleofanotherculture
(seefig.13).Psychologically,theactofsymbolicinversion,orunweavingthethreadsofan
alreadyassembledimportedclothfromanotherculture,allowsaculturetotrulyspeakabout
itself,ormakeamoreimpactfulstatement,ifnotsubdued.

Theredcoloritselfhadan

importantroleintheriseoftheindependencemovementinGhanainthe20thcentury.The
UniversalNegroImprovementAssociated(UNIA),foundedbyJamaicanactivistMarcus
Garveyin1920,announcedthecolorsred,greenandblackthecolorsoftheNegrorace,the
redbeingasymbolofthebloodoftherace,noblyshedinthepastanddedicatedtothe
102

Ibid.
Ibid.
104

BarbaraBabcock,
TheReversibleWorld:SymbolicInversioninArtandSociety
(Ithaca:CornellUniversity
Press,1978),20.
105
Ibid.,22.
106
Ibid.
107
Ibid.,25.
103

22

future. 108 ThecolorswereintegratedintoapopularKentepattern,andfromthe1960s

onwardthatparticulartraditionalKentecouldbewornasanactofdefianceandwas
consideredpartoftheprocessofdecolonization.109
Bytheearly19thcenturyinMexico,politicalchangeandyearsofrevolutioninMexico
toreleasethemselvesfromtheSpanishcausedashiftintradematerialsandaccesstothe
bayeta.110 TherewerealsowarsbetweentheNavajoandMexicans.WhentheU.S.Army
enteredtotakecontrol,theyuprootedtheNavajoandforcedthemonamarchknownasthe
LongWalktoBosqueRedondo.111 Organizedhostilityended,buttheNavajowere
undoubtedlytraumatized,facedalsowithametaphoricalandrealdisplacementoftheir
identity.
Aftertheirdislocation,theNavajospentmuchoftheirtimefocusingondevelopingtheir
creativity.Ambitionledthemto
useeverykindofwoolproducttheycouldfindtoweaveevery
kindofweavingthetraderatthetradingpostdemandedormadepopular.112 Becausethey
werestillsointouchwithtrade,theycontinuedtohaveaccessto
bayeta
andcontinued
weavingNavajoblanketstosupportthemselves.Yet,itseasytoseethebrightredraveled
threadasaparadoxTheonehandappearsrepresentativeoftheirstruggleofdisplacement,
whileontheotherappearstobeasymboloftheiridentityintheformofthepatterneddesigns
forwhichtheywereknown.
InAfricaatthebeginningofthe20thcentury,theestablishmentofBritishColonialism
broughtpoliticalandeconomicchangethattransformedthedemandsoftheindigenous
peoplebytheintroductionofevenmoreimportedproductsatcompetitivepricesandquality.
108

DoranH.Ross,
WrappedinPride:GhanaianKenteandAfricanAmericanIdentity
(Seattle:Universityof
WashingtonPress,2001),164165.
109
Ibid.,166.
110

CaseyReed,NavajoTextileCertificationDyeandFiberAnalysis,MaterialInsight,
http://materialinsight.com/NavajoBlanket.htm(accessedOctober21,2014).
111
Ibid.
112
Ibid.

23

113

EventuallytheBritishhegemonydevelopedpoliciesintheirattempttoadapttheweaving

industryforbettertradeandchangethetechnologytheindigenouspeoplewereusing.An
exampleisthenarrowstripclothindigenoustoAfrica,whichtheBritishatonepointattempted
toeradicateinfavorofbroadclothweavingonwiderlooms.114 Thepolicieswerelargely
resisted,althoughtheaccesstoEuropeanmaterialsunquestionablyinfluencedhowtextiles
looked,mostobviouslyintheformofmaterialandcolor.Theattempttocontrolweaversledto
aperiodofinnovation,inwhichsometextileartistsexperimentedwiththenewimported
materialsandtechnologythatwereintroducedbytheBritish.115
TheseexamplesoftheNavajotradeblanketsandNigerianuseofthehospital
blanketsaresymbolicofculturalrepressionandthesubsequentilluminationoftraditionand
culturalidentity.InthewordsoftextileresearcherJessicaHemmings,Inthesecasesthey
arecarefullydeconstructedandwovenbackintothetraditionalpatternseloquent,ifhard
earned,examplesofingenuityandadaptation.116
Thedevelopmentoftheprocessofusingimportedclothtoprocurethreadsofa
desiredcolordoesnotcomewithoutculturalconsequences,bothpositiveandnegative.The
accesstothebrightredwoolchangedtraditionsinAfrica,transformingimportantceremonial
textiletraditions.117 GlobalexchangewasenhancedbytheBritishtradenetworkand
increasedtheexposureoftheYorubatoBritishculture.Thisintensifiedtheemergenceof

113

JudithPeraniandNormaH.Wolff,ContinuityandChangeinTwentiethCenturyClothTraditions,
The
BergFashionLibrary
(1999):
http://0www.bergfashionlibrary.com.library.scad.edu/view/CDART/chapterCDART0012.xml(accessed
October14,2014).
114
Ibid.
115
Ibid.
116
J
essicaHemmings,"AppropriatedThreads:TheUnpickingandReweavingImportedTextiles,"in
Silk
Roads,OtherRoads:Proceedingsofthe8thBiennialSymposiumoftheTextileSocietyofAmerica
,Session
16(Northampton:TextileSocietyofAmerica,2003),122.
117

ColleenE.Kriger,
ClothinWestAfricanHistory
(Lanham:Rowman&LittlefieldPublishers,Inc.,2006),
36.

24

newpatternsofaestheticsandculturaltaste.118 Asaresultofincreasedtradeandmarket
demandwiththeSpanishandMexico,theNavajostylisticallyadaptedtheirblanketsto
resembleSpanishorMexicanSaltillodesigns.119
Thesearesolidexamplesofhowtheuseofimportedtextilestoenhanceindigenous
clothaffectedthedevelopmentofculturalidentity.However,evenrebellionagainstonesown
culturalidentitycanactuallybelookedatinapositiveway.Justliketherebellionagainst
colonialrulehelpstoestablishaculturessocialandpoliticalstanding,itcanalsoaffecthowa
classconsciousnessdevelopsitselfinmorerevolutionaryterms.120 Inshort,itallowsprogress
andcandenoteboundariesbetweenculturesandtheirwaysoflivingthroughtheactof
creativeexpression.121
Anexpansioninaccesstocreativetoolsallowsforanexpansionofchoiceandcultural
expression.Hence,accesstoimportedclothwithtechnologicallydifferingstylesandcolors
wasincreasedinmanyculturesthroughcolonial,local,andglobalsystematicframeworks.
Whiletherewaschoicewhichultimatelyhelpedlocallyorientedculturescreatetheirownrules
withintheirsystems,economicdependenciesdevelopedasaresult.Afterdependenceis
formedonimportedcloth,suchastheuseofimportedredfabricindistinctionoftheelitefrom
thecommon,thefreedomofchoicecanbethenlookedatasacompletelackofchoice,or
ratheranabsorptionofonesculturewithinthelargerrulingsystem.Inthecaseofcolonial
takeover,thetradenetworkpreestablishedbytherulingpartystrengthenedthenumberof

118

Perani.

CaseyReed,NavajoTextileCertificationDyeandFiberAnalysis,MaterialInsight,
http://materialinsight.com/NavajoBlanket.htm(accessedOctober21,2014).
120

BarbaraBabcock,
TheReversibleWorld:SymbolicInversioninArtandSociety
(Ithaca:CornellUniversity
Press,1978),23.
121
Ibid.,27.
119

25

choicesavailabletothosebeingcontrolled.Atthatpoint,Iwouldarguethatitisnolongera
choice,butanillusionofthefreedomwithininvasion.122

Conclusion
Whatwewear,howwewearit,andwhereitcomesfromcanprovideinsightinto
political,economic,andculturalsituations.123 Wecanlearnbystudyingculturesthroughout
historythatlimitedaccesstoresourcescanamounttosignificantinnovationsthatchangethe
waytheworldworks.Inthesameway,culturalstrugglescanresultiningeniouscreative
expressionandsocialsolutions.Theseinnovationshavebroughtoursocietiestodaytoa
placeofglobalabundance,wheretradeandcommunicationisthestillthefoundationofall
economiesaroundtheworld.Yet,whiletheabundanceofimportedtextilesatonetime
encouragedculturesinNorthAmericaandAfricatoappropriatewhatwasavailabletomake
somethingspecialoftheirown,themoderndayworldisadaptinginadifferentwayasthis
abundancehasgivenwaytoadifferentkindofinnovation.
Inthemoderncontext,todescribesomeonemeticulouslyunweavingstripsofthread
fromawovenclothistoconjuretheimagethatthereisnoabundance.Thescarcityofaccess
tomaterialscreatesthenecessityoftheactitself.Andwhiletheoriginalunpickersoffabric
mayhaveoriginallydonesooutofscarcity,theevolutionofthepracticewentfarbeyondthat.
Necessityturnedintoabundance,butnowabundanceisturningintonecessity.Thecontextof
theirpracticehassincechangeddramatically.
Theabundanceofproductsandchoicesinthemodernworldisentirelybasedonan
extraordinarilycomplexnetworkofglobaltrade.Thisnetworkgovernswhataccesswehave

122

EsiDogbe,UnraveledYarns:Dress,Consumption,andWomensBodiesinGhanaianCulture,
Fashion
Theory:TheJournalofDress,BodyandCulture
7,no.3(2003):
382.
123
Ibid.,380.

26

towhatproducts,allthewhilebeingadditionallyinfluencedbythepoliticaldecisionsof
participatingnations.Ourrelationshipswiththesenetworksarecompletelydependent,
thereforeitcanbededucedthat,justliketheculturesinAfricaoperatingundercolonialrule,
ourchoicesareindeedlimitedtothatofthegoverningsystem.Whatsmore,thedramatic
problemswehavecreatedasaresultofourdependenceonnewproductsingeneralarenow
governinglimitstocertainrawmaterialslikepetroleum,andwearehavingtorecontextualize
thewayweliveourlivestomakemoresenseifwearetoliveinharmonywithourplanet.
Insteadoftakingadvantageoftheabundanceofglobaltextilessolelyforourown
culturalappropriation,therecyclingoftextilesisbecomingmoreprominent.Manyartistsare
usingthebountifulsupplyofresourcestotheiradvantage,muchinthesamewaythattradeof
clothwasfacilitatedandresultedintheuseofunraveledthreadsforavarietyofpurposes.
CulturesliketheNavajoandSouthAfricanweaversunpickedthreadsoutofnecessity,and
metaphoricallyspeaking,soarewe.Butthereasonisdifferent.Theydiditforaestheticsand
culturalexpression,butnowwemustdoitforpreservation.

27

Figure1.DoraWheeler,1886,
PenelopeUnravelingHerWorkatNight
.[databaseonline]
(ARTstor,accessed14October2014)availablewww.artstor.org,imageID
MMA_IAP_10311574379


Figure2.
KenteClothWrapper
.196070.Ghana.[databaseonline](ARTstor,accessed14
October2014)availablewww.artstor.org,imageIDASLAMIG_10312598136

Figure3.StripwovenclothcollectedbyAndreaRiis,1840,Ghana,BaselMissionCollection
intheMuseumofCulture,Basel,23.334.

Figure4.
Threedifferentasoipopatterns
.DateUnknown.Accessed14November2014.
<
http://hartcottagequilts.com/africantextiles8.htm
>


Figure5.
Manta,Dress,OnePiece
.17501850.UniversityofColoradoMuseum.Catalog
No.27484.


Figure6.
Raveledbayetayarnupclose.Imagescanfrom
BlanketWeavingintheSouthwest
byJoe
BenWheat.


Figure7.NavajoWomansShoulderBlanket.PhaseII.18651870.Via
BlanketWeavingin
theSouthwest
byJoeBenWheat,p.221.

Thisshoulderblanketfeaturestwokindsofraveledwoolyarnansspundarkcrimson
yarndyedwithcochinealandazspunscarletdyedwithsyntheticdye.Thewhiteon
thistextilehasalsobeenraveled.


Figure8.
PuebloManta
.1850.Accessed14November2014.
<
http://sarweb.org/embroidery/design/mantas/darkmantas.htm
>

Figure9.AsantechiefswiththeirentouragesenteringtheKumaseSportsStadiumforthe
celebrationofthesilverjubileeofthereignofAsanteheneOpokuWareII.Photographby
FrankFournier,Kumase,1995.Imagevia
WrappedinPride:GhanaianKenteandAfrican
AmericanIdentity
,p.41.

Figure10.AsantechiefswiththeirentouragesenteringtheKumaseSportsStadiumforthe
celebrationofthesilverjubileeofthereignofAsanteheneOpokuWareII.Photographby
FrankFournier,Kumase,1995.Imagevia
WrappedinPride:GhanaianKenteandAfrican
AmericanIdentity
,p.41.


Figure11.PhotobyElishaP.Renne.
DancersofOfosi,TheWomensSecretSociety,ata
commemorativefuneralceremonyofadeceasedchiefwhoheldtwotitles
.1987.ViaAsoIpo,
RedClothfromBn.

Figure12.
Mid19thCenturyNavajoUteFirstPhaseBlanket
,DetailofRedPatch,Antiques
RoadshowJune9,2001.<pbs.org/wgbh/roadshow/archive/200101A48.html>

Figure13.
NavajoTransitionalSerape
.Raveledlatecloth.18751885.[databaseonline]
(ARTstor,accessed14November2014)availablewww.artstor.org,imageID
AHARVARDIG_10313274801